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A skin abscess is a tender mass generally surrounded by a colored area from pink to deep red. Abscesses are often easy to feel by touching. The vast majority of them are caused by infections. Inside, they are full of pus, bacteria and debris. Painful and warm to touch, abscesses can show up any place on your body. The most common sites on the skin in your armpits (axillae), areas around your anus and vagina (Bartholin gland abscess), the base of your spine (pilonidal abscess), around a tooth (dental abscess), and in your groin. Inflammation around a hair follicle can also lead to the formation of an abscess, which is called a boil (furuncle). Unlike other infections, antibiotics alone will not usually cure an abscess. In general an abscess must open and drain in order for it to improve. Sometimes draining occurs on its own, but generally it must be opened with the help of a warm compress or by a doctor in a procedure called incision and drainage (I&D). When our normal skin barrier is broken, even from minor trauma, or small tears, or inflammation, bacteria can enter the skin. An abscess can form as your body's defenses try to kill these germs with your inflammatory response (white blood cells = pus). Obstruction in a sweat or oil (sebaceous) gland, or a hair follicle or a pre-existing cyst can also trigger an abscess. The middle of the abscess liquefies and contains dead cells, bacteria, and other debris. This area begins to grow, creating tension under the skin and further inflammation of the surrounding tissues. Pressure and inflammation cause the pain. People with weakened immune systems get certain abscesses more often. Those with any of the following are all at risk for having more severe abscesses. This is because the body has a decreased ability to ward off infections. - Chronic steroid therapy - Sickle cell disease - Peripheral vascular disorders - Crohn's disease - Ulcerative colitis - Severe burns - Severe trauma - Alcoholism or IV drug abuse Other risk factors for abscess include exposure to dirty environments, exposure to persons with certain types of skin infections, poor hygiene, and poor circulation. Most often, an abscess becomes a painful, compressible mass that is red, warm to touch, and tender. - As some abscesses progress, they may "point" and come to a head so you can see the material inside and then spontaneously open (rupture). - Most will continue to get worse without care. The infection can spread to the tissues under the skin and even into the bloodstream. - If the infection spreads into deeper tissue, you may develop a fever and begin to feel ill. Abscess Treatment: Self-Care at Home - If the abscess is small (less than 1 cm or less than a half-inch across), applying warm compresses to the area for about 30 minutes 4 times daily may help. - Do not attempt to drain the abscess by squeezing or pressing on it. This can push the infected material into the deeper tissues. - Do not stick a needle or other sharp instrument into the abscess center, because you may injure an underlying blood vessel or cause the infection to spread. When to Seek Medical Care Call your doctor if any of the following occur with an abscess: - You have a sore larger than 1 cm or a half-inch across. - The sore continues to enlarge or becomes more painful. - The sore is on or near your rectal or groin area. - You develop a fever. - You notice red streaks, which can mean the infection is spreading. - You have any of the medical conditions listed above. Go to a hospital’s Emergency Department if any of these conditions occur with an abscess: - Fever of 102°F or higher, especially if you have a chronic disease or are on steroids, chemotherapy, or dialysis - A red streak leading away from the sore or with tender lymph nodes (lumps) in an area anywhere between the abscess and your chest area (for example, an abscess on your leg can cause swollen lymph nodes in your groin area) - Any facial abscess larger than 1 cm or a half-inch across Exams and Tests The doctor will take a medical history and may ask you: - How long the abscess has been present - If you recall any injury to that area - What medicines you may be taking - If you have any allergies - If you have had a fever at home The doctor will examine the abscess and surrounding areas. If it is near your anus, the doctor will perform a rectal exam. If an arm or leg is involved, the doctor will feel for a lymph gland either in your groin or under your arm. The doctor may open and drain the abscess. - The area around the abscess will be numbed with medication. It is often difficult to completely numb the area, but local anesthesia can make the procedure almost painless. - The area will be covered with an antiseptic solution and sterile towels placed around it. - The doctor will cut open the abscess and totally drain it of pus and debris. - Once the sore has drained, the doctor may insert some packing into the remaining cavity to allow the infection to continue to drain. It may be kept open for a day or two. - A bandage will then be placed over the packing, and you will be given instructions about home care. - Most people feel better immediately after the abscess is drained. - If you are still experiencing pain, the doctor may prescribe pain pills for home use over the next 1-2 days. - You are usually sent home with oral antibiotics. Next Steps: Follow-up Follow carefully any instructions your doctor gives you. - The doctor may have you remove the packing yourself with instructions on the best way to do this. This may include soaking or flushing. - Be sure to keep all follow-up appointments. - Report any fever, redness, swelling, or increased pain to your doctor immediately. Maintain good personal hygiene by washing your skin with soap and water regularly. - Take care to avoid nicking yourself when shaving your underarms or pubic area. - Seek immediate medical attention for any puncture wounds, especially if: - You think there may be some debris in the wound. - The puncture wound was caused by a bite - human, insect or animal. - You have one of the listed medical conditions. - You are on steroids or chemotherapy. Once treated, the abscess should heal. - Many people require antibiotics, but you may not. - The pain often improves immediately and subsides more each day. - Wound care instructions from your doctor may include wound repacking, soaking, washing, or bandaging for about 7 to 10 days. This usually depends on the size and severity of the abscess. - After the first 2 days, drainage from the abscess should be minimal to none. All sores should heal in 10-14 days.

http://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/abscess

Health

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For years you’ve been told to go for skim over full-fat dairy. Even the latest dietary guidelines for Americans urge people to avoid the full fat, and following this lead, school lunch programs provide only low-fat milk and no whole milk at all, even though they do allow chocolate skim milk with its added sugars. But large population studies that look at possible links between full-fat dairy consumption, weight and disease risk are starting to call that advice into question. And some research suggests people who consume full-fat dairy weigh less and are less likely to develop diabetes, too. MORE: Why Full-Fat Dairy May Be Healthier Than Low-Fat In a new study published in the journal Circulation, Dr. Dariush Mozaffarian and his colleagues analyzed the blood of 3,333 adults enrolled in the Nurses’ Health Study of Health Professionals Follow-up Study taken over about 15 years. They found that people who had higher levels of three different byproducts of full-fat dairy had, on average, a 46% lower risk of getting diabetes during the study period than those with lower levels. “I think these findings together with those from other studies do call for a change in the policy of recommending only low-fat dairy products,” says Mozaffarian. “There is no prospective human evidence that people who eat low-fat dairy do better than people who eat whole-fat dairy.” MORE: Ending the War on Fat Since full-fat dairy products contain more calories, many experts assumed avoiding it would lower diabetes risk. But studies have found that when people reduce how much fat they eat, they tend to replace it with sugar or carbohydrates, both of which can have worse effects on insulin and diabetes risk. In the current study, Mozaffarian adjusted for the role that weight plays, and found the connection between full-fat dairy intake and lower diabetes risk remained strong independent of weight gain. In fact, in a separate study published in the American Journal of Nutrition, another group analyzed the effects of full fat and low fat dairy on obesity and found that among 18,438 women in the Women’s Health Study, those who consumed the most high-fat dairy products lowered their risk of being overweight of obese by 8%. Together, the body of data is beginning to reveal both that full-fat dairy has a place in a healthy diet, and also how focusing on one nutrient in the diet may backfire. When dietary guidelines began urging people to lower the amount of fat they ate, the idea was to reduce the amount of cholesterol and unhealthy fats in the body. But by focusing just on cutting out fat, experts didn’t count on the fact that people would compensate for the missing fat and start loading up on carbohydrates, which the body converts into sugar—and then body fat. MORE: This Is the Worst Kind of Fat for Your Heart “This is just one more piece of evidence showing that we really need to stop making recommendations about food based on theories about one nutrient in food,” says Mozaffarian. “It’s crucial at this time to understand that it’s about food as a whole, and not about single nutrients.” While it’s not entirely clear how whole fat is helping to lower risk of diabetes, it’s possible that it’s working on several different levels to regulate insulin and glucose. At the simplest level, people eating more high fat dairy products will have enough calories so they won’t feel hungry enough to need additional calories from sugary foods. It’s also possible that the fats in dairy may be acting directly on cells, working on the liver and muscle to improve their ability to break down sugar from food. And then there’s the possibility that for certain high fat dairy foods, like cheese, which is fermented, microbes may be working to improve insulin response and lower diabetes risk too. Mozaffarian isn’t advocating that people start consuming vast amounts of high fat dairy products if they’re worried about their diabetes risk. More studies need to be done in order for dietary guidelines to start recommending full fat dairy in order to improve health. But the results so far do support backing away from recommending just low fat options, he says. “In the absence of any evidence for the superior effects of low fat dairy, and some evidence that there may be better benefits of whole fat dairy products for diabetes, why are we recommending only low fat diary? We should be telling people to eat a variety of dairy and remove the recommendation about fat content.” More Must-Reads from TIME - The Reinvention of J.D. Vance - Iran, Trump, and the Third Assassination Plot - Welcome to the Golden Age of Scams - Did the Pandemic Break Our Brains? - 33 True Crime Documentaries That Shaped the Genre - The Ordained Rabbi Who Bought a Porn Company - Introducing the Democracy Defenders - Why Gut Health Issues Are More Common in Women

http://time.com/4279538/the-case-against-low-fat-milk-is-stronger-than-ever/?xid=time_socialflow_facebookIf

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How to reduce fever in babies naturally You must check your baby's temperature to find out if they have a fever if they awaken in the middle of the night crying and feeling hot. Your child could experience a fever for a variety of causes. Fever itself is not harmful, but the underlying reason occasionally is. Older children are less likely than young newborns to have a fever that needs to be treated. Any fever in newborns should indeed be treated by a doctor right away, especially if the child is under three months old. If no other worrying symptoms appear, infants 3 months of age and older with low-grade fevers can be properly cared for at home. An examination by a physician is recommended for infants who have high or identify a fever Around 98.6°F (37°C) is considered the norm for temperature. From sunrise to night, this temperature may slightly change. In general, your body temperature is lower when you first wake up and higher in the afternoon The underlying cause of a fever in a baby under three months old must be determined immediately in order to treat it if necessary. If an infant's temperature is over, it is deemed to be - When given rectally, 100.4°F (38°C) or higher - When taken using alternative methods, 99°F (37.2°C) or higher For infants older than 3 months, low-grade fevers don't usually necessitate a trip to the doctor. reduce a fever A newborn who is older than three months old may not need to visit the doctor if their fever is only slightly high. The following techniques may help you cure your fever at home: A safe dose of children's acetaminophen can be given to a youngster who is older than three months old (Tylenol). Doses are often determined by weight. If you haven't weighed your baby recently or if they've recently experienced a growth spurt, your doctor may advise doing so. You might not need to give your infant any medication if they are not uncomfortable or irritable due to their temperature. Medication can make your infant momentarily feel better for higher fevers or other symptoms that are making them uncomfortable. Adjust their clothes Use simply a sheet or thin blanket to keep your baby warm and comfortable. Dress them in light clothing. Your baby's body's natural cooling mechanisms could be hampered if you overdress them. 3. Reduce the house temperature Cool down your house and the space where your baby sleeps. They may not become too hot as a result of this. Bathe them in warm water Consider wiping your child down with warm water. (The water should feel warm to the touch on the inside of your arm, but not hot.) To ensure bather safety, maintain regular supervision. Use warm water instead than cold since cold water can cause shivering, which could raise their temperature. After bathing your kid, dry them off immediately and outfit them in airy clothing. Alcohol baths or wipes are not advised and are potentially dangerous for lowering fevers. Fever can have complications, one of which is dehydration. Make sure your infant has regular wet diapers, a moist mouth, and tears when crying. Provide regular fluids (breast milk or formula). If this worries you, make a call to your doctor's office to talk about how to keep your child hydrated. When your baby has a fever, avoid doing the following - Avoid delaying medical care for a baby with any type of fever, an infant with a high temperature, or someone who appears to be very ill. - Without first taking your baby's temperature and seeking advice from your doctor's office, never give your infant medication. - Use only medications that are meant for children. - Your baby shouldn't be overdressed. - To lower your baby's fever, avoid using ice or rubbing alcohol. test a child's temperature Use a digital multipurpose thermometer vertically for the most accurate reading. You should be aware that a rectal temperature will be higher than temperatures obtained in other ways. How to rectally take your baby's temperature is as follows: - Set the measurements to either Fahrenheit or Celsius after reading the manufacturer's instructions (in order to report the temperature correctly). - Make use of soap or rubbing alcohol to clean the thermometer. - Put some petroleum jelly or another secure lubricant on the thermometer's tip. - Your baby's bottom should be free from any coverings or diapers. - Lay your child down on their stomach on a secure and cozy - flat surface, such as a bed or changing table, or in your lap. - While you take your baby's temperature, hold them gently in place. To prevent the thermometer from penetrating your baby's rectum deeper, keep them still and restrained during the procedure. It is best to have assistance holding the baby still to prevent harm. - When the thermometer beeps, only a half-inch to an inch should be inserted into your infant's rectum. The safe limit for rectal insertion is indicated by a visible notch or safety guide on the majority of thermometers. - Carefully remove the thermometer and take a reading. - If you utilize other tools in accordance with their directions, they might give you reliable temperature readings for your baby. - For newborns under three months old, temporal artery thermometers may not be accurate because they take the temperature from the forehead. This age range of newborns should have their rectal temperatures taken. - Only infants 6 months of age and older should use tympanic thermometers, which take the temperature from the baby's ear. - Other recommendations for taking your baby's temperature are as follows: - To minimize confusion, identify your digital multiuse thermometer specifically for rectal use. Take your baby's temperature without using the oral or underarm methods. These aren't thought to be reliable for babies and young If you touch your baby's forehead and feel warmth, don't assume they have a fever. To determine fever, you need an accurate digital Mercury-filled thermometers should not be used. If they break, there is a chance of exposure to mercury. In order to decide whether you should call your doctor, be careful to keep an eye on your baby's temperature throughout an illness and look out for other symptoms and behaviors. In the following situations, you ought to consult a doctor or get treatment: - if your baby under three months old experiences any temperature changes - 102°F (38.9°C) or greater rectal temperature in your kid who is between three and six months old - Your child, who is between the ages of six and 24 months, has a fever that lasts longer than a day or two and is otherwise symptom-free. - individuals frequently experience or have a fever that has lasted more than 24 hours. - They exhibit irritability (fussiness) or lethargy (weak or more sleepy than usual) - After taking the prescribed amount of medication, if your baby's temperature doesn't go down within an hour or so, call your doctor. - they exhibit additional signs such as rash, irregular eating, or vomiting. - They lack moisture (not producing tears, spit, or the usual amount of wet diapers) kids have fevers? Typically, fevers are a sign of a more serious medical There are a variety of causes for your baby's fever, - Viral infection - Bacterial infection - Certain vaccinations - Another medical illness Children's ear infections and respiratory conditions like colds are frequent causes of fevers. teething result in fevers? Fever is not thought to be brought on by teething. Your teething baby's fever could be brought on by an underlying illness. According to the child's age and the symptoms present in addition to the fever, treating an infant's fever will differ. When they get a fever, older infants can usually be treated at home, but newborns must be seen by a doctor right away. If your baby experiences a high fever or if the fever lasts longer than a few days, consult a doctor right away before administering any medication to your youngster. WAS THIS ARTICLE OF ANY USE TO YOU? YES OR NO Post a Comment

https://www.healthlifekit.com/2022/11/how-to-reduce-body-temperature-during.html

Family

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API Testing and API Test Tools API Testing and API Test Tools To discuss API testing and the tools involved we need to first describe what we mean by API. Wikipedia defines API as set of functions and procedures that allow the creation of applications which access the features or data of an operating system, application, or other service and API testing as a type of software testing that involves testing application programming interfaces (APIs) directly and as part of integration testing to determine if they meet expectations for functionality, reliability, performance, and security. API which means Application Programming Interface, that specifies how one component of an application should interact with the other. It consists of a set of protocols routines and tools for building the software applications. It enables an interface for connection between two systems. What is an API Testing? At sharptester.com we define API testing as a test that is performed to confirm that API’s executes successfully, return the correct value when executed based on the input conditions, update any data structure as expected and also triggers some other event or calls another API. What You Need to start API testing - Who is your target audience? Who is your API consumer? - What environment/s should the API typically be used? - What aspects are you testing? - What problems are we testing for? - What are your priorities to test? - What is supposed to happen in normal circumstances? - What could potentially happen in abnormal circumstances? - What is defined as a Pass or a Fail? What data is the desired output? What is the chain of events? - What other APIs could this API interact with? - Who on your team is in charge of testing what? After these testing boundaries and requirements have been created successfully, it is mandated to determine what you want to test your API for. Below are some examples - Functionality testing — This is to validate that the API works successfully - Usability testing —This is to validate that the API is easy to work with. - Reliability testing — This is to validate that the API can beconnected to and provide consistent results. - Load testing — This is to validate that the API can handle a large amount of calls at the same time or over a period of time. - Security testing — This is to validate that the API has defined security requirements including authentication, permissions and access controls. See some API security tips for protecting vital data. Here are some of the common API test examples: - Validating that API return values based on the input conditions. - Verifying if the API doesn’t return anything at all or the wrong results. - Verifying if the API triggers some other event or calls another API. - Verifying if the API is updating any data structures. Some Open Source API Testing Tools For REST & SOAP Services - Karate DSL Kindly read more from our blog and also send in your comments if you enjoy this article. I needed to thank you for this excellent read!! I definitely enjoyed every little bit of it. I have got you bookmarked to look at new things you postÖ Development and validation of spectrophotometric methods for simultaneous estimation of citicoline and piracetam in tablet dosage form female viagra over the counter

http://sharptester.com/2017/09/18/api-testing-api-test-tools/

Programming

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, member of a Jewish sect noted for its uncompromising opposition to pagan Rome and the polytheism it professed. The Zealots were an aggressive political party whose concern for the national and religious life of the Jewish people led them to despise even Jews who sought peace and conciliation with the Roman authorities. A census of Galilee ordered by Rome in ad 6 spurred the Zealots to rally the populace to noncompliance on the grounds that agreement was an implicit acknowledgment by Jews of the right of pagans to rule their nation. Extremists among the Zealots turned to terrorism and assassination and became known as Sicarii (Greek sikarioi, “dagger men”). They frequented public places with hidden daggers to strike down persons friendly to Rome. In the first revolt against Rome (ad 66–70) the Zealots played a leading role, and at Masada in 73 they committed suicide rather than surrender the fortress, but they were still a force to be reckoned with in the first part of the following century. A few scholars see a possible relationship between the Zealots and the Jewish religious community mentioned in the Dead Sea Scrolls. See also Masada.

https://www.britannica.com/topic/Zealot

Religion

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Sustainability is a societal goal that relates to the ability of people to safely co-exist on Earth over a long time. It involves taking into account environmental, social, and economic factors in decision-making to ensure that resources are used in a way that is sustainable over the long term. Speaking of our fashion industry, sustainability means producing and consuming fashion products in a way that minimizes negative environmental impact, promotes social responsibility, and ensures economic viability for all stakeholders involved. This includes using eco-friendly materials, reducing waste, implementing ethical labor practices, and creating products that are durable and can be reused or recycled. Sustainability has become a key issue for consumers and businesses alike, and the fashion industry is no exception. As a scarf blankets factory, we-EVELYN understand the importance of sustainability and are committed to implementing sustainable practices in our factory, products, and processes. The Importance of Sustainability in the Fashion Industry Sustainability has become increasingly important for businesses and final consumers. Consumers are becoming more conscious of the environmental impact of their purchasing decisions and are looking for sustainable and ethical products. In addition, governments and organizations are introducing regulations and standards to encourage sustainable practices in the fashion industry. As a supplier of fashion accessories, we recognize the importance of sustainability and are committed to implementing sustainable practices in our factory, products, and processes. We believe that sustainability is not only important for the environment, but it is also essential for our business’s long-term success. Our Sustainable Practices At Evelyn, we are committed to implementing sustainable practices in our factory, products, and processes. Here are some of the ways we are working towards sustainability: - Sustainable Materials for Products: Since 2018, many products of ours have been updated into sustainable materials. From the origins, we started to purchase sustainable yarns to do weaving, and knitting and then make final sustainable products, such as recycled polyester scarf(made of bottles), organic cotton scarf/bandanas/bags/baseball caps, 100% Lenzing modal to make ruanas/kimonos. These materials are environmentally friendly and have a lower impact on the environment than traditional materials. - Eco-Friendly Manufacturing: We have implemented eco-friendly manufacturing practices in our factory, such as using energy-efficient machinery and reducing water usage, also installing treatment systems to remove pollutants and contaminants from wastewater before it is discharged into the environment. - Ethical Labor Practices: We ensure that our products are manufactured in honorable working conditions, and our employees are treated fairly and paid a living wage. We are Sedex members with many audited approved annually. - Minimal Waste: We strive to minimize waste in our production process by using only the necessary materials and repurposing any excess materials. Our extensive experience in manufacturing will help us minimize fabric usage and achieve the lowest possible waste. While saving fabric to minimize waste, it also makes our price more favorable. - Sustainable Packaging: Materials of our polybags for packaging are recyclable, compostable, or biodegradable, and designing packaging that is optimized for efficient transportation and storage. Sustainability is becoming increasingly important for businesses and consumers in the fashion industry. As a supplier of fashion accessories, we understand the importance of sustainability and are committed to implementing sustainable practices in our factory, products, and processes. By using sustainable materials, implementing eco-friendly manufacturing practices, ensuring ethical labor practices, minimizing waste, and using sustainable packaging, we are working towards a more sustainable future for the fashion industry. We hope that more businesses in the fashion industry will follow suit and take steps toward sustainability, for the sake of our planet and our future. By implementing sustainable practices in the fashion industry, we can not only reduce the negative impact on the environment but also create a more ethical and socially responsible industry. Sustainable practices can also lead to cost savings, as using eco-friendly materials and reducing waste can result in a more efficient production process. So if you are a start-up fashion business entrepreneur, or you are a wholesaler/retailer who is looking for sustainable products(scarf, bandana, scrunchies, bags, hats, wearables, etc) , or you are worried about the worse present supplier, are looking for a sustainable factory, just try to contact us now!

https://evelynfashions.com/how-sustainability-affects-the-fashion-industry/

Fashion

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With shops and factories closed nationwide due to the coronavirus pandemic, nearly all of the jobs created in the US economy in the last decade were wiped out in a single month. An unprecedented 20.5 million jobs were destroyed in April in the world’s largest economy, driving the unemployment rate to 14.7 per cent compared to 4.4 per cent in March, the Labor Department said in its monthly report, the first to capture the impact of a full month of the lockdowns. The United States is home to the world’s largest and deadliest coronavirus outbreak, with more than 75,000 fatalities and 1.2 million cases reported as of Thursday, according to Johns Hopkins University. The economic damage has been swift and stunning. In the two years of the global financial crisis, the world’s largest economy lost 8.6 million jobs and the unemployment rate peaked at 10 per cent in October 2009. During the recovery, from February 2010 to February 2020, 23 million positions were created. The plunge in nonfarm payroll employment last month was the largest ever recorded dating back to 1939, while the jobless rate saw its highest and biggest increase dating back to 1948, the report said. And job losses in March were worse than initially reported, falling 870,000 even though the business closures happened mostly in the second half of the month. Employment fell sharply in all major industry sectors. Leisure and hospitality was the first sector hit and the one bearing the brunt of the impact of the lockdowns, and posted a loss of 7.7 million jobs. However, the Labor Department noted that some workers were misclassified in the report as employed when they should have been counted as laid off. Had they been listed properly, the unemployment rate would have been nearly five percentage points higher.

https://punchng.com/us-suffers-biggest-job-losses-in-history/

Health

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In modern aircraft cabin, close to half of the cabin air is recircualted. As this IATA briefing paper on Cabin air quality - risk of contagious viruses notes: The cabin air system is designed to operate most efficiently by delivering approximately 50 percent outside air and 50 percent filtered, recirculated air. The AIVC also notes in Air quality in passenger aircraft: In early commercial jet aircraft, passenger cabins were ventilated with 100% outside air. In more recent jet aircraft, approximately 50% of the ventilation air is outside air and the remaining 50% is filtered recirculated cabinair. The reason for using recirculated air is quite simple- fuel savings. From the document Commercial Airliner Environmental Control System- Engineering Aspects of Cabin Air Quality: At the beginning of the commercial jet airliner age, jet airplanes did not have cabin air recirculation systems,... The primary reason was that early jets were powered by highly inefficient turbojet engines. As engine technology progressed, turbofans were developed with a core bypass ratio of approximately 2 to 1. Fuel economy improved and the cost of engine bleed air relative to overall fuel consumption was still sufficiently small to make 100% bleed air to the passenger cabin cost effective. As modern turbofan engines with high 5 to 1 bypass ratios were developed, fuel consumption to provide engine thrust decreased. However, the fuel consumption relative to extracting bleed air dramatically increased, almost in direct proportion to the higher bypass ratio. For a 767 with P&W 4000 engines, the percent increase in fuel consumption due to bleed air only would be almost four times higher than an equivalently sized turbojet for the same amount of bleed air. Increase in bleed air fuel consumption with modern jet engines; image from Commercial Airliner Environmental Control System- Engineering Aspects of Cabin Air Quality by Elwood H. Hun et. al.

https://aviation.stackexchange.com/questions/43702/how-much-air-is-recirculated-vs-bleed-air-injected-in-modern-airliners-cabinThat

Health

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How to Write a Research Question What is a research question? A research question is the question around which you center your research. It should be: - clear: it provides enough specifics that one’s audience can easily understand its purpose without needing additional explanation. - focused: it is narrow enough that it can be answered thoroughly in the space the writing task allows. - concise: it is expressed in the fewest possible words. - complex: it is not answerable with a simple “yes” or “no,” but rather requires synthesis and analysis of ideas and sources prior to composition of an answer. - arguable: its potential answers are open to debate rather than accepted facts. You should ask a question about an issue that you are genuinely curious and/or passionate about. The question you ask should be developed for the discipline you are studying. A question appropriate for Biology, for instance, is different from an appropriate one in Political Science or Sociology. If you are developing your question for a course other than first-year composition, you may want to discuss your ideas for a research question with your professor. Why is a research question essential to the research process? Research questions help writers focus their research by providing a path through the research and writing process. The specificity of a well-developed research question helps writers avoid the “all-about” paper and work toward supporting a specific, arguable thesis. Steps to developing a research question: - Choose an interesting general topic. Most professional researchers focus on topics they are genuinely interested in studying. Writers should choose a broad topic about which they genuinely would like to know more. An example of a general topic might be “Slavery in the American South” or “Films of the 1930s.” - Do some preliminary research on your general topic. Do a few quick searches in current periodicals and journals on your topic to see what’s already been done and to help you narrow your focus. What issues are scholars and researchers discussing, when it comes to your topic? What questions occur to you as you read these articles? - Consider your audience. For most college papers, your audience will be academic, but always keep your audience in mind when narrowing your topic and developing your question. Would that particular audience be interested in the question you are developing? - Start asking questions. Taking into consideration all of the above, start asking yourself open-ended “how” and “why” questions about your general topic. For example, “Why were slave narratives effective tools in working toward the abolishment of slavery?” or “How did the films of the 1930s reflect or respond to the conditions of the Great Depression?” - Evaluate your question. After you’ve put a question or even a couple of questions down on paper, evaluate these questions to determine whether they would be effective research questions or whether they need more revising and refining. - Is your research question clear? With so much research available on any given topic, research questions must be as clear as possible in order to be effective in helping the writer direct his or her research. - Is your research question focused? Research questions must be specific enough to be well covered in the space available. - Is your research question complex? Research questions should not be answerable with a simple “yes” or “no” or by easily-found facts. They should, instead, require both research and analysis on the part of the writer. They often begin with “How” or “Why.” - Begin your research. After you’ve come up with a question, think about the possible paths your research could take. What sources should you consult as you seek answers to your question? What research process will ensure that you find a variety of perspectives and responses to your question? Sample Research Questions Unclear: How should social networking sites address the harm they cause? Clear: What action should social networking sites like MySpace and Facebook take to protect users’ personal information and privacy? The unclear version of this question doesn’t specify which social networking sites or suggest what kind of harm the sites might be causing. It also assumes that this “harm” is proven and/or accepted. The clearer version specifies sites (MySpace and Facebook), the type of potential harm (privacy issues), and who may be experiencing that harm (users). A strong research question should never leave room for ambiguity or interpretation. Unfocused: What is the effect on the environment from global warming? Focused: What is the most significant effect of glacial melting on the lives of penguins in Antarctica? The unfocused research question is so broad that it couldn’t be adequately answered in a book-length piece, let alone a standard college-level paper. The focused version narrows down to a specific effect of global warming (glacial melting), a specific place (Antarctica), and a specific animal that is affected (penguins). It also requires the writer to take a stance on which effect has the greatest impact on the affected animal. When in doubt, make a research question as narrow and focused as possible. Too simple: How are doctors addressing diabetes in the U.S.? Appropriately Complex: What main environmental, behavioral, and genetic factors predict whether Americans will develop diabetes, and how can these commonalities be used to aid the medical community in prevention of the disease? The simple version of this question can be looked up online and answered in a few factual sentences; it leaves no room for analysis. The more complex version is written in two parts; it is thought provoking and requires both significant investigation and evaluation from the writer. As a general rule of thumb, if a quick Google search can answer a research question, it’s likely not very effective. Last updated 8/8/2018

https://writingcenter.gmu.edu/guides/how-to-write-a-research-question

Education

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NASA has roped in billionaire Elon Musk to help it probe a nearby asteroid that contains enough gold to make everyone on Earth a billionaire. Musk's rocket-building outfit SpaceX will join forces with the space agency to fire an uncrewed spacecraft to the solid metal blob 16 Psyche as early as 2022. "The Psyche mission will journey to a unique metal-rich asteroid, also named Psyche, which orbits the Sun between Mars and Jupiter," Nasa said in a statement. "The asteroid is considered unique, as it appears to largely be made of the exposed nickel-iron core of an early planet – one of the building blocks of our solar system." Psyche, which is 120 miles wide, is loaded with heaps of platinum, iron and nikel. In total, it's estimated that the object's various metals are worth a mind-boggling £8,000-quadrillion (that's an eight followed by 18 zeroes). That means if we carried it back to Earth, it would destroy commodity prices and cause the world's economy – worth £59.5trillion – to collapse. If all goes well, a Nasa/SpaceX mission to the asteroid will launch in summer 2022 from Cape Canaveral. Fortunately, the space agency is taking the trip for scientific purposes and isn't planning on conducting any mining. Instead, the Psyche probe will be loaded with equipment to examine the probe's composition. What do we know about quadrillion pound asteroid Psyche? - Arizona State University researchers say that Psyche 16 was found in 1852 by Italian astronomer Annibale de Gasparis, who named it after the ancient Greek goddess of the soul. - What gives asteroid Psyche great scientific interest is that it is made of metal. - It appears to be composed of one of the building blocks of the Sun's planetary system and could provide clues to how our planet formed. - The asteroid is most likely a survivor of violent hit-and-run collisions, common when the solar system was forming. - Every world explored so far by humans (except gas giant planets such as Jupiter or Saturn) has a surface of ice or rock or a mixture of the two. - Because we cannot see or measure Earth’s core directly, Psyche offers a unique window into the violent history of collisions and accretion that created the terrestrial planets. Nasa reckons 16 Psyche is a survivor of violent hit-and-run collisions between planets which were common when the solar system was forming. That means it could tell us how Earth’s core and the cores of the other terrestrial planets were formed. It's hoped the probe will arrive at the hunk of metal in 2026. We've known about Psyche for a while, but its potential to wreak havoc on Earth's economy was recently touched upon by a veteran miner. Scott Moore, who heads up EuroSun Mining, said the sheer amount of gold in the asteroid threatens to throw the gold industry into chaos. "The 'Titans of Gold' now control hundreds of the best-producing properties around the world," he told Oil Price. "But the four to five million ounces of gold they bring to the market every year pales in comparison to the conquests available in space." Two space mining companies – backed by big-name investors – are gearing up for a gold rush after asteroid ownership was made legal in 2015. Deep Space Industries and Planetary Resources each have their eyes on the 2011 UW158 asteroid which is twice the size of the Tower of London and worth up to £4.5trillion. TOP STORIES IN SCIENCE In other news, an asteroid nine times the size of the Empire State Building will skim past Earth next month. It recently emerged that an asteroid obliterated early human civilisations in a catastrophic collision with Earth 13,000 years ago. And, scientists have discovered a "Super-Earth" 31 light-years away that humans could one day colonise. What do you think Nasa will find on Psyche? Let us know in the comments! We pay for your stories! Do you have a story for The Sun Online Tech & Science team? Email us at [email protected]

https://www.thesun.co.uk/tech/11095960/psyche-16-golden-asteroid-nasa-elon-musk-spacex/

Business

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Thirty years ago, Israeli and Palestinian leaders met on the lawn of the White House in Washington to sign a deal many believed could be a precursor for peace in the region. The first Oslo Accord brought together Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat. The former was the Israeli prime minister, and the latter was the leader of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). A handshake was to follow between them – a significant gesture and the deal would lead them to both receive the Nobel Peace Prize, along with then-Israeli Foreign Minister Shimon Peres, the following year. All three men are now dead, Rabin in circumstances directly related to the Accords. The peace process that the deal was supposed to begin has been stillborn, with Israel continuing its illegal occupation of Palestinian territory, and the Palestinian people no closer to – and some would argue further away from – an independent state. Here’s everything you need to know about the historic agreement and why it has seemingly failed: What were the Oslo Accords? The first Oslo Accord, known as Oslo I, was signed on September 13, 1993. The agreement between the Israeli and Palestinian leadership saw each side recognise the other for the first time. Both sides also pledged to end their decades-long conflict. A second accord, known as Oslo II, was signed in September 1995 and went into more detail on the structure of the bodies that the peace process was supposed to form. The Oslo Accords were supposed to bring about Palestinian self-determination, in the form of a Palestinian state alongside Israel. This would mean that Israel, which was formed on the land of historic Palestine in 1948 in an event Palestinians know as the Nakba, would accept Palestinian claims to national sovereignty. The claims, however, would only be limited to a fraction of historic Palestine, with the rest left to Israel’s sovereignty. To meet that goal several steps would need to be taken, including the phased withdrawal of the Israeli military from the Palestinian territories it had illegally occupied since 1967, and the transfer of authority to a Palestinian administration, except for final status issues, including the status of Jerusalem (the eastern half of which is occupied Palestinian land) and Israel’s illegal settlements, which would be negotiated at a later date. The accords therefore led to the creation of the supposedly temporary Palestinian Authority (PA), and the division of territory in the West Bank into Areas A, B and C, denoting how much control the PA has in each. which to this day administers limited rule over the two areas. A final treaty was to be reached in five years – but that has not happened. Who was opposed to the deal? Right-wing Israelis had no desire to give the Palestinians any concessions, and did not want any agreements with the PLO, which they considered a “terrorist organisation”. Israeli settlers also feared it would lead to their eviction from the illegal settlements in the occupied territories. Elements of the far-right were so opposed to the Oslo Accords that Rabin himself was assassinated in 1995 for signing them. Among the people who had threatened Rabin before his death was Itamar Ben-Gvir, now Israel’s National Security Minister. Meanwhile, Palestinian groups, including Hamas and Islamic Jihad, warned that a two-state solution would forgo the right of Palestinian refugees to return to the historic lands seized from them in 1948 when Israel was created. The late prominent Palestinian literary critic and activist Edward Said was among its most vocal critics, calling it “an instrument of Palestinian surrender, a Palestinian Versailles”. How did the accords break down? The Oslo Accords witnessed a slow decline, with Israel continuing its occupation of Palestinian land and refusing to withdraw militarily from the majority of the West Bank while continuing to conduct raids into land considered under the full administration of the PA. Following Rabin’s death, a number of Israeli leaders who opposed the accords came to power, among them current Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu as well as Ariel Sharon. A second intifada from 2000 to 2005 in turn led to heavy casualties, particularly on the Palestinian side, and made both sides less willing to agree to move the deal along. Any attempt at restarting talks failed in the decade after, and the accords’ interim clauses have become the status quo. How are the accords viewed now? Many Palestinians believe that Israel has used the Oslo Accords to justify its expansion of illegal settlements in the West Bank. In fact, as the Oslo Accords slowly broke down, Israel tripled its settlement building. Between 1993 and 2000, the Israeli population in the West Bank reached its fastest pace of growth ever, according to Dror Etkes, an Israeli peace campaigner. Today, the Israeli government is dominated by far-right religious and ultranationalist politicians who have close ties to the settlement movement. In recent months, they have approved thousands of new homes in settlements in the occupied West Bank. In fact, according to the left-wing Israeli movement Peace Now, Israel this year set a record for its settlement approvals, with at least 12,855 settler housing units approved since January. Thirty years on, Palestinian statehood is unlikely in the short and even medium term, as final-status negotiations between Palestinian and Israeli leaders have continuously failed. The West Bank lies fragmented, the blockaded Gaza Strip stands isolated in what many call an “open-air prison”, and Israel has no plans to relinquish occupied East Jerusalem. Many people, in both Israel and Palestine, believe the two-state solution is dead.

https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/9/13/what-were-oslo-accords-israel-palestinians

Religion

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Immigrants – particularly those from African nations – are a growing share of the U.S. Black population The analysis presented in this report about the foreign-born Black population of the United States combines the latest data available from multiple data sources. It is mainly based on data from the U.S. Census Bureau’s 2006-2019 American Community Surveys (ACS) and the following U.S. decennial censuses provided through the Integrated Public Use Microdata Series (IPUMS) from the University of Minnesota: 1980 (5% sample), 1990 (5% sample) and 2000 (5% sample). U.S. Census population projections were used to estimate the size of the single-race Black foreign-born population from 2030 to 2060. For census years 1980 and 1990, “Black immigrants” and “foreign-born Black population” refer to persons born outside the U.S., Puerto Rico or other U.S. territories whose sole self-identified race is Black, regardless of Hispanic origin. Prior to 2000, respondents to Census Bureau surveys and its decennial census could make only one selection in the race question. In 2000 and later, respondents were able to indicate they were of more than once race. The ACS is used to present demographic characteristics for each group. Analysis about the religious beliefs and practices of Black adults is based on the Faith Among Black Americans survey. Analysis about immigrant generations utilizes the March 2019 Annual Social and Economic Supplement of the Current Population Survey. This data was collected before the COVID-19 pandemic. U.S. Black population and Black population refer to all people who self-identify as Black in the United States. This includes those who say their race is only Black; those who say Black is one of two or more races in their background; and those who say their race is Black, or that one of their races is Black but also indicate they are of Hispanic or Latino or Black origin. The terms Black population and Black people are used interchangeably in this report. The terms Black immigrants, the Black immigrant population, Black migrants and the foreign-born Black population are used interchangeably throughout the report and refer to persons who were both born outside the United States, Puerto Rico or other U.S. territories to parents neither of whom was a U.S. citizen, and who identify their race as Black. This is inclusive of those who say Black is one of two or more races in their background (regardless of Hispanic origin) in U.S. Census Bureau surveys from 2000 and later. For previous census years (1980 and 1990), “Black immigrants” and “foreign-born Black population” refer to persons born outside the U.S., Puerto Rico or other U.S. territories whose sole self-identified race is Black, regardless of Hispanic origin. Prior to 2000, respondents to Census Bureau surveys and its decennial census could make only one selection in the race question. In 2000 and later, respondents were able to indicate they were of more than once race. U.S. born refers to those who are U.S. citizens at birth, namely people born in the U.S., Puerto Rico or other U.S. territories and those born abroad to at least one parent who was a U.S. citizen. U.S. foreign born, U.S. migrants and U.S. immigrants refer to people born outside the U.S., Puerto Rico or other U.S. territories to parents neither of whom was a U.S. citizen. Unless otherwise specified, immigrant population estimates include all immigrants regardless of citizenship or legal status. The terms foreign born, migrant and immigrant are used interchangeably in this report. Second generation refers to people born in the 50 states, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico or other U.S. territories with at least one first-generation, or immigrant, parent. Third generation or higher refers to people born in the 50 states, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico or other U.S. territories with both parents born in the 50 states, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico or other U.S. territories. The lawful immigrant population is defined as naturalized citizens; people granted lawful permanent residence (previously known as legal permanent residence); those granted asylum; people admitted as refugees; and people admitted under a set of specific authorized temporary statuses for longer-term residence and work. Unauthorized immigrants are all foreign-born noncitizens residing in the country who are not lawful immigrants. These definitions reflect standard and customary usage by the U.S. Department of Homeland Security and academic researchers. The vast majority of unauthorized immigrants entered the country without valid documents or arrived with valid visas but stayed past their visa expiration date or otherwise violated the terms of their admission. Some who entered as unauthorized immigrants or violated terms of admission have obtained work authorization by applying for asylum or adjustment to lawful permanent status, obtaining Temporary Protected Status (TPS) or receiving Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) status. This “quasi-lawful” group could account for as much as 10%-15% of the unauthorized population. Many could also revert to unauthorized status. In this report, the terms African immigrants, African-born immigrants and immigrants born in Africa are used to describe any immigrants who self-identify as Black and are from any country on the African continent, regardless of sub-region. For a full list of countries in this region, please refer to Appendix A. In this report, Caribbean immigrants, Caribbean-born immigrants and immigrants born in the Caribbean are any immigrants who self-identify as Black and are from any country in this region. For a full list of countries in this region, please refer to Appendix A. In this report, the terms Central American immigrants, Central American-born immigrants and immigrants born in Central America are used to refer to any immigrants who self-identify as Black and are from any country in this region. For a full list of countries in this region, please refer to Appendix A. In this report, the terms South American immigrants, South American-born immigrants and immigrants born in South America are used to refer to any immigrants who self-identify as Black and are from any country in this region. For a full list of countries in this region, please refer to Appendix A. The Black population of the United States is diverse, growing and changing. The foreign-born segment of this population has played an important role in this growth over the past four decades and is projected to continue doing so in future years. Roughly 4.6 million, or one-in-ten, Black people in the U.S. were born in a different country as of 2019, up from 3% in 1980. By 2060, the U.S. Census Bureau projects that this number will increase to 9.5 million, or more than double the current level (the Census Bureau only offers projections for single race groups). Between 1980 and 2019, the nation’s Black population as a whole grew by 20 million, with the Black foreign-born population accounting for 19% of this growth. In future years, the Black immigrant population will account for roughly a third of the U.S. Black population’s growth through 2060, according to a new Pew Research Center analysis of U.S. Census Bureau data. The Black immigrant population is also projected to outpace the U.S.-born Black population in growth. While both groups are increasing in number, the foreign-born population is projected to grow by 90% between 2020 and 2060, while the U.S.-born population is expected to grow 29% over the same time span. Migration from Africa has fueled the bulk of the growth of the Black foreign-born population from 2000 onward. In 2000, roughly 560,000 African-born Black immigrants lived in the U.S. By 2019, that number had more than tripled to over 1.9 million. And many of these immigrants are newer arrivals to America: 43% of African-born Black immigrants immigrated to the U.S. from 2010 to 2019, higher than the shares among all U.S. immigrants (25%) and Black immigrants from the Caribbean (21%), Central America (18%) and South America (24%) in the same time period. At the same time, a notable share of Black Americans today are the offspring of immigrants. Roughly 9% of Black people are second-generation Americans – meaning they were born in the U.S., but have at least one foreign-born parent, according to a Center analysis of the March supplement of the Census Bureau’s 2019 Current Population Survey. In total, Black immigrants and their U.S.-born children account for 21% of the overall Black population. When it comes to socioeconomic factors, Black immigrants stand out from the U.S.-born Black population and the overall U.S. immigrant population on some measures, such as household income and educational attainment. For example, a larger share of Black immigrants ages 25 and older have a college degree or higher than does the U.S.-born Black population (31% vs. 22%). However, Black immigrants are about as likely as all U.S. immigrants in the same age group to have a college degree or higher (31% and 33%, respectively). Households headed by Black immigrants also had a higher median household income in 2019 than those headed by Black Americans born in the U.S. ($57,200 vs. $42,000), but the median household income was higher among all U.S. immigrant-headed households than it was among Black immigrant-headed households ($63,000 vs. $57,200). Additionally, there are key differences among Black immigrants born in different regions of the world on measures such as marital status, citizenship, educational attainment and time living in the U.S. For example, over half of Black immigrants born in the Caribbean (56%), Central America or Mexico (59%) and South America (54%) have been in the U.S. 20 years or longer, while just a quarter of Black African immigrants have been in the country for the same time span. When it comes to religious identity, majorities of both the Black foreign-born and U.S.-born adult populations identify as Protestant, but religious identity and beliefs – such as whether people of faith have a duty to convert nonbelievers – differ among Caribbean- and African-born Black adults. This report explores the demographic and socioeconomic characteristics of the nation’s Black immigrant population. It also explores the origins of Black immigrants and the history of Black immigration to the U.S., as well as the religious composition of this population.

https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/2021/03/25/the-growing-diversity-of-black-america/One-in-ten

Travel

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Unless you skipped sex ed class, you probably have at least a basic understanding of how babies are made. An egg (ovum) needs to be fertilised by sperm during a precise window in the menstrual cycle for life to happen. Sexual intercourse provides optimal conditions for reproduction. But that doesn't mean that every pregnancy happens this way. There are also examples of women conceiving in extremely rare circumstances that you'd expect to be impossible. 1. Via anal sex While cases of pregnancies resulting from anal sex are incredibly rare, they do happen. But they've only ever occurred in people with a reproductive abnormality called a cloacal malformation. This abnormality occurs in one in every 50,000 girls and will require corrective surgery and even with this there is a high probability of leading to complications such as renal failure, incontinence, difficulty getting pregnant and greater risk of early labour. A cloaca is a "common hole" for urination, defecation and reproduction. It's typically seen in reptiles and birds and even platypuses. In humans, tissue grows down and divides the cloaca into two or three openings – depending on the sex. But in rare cases, this tissue fails to completely split the rectum from the vaginal cavity. When this happens, it may allow sperm to swim through any opening in the dividing tissue wall towards the egg to fertilise it. The fertilised egg will normally implant into the womb, as usual. If you're wondering why the sperm don't just continue swimming up the rectum, that's because they work by chemotaxis. This means they're able to detect trace amounts of chemicals that the ovum produces. As the sperm swim towards the ovum, the amount of these "chemoattractants" they detect increases, signalling them to continue travelling in the right direction. 2. Via oral sex (and one very heated argument) Sperm's dogged ability to navigate towards the egg is perhaps demonstrated no better than in one of the more bizarre case reports recorded in the medical literature. A young girl born without a vagina came to doctors complaining of intermittent abdominal pain – which, in many ways, mimicked contractions. Further investigations by doctors revealed a foetus within her uterus – and that the woman's pain was happening because she was in labour. The baby was immediately delivered via c-section. Given the girl was born without a vagina, this ruled out intercourse as the method of conception. But precisely 278 days before, the girl had been admitted to hospital with stab wounds in her stomach. The wounds were the result of a knife fight between her, her jealous ex and her new partner. It transpired that just before the knife fight had occurred, she had performed oral sex on her new partner. So when the surgery was done to repair her stomach wounds, it potentially washed any sperm that still existed around her abdominal cavity – allowing them to migrate towards and fertilise the ovum. Sperm in the peritoneal cavity (the space between your abdominal organs and body wall) is not unheard of. This cavity contains a special fluid that helps your organs move around when food is passing through. And research has shown this fluid can also support the survival of sperm, enabling it to travel through this cavity to the ovum. 3. Splash pregnancies "Splash pregnancy" is another way that a person may become pregnant without having had intercourse. As the name suggests, if semen splashes against the external genitalia, sperm may find their way into the vagina and swim towards the ovaries. Splash pregnancies are highly unlikely. This is because sperm don't survive for more than half an hour outside the body. While healthy sperm swim at up to 5mm a minute, they only survive for a limited period of time (up to five days in women's genitalia). Of the hundreds of millions of sperm that are ejaculated into the vagina during intercourse, where conditions are ideal, only 200-300 will make it to the egg. You can see why a splash pregnancy is so rare. A splash pregnancy cannot occur from sperm in bathwater or hot-tubs. This is because the water disperses the sperm and dilutes the seminal fluid that usually protects sperm from the woman's harsh internal genitalia and the outside world. Chemicals such as chlorine in the water also rapidly kill sperm. 4. Double pregnancy The body has a mechanism that prevents subsequent pregnancies from happening while a woman is already pregnant. This is true even for women who are born with two uteri, as these mechanisms work hard to prevent a second pregnancy happening. Hormones prevent ovulation and produce a thick mucus plug that covers the cervix to prevent sperm travelling into the uterus towards the ovary. But one event, called superfetation, throws those rules out the window. This process sees a second pregnancy manifest while the first is already progressing. This phenomenon is so rare that scientists don't fully understand how it happens. Most recorded cases have been in women who used IVF. The two pregnancies often happen very close to each other, usually within two to four weeks of one another. This means that the babies can be delivered at the same time, as twins. Although there's a gestational age gap, most of these pregnancies progress normally without complications beyond what is seen more broadly. These examples are of course extremely rare – so you probably don't need to worry too much. But if you aren't looking to get pregnant anytime soon, be sure to use contraception. Adam Taylor, Professor and Director of the Clinical Anatomy Learning Centre, Lancaster University This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

https://www.sciencealert.com/humans-can-get-pregnant-through-bizarre-ways-here-are-4-of-them

Health

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After the coronavirus pandemic and the rise of monkeypox cases, news of another virus can trigger nerves globally. The highly infectious Marburg virus has been reported in the West African country of Ghana this week, according to the World Health Organization. Two unrelated people died after testing positive for Marburg in the southern Ashanti region of the country, the WHO said Sunday, confirming lab results from Ghana's health service. The highly infectious disease is similar to Ebola and has no vaccine. Health officials in the country say they are working to isolate close contacts and mitigate the spread of the virus, and the WHO is marshaling resources and sending specialists to the country. "Health authorities have responded swiftly, getting a head start preparing for a possible outbreak. This is good because without immediate and decisive action, Marburg can easily get out of hand," said the WHO's regional director for Africa, Matshidiso Moeti. Fatality rates from the disease can reach nearly 90%, according to the WHO. Here's what we know about the virus: - - - What is the Marburg virus? Marburg is a rare but highly infectious viral hemorrhagic fever and is in the same family as Ebola, a better-known virus that has plagued West Africa for years. The Marburg virus is a "genetically unique zoonotic . . . RNA virus of the filovirus family," according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. "The six species of Ebola virus are the only other known members of the filovirus family." Fatality rates range from 24% to 88%, according to the WHO, depending on the virus strain and quality of case management. Marburg has probably been transmitted to people from African fruit bats as a result of prolonged exposure from people working in mines and caves that have Rousettus bat colonies. It is not an airborne disease. Once someone is infected, the virus can spread easily between humans through direct contact with the bodily fluids of infected people such as blood, saliva or urine, as well as on surfaces and materials. Relatives and health workers remain most vulnerable alongside patients, and bodies can remain contagious at burial. The first cases of the virus were identified in Europe in 1967. Two large outbreaks in Marburg and Frankfurt in Germany, and in Belgrade, Serbia, led to the initial recognition of the disease. At least seven deaths were reported in that outbreak, with the first people infected having been exposed to Ugandan imported African green monkeys or their tissue while conducting lab research, the CDC said. - - - Where has Marburg been detected? The Ghana cases are only the second time Marburg has been detected in West Africa. The first reported case in the region was in Guinea last year. The virus can spread quickly. More than 90 contacts, including health workers and community members, are being monitored in Ghana. The WHO said it has also reached out to neighboring high-risk countries to put them on alert. Cases of Marburg have previously been reported elsewhere in Africa, including in Uganda, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya, South Africa and Zimbabwe. The largest outbreak killed more than 200 people in Angola in 2005. The virus is not known to be native to other continents, such as North America, and the CDC says cases outside Africa are "infrequent." In 2008, however, a Dutch woman died of Marburg disease after visiting Uganda. An American tourist also contracted the disease after a Uganda trip in 2008 but recovered. Both travelers had visited a well-known cave inhabited by fruit bats in a national park. - - - What are the symptoms? The illness begins "abruptly," according to the WHO, with a high fever, severe headache and malaise. Muscle aches and cramping pains are also common features. In Ghana, the two unrelated individuals who died experienced symptoms such as diarrhea, fever, nausea and vomiting. One case was a 26-year-old man who checked into a hospital on June 26 and died a day later. The second was a 51-year-old man who went to hospital on June 28 and died the same day, the WHO said. In fatal cases, death usually occurs between eight and nine days after onset of the disease and is preceded by severe blood loss and hemorrhaging, and multi-organ dysfunction. The CDC has also noted that around day five, a non-itchy rash on the chest, back or stomach may occur. Clinical diagnosis of Marburg "can be difficult," it says, with many of the symptoms similar to other infectious diseases such as malaria or typhoid fever. - - - Can Marburg be treated? There are no vaccines or antiviral treatments approved to treat the Marburg virus. However, supportive care can improve survival rates such as rehydration with oral or intravenous fluids, maintaining oxygen levels, using drug therapies and treating specific symptoms as they arise. Some health experts say drugs similar to those used for Ebola could be effective. Some "experimental treatments" for Marburg have been tested in animals but have never been tried in humans, the CDC said. Virus samples collected from patients to study are an "extreme biohazard risk," the WHO says, and laboratory testing should be conducted under "maximum biological containment conditions." - - - Anything else to know? The WHO said this week it is supporting a "joint national investigative team" in Ghana and deploying its own experts to the country. It is also sending personal protective equipment, bolstering disease surveillance and tracing contacts in response to the handful of cases. More details are likely to be shared at a WHO Africa online briefing scheduled for Thursday. "It is a worry that the geographical range of this viral infection appears to have spread. This is a very serious infection with a high mortality rate," international public health expert and professor Jimmy Whitworth of the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine told The Washington Post on Monday. "It is important to try to understand how the virus got into the human population to cause this outbreak and to stop any further cases. At present, the risk of spread of the outbreak outside of Ashanti region of Ghana is very low," he added.

https://www.yahoo.com/news/deadly-virus-just-identified-ghana-133523083.htmlTo

Health

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In the fast-paced and competitive world we live in today, the ability to solve mathematical problems swiftly and accurately is a valuable skill. Mastering mental maths not only enhances cognitive abilities but also fosters confidence and sharpens problem-solving skills. One effective method that has gained popularity is the inclusion of abacus classes, providing children with a unique approach to The Power of Mental Maths: Mental maths involves performing calculations in your head without the use of external aids such as calculators or paper. It is a skill that, when mastered at a young age, can have a profound impact on a child’s academic performance and overall cognitive development. maths not only improves numerical fluency but also sharpens concentration and boosts memory. Children who excel in maths often exhibit increased confidence in other academic subjects. The ability to quickly and accurately solve mathematical problems mentally lays a solid foundation for more complex concepts in the future. Additionally, maths fosters a love for numbers and makes learning mathematics an enjoyable experience for children. Abacus Classes: A Unique Approach to Mental Arithmetic: Abacus classes have gained recognition as an effective method to nurture maths skills in children. The abacus, an ancient calculating tool, serves as a visual aid that helps children visualize and internalize numerical concepts. Through hands-on practice with the abacus, children develop a strong sense of number relationships and an intuitive understanding of mathematical operations. Abacus classes not only focus on mental arithmetic but also enhance concentration, memory, and analytical skills. The structured curriculum of abacus classes gradually introduces children to more complex calculations, allowing them to progress at their own pace. The tactile and visual nature of the abacus engages multiple senses, facilitating a deeper understanding of mathematical concepts. Finding Abacus Classes Near Me: For parents seeking abacus classes for their children, it’s essential to find a reputable institution that prioritizes quality education. Searching for “abacus classes near me” online can yield numerous options, but it’s crucial to consider factors such as the reputation of the institution, the experience of the instructors, and the overall learning environment. One notable institution that stands out is the British Youth International College (BYIC). Renowned for its commitment to academic excellence and holistic development, BYIC offers comprehensive abacus classes designed to unleash the full potential of young minds. With experienced instructors and a proven track record of success, BYIC provides a nurturing environment for children to master mental maths skills through abacus training. Mastering mental maths at a young age is a gift that keeps giving throughout a child’s academic journey and beyond. The incorporation of abacus classes provides a unique and effective approach to cultivating mental arithmetic skills. As parents explore options for abacus classes near them, institutions like the British Youth International College emerge as beacons of quality education, ensuring that children not only excel in maths but also develop into confident and capable individuals ready to face the challenges of the future. Abacus Maths Classes in Indianapolis | Abacus Maths Classes in Baltimore | Abacus Maths Classes in Atlanta | Abacus Maths Classes in Sacramento | Abacus Maths Classes in Arlington | Abacus Maths Classes in Raleigh | Abacus Maths Classes near me | Abacus Online Classes in London | Abacus Maths Classes in Columbus | Abacus Maths Classes in Long Beach | Abacus Maths Classes in Oakland

https://supermaths.co.uk/mastering-mental-maths-at-a-young-age/

Education

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Smoking can cause long-term negative effects on the body, including heart disease, cancer, and diabetes. Whether smoked or chewed, tobacco is dangerous to your health. Tobacco products contain unsafe substances, from acetone and tar to nicotine and carbon monoxide. The inhaled substances can affect your lungs and the other organs in your body. Smoking can lead to ongoing complications and long-term effects on your body systems. While smoking can increase your risk of certain health conditions over years, like glaucoma, cancer, and issues with blood clotting, some of the bodily effects happen immediately. Learn more about the symptoms and overall effects of smoking on the body below. Tobacco smoke is incredibly harmful to your health. There’s no safe way to smoke. Replacing your cigarette with a cigar, pipe, e-cigarette, or hookah won’t help you avoid the health risks. According to the American Lung Association, cigarettes contain about 600 ingredients. Many of these ingredients are also in cigars and hookahs. When they burn, they generate more than 7,000 chemicals, many of which are toxic. At least 69 of them are carcinogenic, or known to cause cancer. In the United States, the mortality rate for smokers While not all the effects of smoking are immediate, the complications and damage can last for years. The good news is that quitting smoking can reduce many risk factors for the conditions and diseases below. Smoking can harm the organs in your body and negatively impact your overall health. Smoking can increase inflammation throughout your body and negatively affect your immune system. This may make you more susceptible to infection. A well-studied link also exists between smoking and many types of cancer. Smoking - bladder cancer - acute myeloid leukemia - cervical cancer - colorectal cancer - esophageal cancer - kidney and uterine cancer - laryngeal cancer - liver cancer - oropharyngeal cancer (which can include parts of your throat, tongue, tonsils, and soft palate) - pancreatic cancer - stomach or gastric cancer - tracheal, bronchial, and lung cancer If you quit smoking, the risk of developing most of these types of cancers decreases in about One of the ingredients in tobacco is the mood-altering drug nicotine. Nicotine is habit-forming and highly addictive. It is one reason why people find it so difficult to quit smoking. Nicotine reaches your brain in seconds and can energize you for a while. But as the effect wears off, you may feel tired and crave more. Physical withdrawal from nicotine can impair your ability to think and make you feel negative emotions. These may include: Smoking long-term can affect your vision and optic nerve. It may lead you to develop certain conditions that affect the eyes. These can include: - glaucoma, in which the pressure in the eye increases, which puts pressure on the optic nerve causing damage and loss of sight - cataracts, which cause cloudy vision - age-related macular degeneration, which causes damage to a spot in the center of your retina and causes loss of your central vision Smoking damages the airways, air sacs (alveoli) in the lungs, and cilia, which are tiny hair-like structures that prevent dirt and mucus from entering your lungs. Smoking causes lung damage and tissue loss that never comes back. Damage to the respiratory system can also make you more susceptible to certain infections that affect the lungs, like tuberculosis and pneumonia, and increase the possibility of death from those illnesses. Smoking can cause you to develop a chronic cough. It can also Lung damage from smoking can cause lung disease or lung cancer. Smoking is the leading cause of lung cancer, and people who smoke are 20 times more likely than nonsmokers to be diagnosed with lung cancer. Chronic lung conditions - emphysema, the destruction of the air sacs in your lungs - chronic bronchitis, permanent inflammation that affects the lining of the breathing tubes of the lungs - chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), a group of lung diseases - lung cancer - adult-onset asthma Withdrawal from tobacco products can cause temporary congestion and respiratory discomfort as your lungs and airways begin to heal. Increased mucus production right after quitting smoking may be a positive sign that your respiratory system is recovering. In infants, children, and teens Babies may be born with underdeveloped lungs if the pregnant person smokes during pregnancy. Children whose parents or caregivers smoke cigarettes may also experience certain health conditions at a higher rate than children whose caregivers do not smoke. These can include: - asthma attacks - reduced lung function - impaired lung growth - idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis Teens who smoke can end up with lungs that are smaller and weaker than the lungs of teens who don’t smoke. Nicotine affects blood flow to the genital areas of both men and women. Smoking may also contribute to fertility issues and lower sex hormone levels in males and females, leading to decreased sexual desire. In people with vaginas For people with vaginas, it can result in sexual dissatisfaction by decreasing lubrication and the ability to reach orgasm. Menopause also may Smoking influences hormone production and can make it harder for people with vaginas to become pregnant. It can also - early delivery - low birth weight - sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) - ectopic pregnancy - cleft palate and lip in infants In people with penises Smoking can negatively affect the function of blood vessels, which may restrict the blood flow needed to achieve an erection in people with penises. This may result in erectile dysfunction (ED). ED can also lead to fertility problems. It can also damage the DNA in sperm, making it difficult to conceive and increasing the risk of miscarriage and certain birth defects. According to the CDC, - blood vessels Nicotine causes blood vessels to tighten, which restricts the flow of blood. Smoking also raises blood pressure, weakens blood vessel walls, and increases your risk of blood clots. These factors raise your risk for cardiovascular disease, including: - coronary heart disease, including heart attack and sudden cardiac death - peripheral artery disease - abdominal aortic aneurysm You’re also at an increased risk of worsening heart disease if you’ve already had: Smoking impacts your cardiovascular health and also affects the health of those around you who don’t smoke. Exposure to secondhand smoke carries the same risk to a nonsmoker as someone who does smoke. Risks can include: Smoking cigarettes can affect your skin, hair, and nails. - premature skin damage associated with aging - delayed wound healing - developing hidradenitis suppurativa, a skin condition that causes painful boils - developing psoriasis, or triggering more severe psoriasis - developing certain types of skin cancer Cigarette smoking can affect the digestive system in multiple ways. Smoking increases the risk of cancer in the organs of the digestive system. This can include cancer of the: Type 2 diabetes Smoking also has an effect on insulin, making it more likely that you’ll develop insulin resistance. People who smoke cigarettes have a Type 2 diabetes tends to develop faster in people who smoke than people who do not smoke, as it may be Smoking can negatively impact your bone health by reducing your bone density and contributing to bone loss. Tobacco use is linked to developing conditions like osteoporosis or experiencing bone fractures. Smoking can also have a negative impact on bone healing if you experience a fracture. Smoking cigarettes increases your risk for health conditions that can affect the whole body. Smoking can cause cancer in many of the body’s organs. It can also reduce fertility, increase the chance of developing type 2 diabetes, and contribute to bone loss. But quitting smoking reduces many of these risks. It also has both short and long-term benefits. Since smoking affects every body system, finding a way to quit can help you live a longer and healthier life. Smoking cessation programs may help. Doctors may also recommend prescription and nonprescription medications to help you quit.

http://www.healthline.com/health/smoking/effects-on-body

Health

en

Boosting a child’s confidence is an important aspect of their overall development. Here are some strategies you can employ to help boost a child’s confidence: 1. Provide unconditional love and support: Show your child that you love and accept them for who they are, regardless of their achievements or failures. Make sure they know that your love is not conditional upon their performance. 2. Encourage their strengths: Identify your child’s strengths and encourage them to pursue activities that align with those strengths. When they excel in a particular area, provide positive reinforcement and praise their efforts. 3. Set realistic goals: Help your child set achievable goals that are within their reach. This will give them a sense of accomplishment when they meet their goals, which in turn boosts their confidence. 4. Encourage independence: Give your child opportunities to make decisions and take responsibility for their actions. This fosters independence and shows them that you trust their abilities. 5. Teach problem-solving skills: Help your child develop problem-solving skills by encouraging them to think critically and find solutions to challenges they encounter. This instills confidence in their ability to handle difficult situations. 6. Provide constructive feedback: When offering feedback, focus on the effort and improvement rather than solely on the outcome. Point out specific things they did well and offer suggestions for areas where they can improve. This helps them see that mistakes are opportunities for growth rather than failures. 7. Foster a growth mindset: Encourage your child to adopt a growth mindset, which is the belief that abilities and intelligence can be developed through effort and practice. Emphasize the importance of hard work and perseverance in achieving goals. 8. Celebrate successes: When your child achieves something, no matter how small, celebrate their success. Acknowledge their efforts and praise them for their accomplishments. This reinforces their confidence and motivates them to keep striving for more. 9. Provide opportunities for social interaction: Engage your child in social activities where they can interact with peers and develop their social skills. Positive social experiences help build self-confidence and create a sense of belonging. 10. Lead by example: Be a positive role model for your child. Demonstrate confidence in your own abilities, display resilience in the face of challenges, and maintain a positive attitude. Children often learn confidence by observing and emulating the behaviors of the significant adults in their lives. Remember, building confidence takes time and consistent effort. Be patient and supportive, and allow your child to grow and develop at their own pace.

https://www.crispng.com/childrens-day-ways-to-boost-your-childs-confidence/

Family

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New and emerging technologies have always been associated with the younger generations. Older people tend to be set in their ways, leaving tech-savvy millennials in the forefront of discovering and embracing new devices as they arrive on the scene. Younger people learn more quickly and that goes for technology in the same way it goes for everything else. A major question posed by the Research and Development Unit of Yudala, Nigeria’s fastest growing online and offline e-commerce outfit is: what age is suitable for kids to be exposed to technology? This is a question all parents have to answer during their children’s formative years: the decision on when a child can be allowed access to technological gadgets such as laptops, tablets and smartphones. Instructively, recent studies show that active or interactive technology and screen time can actually help develop and improve your kid’s learning, when used appropriately. After a review of the Kids Legacy Tab, a new product designed by Nigeria’s foremost technology company, Zinox Technologies Ltd., the Research and Development Unit of Yudala arrived at a number of ways children can benefit from early exposure to modern technology: 1.Develop Maths Skills: Research show that younger children are more interested in the short-term goals of games, which are essential in problem solving. Logic games, obstacle courses and other applications on tech devices go a long way to help build your child’s basic mathematic skills by imbuing them with the capacity for quantitative reasoning. For parents, this is very important as the phobia or apathy often expressed by most people for Mathematics is often a result of wrong or late to exposure to its usefulness in the analysis and interpretation of real-world quantitative information. 2.Improve Language Skills: The benefits of technology for kids especially at an early age are numerous. One of such areas is in the aspect of developing their language skills. Designed as a critical foundational tool targeted at children from the ages of 3 – 13, the Kids Legacy Tab ranks as one of the most fitting gadgets to introduce kids to technology and new ways of learning such as word pronunciation. There are many such applications and games to help boost their vocabulary and teach them to look for word meanings when they come across an unfamiliar word. 3.More Visually Attentive Kids: Exposure to games and other relevant applications on tech devices can help raise a generation of more visually attentive kids. This is because a significant amount of attention to detail is required on the part of kids when exposed to visually-stimulating contents on tablets and other entry-level gadgets. A device such as the Kids Legacy Tab which comes pre-loaded with over 50 educational and fun games can help build the requisite attention to detail and capacity for visual attention in children. 4.Emotional Intelligence: Emotional intelligence is a buzzword that is becoming increasingly relevant in the contemporary work-place. Most organizations today prioritize the capacity to be aware of, control, and express one’s emotions and to handle interpersonal relationships judiciously and empathetically. This quality can be developed in your child right from an early age through exposure to technology. There are numerous emotional intelligence apps pre-loaded on tablets which teach kids what emotions are, how they work, and how to use them and manage them for social interaction and learning. Among other things, these applications teach a child how to recognize other people’s emotions, to discriminate among the different feelings, and to label them appropriately. Armed with this insight, your child can learn from an early age how to refrain from emotional outbursts and undisciplined loss of self-control, thus leading to a well-rounded personality. 5.Build discipline and self-motivation: Exposing your child to technology from an early age is a sure way of building discipline and self-motivation, two qualities that are ultimately crucial to your child’s future development. A lot of games and activities on tech devices such as the Kids Legacy Tab often require the user to complete a task in order to progress to another level. To complete the entire course requires a huge dose of mental discipline and personal resolve. As a result, exposure to these learning apps inadvertently challenges a child and pushes him/her to strive to go the extra lengths in order to enjoy the thrill and satisfaction that comes from achieving. Your child, therefore, develops a disciplined mindset that sees challenges as surmountable as long as he/she keeps trying to overcome them. This is effortlessly transferred to real-life situations. 6.Develop New Talents: Technology can help unearth hitherto-hidden skills and talents in your child. From being exposed to playing certain musical instruments or skills such as painting on the screen of a tablet, for instance, your child can develop a keen interest which may see him/her becoming proficient at these activities. With the aid of technology which bridges the gap, you may not even have to pay the hefty fees of enrolling your child in a physical music or painting class to learn. There are loads of apps that your child can take advantage of to learn and become the next Mozart or Leonardo da Vinci. Early exposure to technology has the potential to unlock amazing new interests in your child which, coupled with the natural curiosity in kids, can transform your child into a whiz-kid. A note of caution: It is important to mention that parental supervision is key. A child should not be given a tablet without supervision. Handing over a tech device to your child requires a great level of responsibility so, as a parent, be sure to trust your instinct. However, the fact is allowing children have access to tech devices can benefit them in many ways. As a parent, you may understandably be nervous at first, but there are some real, tangible benefits to be had from exposing your child to tech devices such as tablets. Most experts recommend not more than a half hour of screen time per sitting for a child. This is bearing in mind that tablets may be addictive for children because it allows quick, instant access to everything in the real world. As long as parents do their best to monitor, protect, and prepare their children and usage doesn’t get out of hand, technology exposure can provide great opportunities for children to grow and develop that you may not have anticipated.

https://brandspurng.com/6-ways-your-child-can-benefit-from-early-exposure-to-technology/

Family

en

What Psychologists Do Industrial-organizational psychologists apply psychological research and methods to workplace issues. Psychologists study cognitive, emotional, and social processes and behavior by observing, interpreting, and recording how people relate to one another and to their environments. They use their findings to help improve processes and behaviors. Psychologists typically do the following: - Study behavior and brain function by observing, interviewing, and surveying individuals - Identify psychological, emotional, behavioral, or organizational issues and diagnose disorders - Research and identify behavioral or emotional issues, such as anxiety and depression - Test for patterns that will help them better understand and predict behavior - Discuss the results of testing with clients or their families and, if needed, develop treatment plans - Write articles, research papers, and reports to share findings Psychologists seek to understand and explain thoughts, emotions, and behavior. Through techniques such as observation, assessment, and experimentation, they try to gain a better understanding about how beliefs and feelings influence people. Psychologists often gather information and evaluate behavior through controlled laboratory experiments, psychoanalysis, or psychotherapy. They may administer personality, performance, aptitude, or intelligence tests. They look for patterns of behavior or relationships between events, and they use this information in their research or when treating clients. The following are examples of types of psychologists: Clinical and counseling psychologists assess, diagnose, and treat mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders. They help people deal with problems ranging from everyday issues to severe, chronic conditions. Clinical and counseling psychologists typically interview clients, administer diagnostic tests, and provide psychotherapy to individuals, families, and groups. They help clients identify their strengths and available resources to prevent or manage problems, and they design behavior modification plans that they help clients to implement. Clinical and counseling psychologists sometimes work with a specific population, such as older people, or focus on a specific condition, such as cognitive disorders. Some states permit clinical psychologists to prescribe medication. Industrial–organizational psychologists apply psychological principles to solve workplace problems and improve work-life quality. They study issues such as productivity, employee testing and selection, and organizational dynamics. They may work closely with top executives, training and development managers, and training and development specialists. School psychologists study strategies to address educational, behavioral, or developmental problems that impact students’ learning. They may design and implement performance plans, evaluate performance, and counsel students and families. They may consult with teachers, administrators, and other educators. Other psychologists include forensic psychologists, who work with judges, attorneys, and related specialists to understand the psychological aspects of a legal case; neuropsychologists, who study how dysfunction or damage to the brain, spine, or nerves affects behavior and cognition; and rehabilitation psychologists, who help foster independence in clients who have physical or developmental disabilities due to illness or injury. Psychologists are among several specialists who focus on mental and behavioral health. For more information about some of these specialists, see the profiles on psychiatrists, a type of physician; marriage and family therapists, substance abuse, behavioral disorder, and mental health counselors, and social workers.

https://www.bls.gov/ooh/life-physical-and-social-science/psychologists.htm

Education

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If God created the universe, who created God? The question “If God created the universe, who created God?” raises deep thoughts about existence and the nature of a divine being. In theological and philosophical discussions, we often wonder about what brought God into being when considering how the universe began. This question challenges us to think about causality and what we can understand. From a theological perspective, God is seen as eternal and uncaused, existing beyond time and space. This means God isn’t bound by the same rules that govern the physical world. The idea that God was not created is fundamental in theology. It suggests that God is the ultimate source of everything, beyond needing a creator. In this understanding, God is the “First Cause,” responsible for creating everything else. If we say God had a creator, then that creator becomes God instead. This would lead to an endless chain of creators, which doesn’t make sense. So, God is the one who created everything. Understanding how God came into existence is beyond our grasp, which is one reason why we see Him as God. To sum up, the question “If God created the universe, who created God?” makes us think deeply about God and existence. Theologically, God is seen as uncreated and eternal, not needing a creator. This encourages us to think about the mysteries of faith and our limits in understanding divine concepts. For God so loved humanity that he want humanity to spent eternal life with him, God took on a human body, fully human and fully divine, to reconcile humanity to Himself. We believe Jesus, who is God, offers eternal life to those who believe in Him. Maybe one day, we’ll understand the mystery of God’s existence afterlife in eternity, but for now, it’s beyond our understanding.

https://witfound.com/I

Romance

en

What is bipolar disorder? Bipolar disorder (formerly called manic-depressive illness or manic depression) is a mental illness that causes unusual shifts in a person’s mood, energy, activity levels, and concentration. These shifts can make it difficult to carry out day-to-day tasks. There are three types of bipolar disorder. All three types involve clear changes in mood, energy, and activity levels. These moods range from periods of extremely “up,” elated, irritable, or energized behavior (known as manic episodes) to very “down,” sad, indifferent, or hopeless periods (known as depressive episodes). Less severe manic periods are known as hypomanic episodes. - Bipolar I disorder is defined by manic episodes that last for at least 7 days (nearly every day for most of the day) or by manic symptoms that are so severe that the person needs immediate medical care. Usually, depressive episodes occur as well, typically lasting at least 2 weeks. Episodes of depression with mixed features (having depressive symptoms and manic symptoms at the same time) are also possible. Experiencing four or more episodes of mania or depression within 1 year is called “rapid cycling.” - Bipolar II disorder is defined by a pattern of depressive episodes and hypomanic episodes. The hypomanic episodes are less severe than the manic episodes in bipolar I disorder. - Cyclothymic disorder (also called cyclothymia) is defined by recurring hypomanic and depressive symptoms that are not intense enough or do not last long enough to qualify as hypomanic or depressive episodes. Sometimes a person might experience symptoms of bipolar disorder that do not match the three categories listed above, and this is referred to as “other specified and unspecified bipolar and related disorders.” Bipolar disorder is often diagnosed during late adolescence (teen years) or early adulthood. Sometimes, bipolar symptoms can appear in children. Although the symptoms may vary over time, bipolar disorder usually requires lifelong treatment. Following a prescribed treatment plan can help people manage their symptoms and improve their quality of life. Unless otherwise specified, the information on our website and in our publications is in the public domain and may be reused or copied without permission. However, you may not reuse or copy images. Please cite the National Institute of Mental Health as the source. Read our copyright policy to learn more about our guidelines for reusing NIMH content.

https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/bipolar-disorder/index.shtml

Romance

en

News Hub Creator 2d View pictures in App save up to 80% data. insomnia is when a person is not able to sleep at night or insufficient sleep if a person sleeps less than 5 hours at night. this is generally defined as a sleepless night. a lot of people experience some degree of insomnia every now and then. According to estimates, More than 30% of people in the developing country suffers from insomnia, insomnia is a chronic problem. There are many reasons why the odd sleepless night(insomnia) may occur. 1. going to bed late vs staying late at night: if you stay up at night watch television or doing some project. you will have to expose your eye to too much light, which will cause an increase in the levels of a hormone called melatonin in the body. 2. blood sugar: high blood sugar levels can impact your sleep. it may make you feel too warm. 3. snaking vs Eating meals: Eating late at night can may you not to sleep well at night. it takes a long hour for some food to process in your body. 4. working in excess: working without taking a break can make you not to sleep well, so take a break at all times. 5. worry, fear, and anxiety: fear or thinking of tomorrow has caused a lot of people not to sleep which become insomnia latter View pictures in App save up to 80% data. 6. disease: some diseases may cause you not to night well at night. the symptom of certain diseases like Parkinson’s disease, hyperthyroidism, and sleep apnea may cause your in the ability to sleep. . This hormone is responsible for the feeling of sleepiness and maintaining sleep. In modern life, less time is spent outdoors and the use of artificial lighting can cause disruptions in melatonin levels. This may cause sleepless nights. 7. Irregular sleep patterns as may occur with night shift work and traveling across different timezones can also affect sleep quality and duration. 8. Medication: Certain medications can also affect sleep patterns as a side effect. 9. Age: I know Insomnia in the elderly may occur secondary to various diseases but can also be associated with the physiological changes due to aging. However, when sleepless nights occur for long periods then you need to contact a doctor and get medical treatment. you can drop your comment.

https://www.operanewsapp.com/ng/en/share/detail?news_id=06f9c980bf6b72e61be26de8f9df619b&news_entry_id=s4f741073201020en_ng&open_type=tanscoded&request_id=3bc1ab45dead93aafe079edf9dcbdd42bc2be4a5&from=publisher

Health

en

The Roman Catholic Church portrays itself as the one legitimate heir to New Testament Christianity, and the pope as the successor to Peter, the first bishop of Rome. While those details are debatable, there is no question that Roman church history reaches back to ancient times. The apostle Paul wrote his letter to the Romans about AD 55 and addressed a church body that existed prior to his first visit there (but he made no mention of Peter, though he greeted others by name). Despite repeated persecutions by the government, a vibrant Christian community existed in Rome after apostolic times. Those early Roman Christians were just like their brethren in other parts of the world—simple followers of Jesus Christ. Things changed drastically when the Roman Emperor Constantine professed a conversion to Christianity in AD 312. He began to make changes that ultimately led to the formation of the Roman Catholic Church. He issued the Edict of Milan in 313, which granted freedom of worship throughout the empire. When doctrinal disputes arose, Constantine presided over the first ecumenical church council at Nicaea in AD 325, even though he held no official authority in the churches. By the time of Constantine’s death, Christianity was the favored, if not the official, religion of the Roman Empire. The term Roman Catholic was defined by Emperor Theodosius on February 27, 380, in the Theodosian Code. In that document, he refers to those who hold to the “religion which was delivered to the Romans by the divine Apostle Peter” as “Roman Catholic Christians” and gives them the official sanction of the empire. The fall of the Roman Empire and the rise of the Catholic Church are really two branches of the same story, as the power was transferred from one entity to the other. From the time of Constantine (AD 312) until the fall of the Roman Empire in 476, the emperors of Rome claimed a certain amount of authority within the church, even though it was disputed by many church leaders. During those formative years, there were many disputes over authority, structure, and doctrine. The emperors sought to increase their authority by granting privileges to various bishops, resulting in disputes about primacy within the churches. At the same time, some of the bishops sought to increase their authority and prestige by accusing others of false doctrine and seeking state support of their positions. Many of those disputes resulted in very sinful behavior, which are a disgrace to the name of Christ. Just like today, some of those who lived in the leading cities tended to exalt themselves above their contemporaries in the rural areas. The third century saw the rise of an ecclesiastical hierarchy patterned after the Roman government. The bishop of a city was over the presbyters, or priests, of the local congregations, controlling the ministry of the churches, and the Bishop of Rome began to establish himself as supreme over all. Though some historians tell these details as the history of “the church,” there were many church leaders in those days who neither stooped to those levels nor acknowledged any ecclesiastical hierarchy. The vast majority of churches in the first four centuries derived their authority and doctrine from the Bible and traced their lineage directly back to the apostles, not to the church of Rome. In the New Testament, the terms elder, pastor, and bishop are used interchangeably for the spiritual leaders of any church (see 1 Peter 5:1–3 where the Greek root words are translated “elders,” “feed,” and “oversight”). By the time Gregory became pope in AD 590, the empire was in shambles, and he assumed imperial powers along with his ecclesiastical authority. From that time on, the church and state were fully intertwined as the Holy Roman Empire, with the pope exercising authority over kings and emperors. What are the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church that distinguish it from other Christian churches? Whole books have been written on this subject, but a sampling of the doctrines will be outlined here. The bishops, with the pope as their head, rule the universal Church. God has entrusted revelation to the bishops. The pope is infallible in his teaching. Scripture and Tradition together are the Word of God. Mary is the co-redeemer, for she participated with Christ in the painful act of redemption. Mary is the co-mediator, to whom we can entrust all our cares and petitions. Initial justification is by means of baptism. Adults must prepare for justification through faith and good works. Grace is merited by good works. Salvation is attained by cooperating with grace through faith, good works, and participation in the sacraments. No one can know if he will attain eternal life. The Roman Catholic Church is necessary for salvation. Christ’s body and blood exist wholly and entirely in every fragment of consecrated bread and wine in every Roman Catholic church around the world. The sacrifice of the cross is perpetuated in the sacrifice of the Mass. Each sacrifice of the Mass appeases God’s wrath against sin. The sacrificial work of redemption is continually carried out through the sacrifice of the Mass. | Christ, the head of the body, rules the universal church (Colossians 1:18). God has entrusted revelation to the saints (Jude 3). God alone is infallible (Numbers 23:19; Acts 17:11). Scripture alone is the Word of God (John 10:35; 2 Timothy 3:16,17; 2 Peter 1:20,21; Mark 7:1-13). Christ alone is the Redeemer, for He alone suffered and died for sin (1 Peter 1:18,19). Christ Jesus is the one mediator to whom we can entrust all our cares and petitions (1 Timothy 2:5; John 14:13,14; 1 Peter 5:7). Justification is by faith alone (Romans 3:28). God justifies ungodly sinners who believe (Romans 4:5). Good works are the result of salvation, not the cause (Ephesians 2:8-10). Grace is a free gift (Romans 11:6). Salvation is attained by grace through faith apart from works (Ephesians 2:10). The believer can know that he has eternal life by the Word of God and the testimony of the Holy Spirit who indwells believers (1 John 5:13; Romans 8:16). There is salvation in no one but the Lord Jesus Christ, “for there is no other name under heaven that has been given among men by which we must be saved” (Acts 4:12). The bread and wine are symbols of the body and blood of Christ, and He is bodily present in heaven (1 Corinthians 11:23-25; Hebrews 10:12,13). The sacrifice of the cross is finished (John 19:30). The once-for-all sacrifice of the cross fully appeased God’s wrath against sin (Hebrews 10:12-18). The sacrificial work of redemption was finished when Christ gave His life for us on the cross (Ephesians 1:7; Hebrews 1:3). | These doctrines don’t date back all the way to Constantine, except for perhaps in seed form, but were slowly adopted over many years as various popes issued decrees. In many cases, the doctrines are not even based on Scripture but on a document of the church. Most Roman Catholics consider themselves to be Christians and are unaware of the differences between their beliefs and the Bible. Sadly, the Roman Catholic Church has fostered that ignorance by discouraging the personal study of the Bible and making the people reliant on the priests for their understanding of the Bible.

http://www.gotquestions.org/Roman-Catholicism.html#ixzz3C4GZMxsj

Religion

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Unless you're a real gear head, just seeing the phrase "positive crankcase ventilation" probably makes your head hurt, because it sounds, well, complicated. But it really isn't all that complicated. Or at least it shouldn't seem complicated after we've finished explaining it to you. But to do that, we're going to have to give you a quick refresher course in how the internal combustion engines found in most automobiles work. Okay -- one, two, three, go! An internal combustion engine is built around a series of hollow cylinders, in each of which is a moveable piston designed to glide up and down inside it. A mixture of air and gasoline is pumped through a system of tubes called the intake manifold through each cylinder's intake valve (or valves), where a spark from a spark plug causes the mixture to explode in the open space at the top of the cylinder called the combustion chamber. The pressure from this explosion drives the piston in the cylinder downward, where it causes the crankshaft to rotate. The rotation of the crankshaft not only pushes the piston back up into the cylinder so it can do all this again, but it also turns the gears within the car's transmission that eventually make the car move. Meanwhile, the rising piston pushes the air and gas left over from the explosion back out of the cylinder through an exhaust valve. However -- and this is where crankcase ventilation comes in -- a certain amount of that mixture of air and gasoline is pulled down by the piston and slips through the piston rings into the crankcase, which is the protective cover that insulates the crankshaft. This escaping gas is called blow-by and it's unavoidable. It's also undesirable because the unburned gasoline in it can gunk up the system and produce problems in the crankcase. Until the early 1960s, these blow-by gases were removed simply by letting air circulate freely through the crankcase, wafting away the gases and venting them as emissions. Then, in the early 1960s, positive crankshaft ventilation (PCV) was invented. This is now considered the beginning of automobile emission control. Positive crankcase ventilation involves recycling these gases through a valve (called, appropriately, the PCV valve) to the intake manifold, where they're pumped back into the cylinders for another shot at combustion. It isn't always desirable to have these gases in the cylinders because they tend to be mostly air and can make the gas-air mixture in the cylinders a little too lean -- that is, too low on gasoline -- for effective combustion. So the blow-by gases should only be recycled when the car is traveling at slow speeds or idling. Fortunately, when the engine is idling the air pressure in the intake manifold is lower than the air pressure in the crankcase, and it's this lower pressure (which sometimes approaches pure vacuum) that sucks the blow-by gases through the PCV valve and back into the intake. When the engine speeds up, the air pressure in the intake manifold increases and the suction slows down, reducing the amount of blow-by gas recycled to the cylinders. This is good, because the blow-by gases aren't needed when the engine speeds up. In fact, when the car is up to speed, the pressure in the intake manifold can actually become higher than the pressure in the crankcase, potentially forcing the blow-by gases back into the crankcase. Since the whole point of positive crankcase ventilation is to keep these gases out of the crankcase, the PCV valve is designed to close off when this happens and block the backflow of gases.

http://auto.howstuffworks.com/positive-crankcase-ventilation-system.htm

Car Talk

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- See also: Mein Kampf, Religious views of Adolf Hitler Adolf Hitler (adɔlf ˈhɪtlɐ; 20 April 1889 – 30 April 1945) was an Austrian-born German politician who was dictator of Germany from 1933 until his death in 1945. He rose to power as the leader of the Nazi Party, becoming the chancellor in 1933 and then taking the title of Führer ("Leader") in 1934. During his dictatorship, he initiated World War II in Europe by invading Poland on 1 September 1939. He was closely involved in military operations throughout the war and was central to the perpetration of the Holocaust: the genocide of about six million Jews and millions of other victims. - Antisemitism based on purely emotional grounds will always find its ultimate expression in the form of pogroms. A rational antisemitism, however, must lead to the systematic legal fight against and the elimination of the prerogatives of the Jew. ... Its ultimate goal, however, must unalterably be the elimination of the Jews altogether. - Letter (16 September 1919), quoted in Eberhard Jäckel, Hitler's World View: A Blueprint for Power (Harvard University Press, 1981), p. 48 - Our fight is with money. Work alone will help us, not money. We must smash interest slavery. Our fight is with the races that represent money. - Speech at the hall of Zum Deutschen Reich (December 18, 1919), quoted in Thomas Weber, Becoming Hitler: The Making of a Nazi (Basic Books, 2017), p. 138. Police report of DAP meeting, SAM, DPM/6697 - The common good before the individual good. (Gemeinnutz geht vor Eigennutz) - "The Nazi 25-point Programme," Hitler's speech on party's program (February 24, 1920) in Munich, Germany. Nazi Ideology Before 1933: A Documentation, Barbara Miller Lane, Leila J. Rupp, introduction and translation, Manchester University Press (1978) p. 43. - Socialism as the final concept of duty, the ethical duty of work, not just for oneself but also for one's fellow man's sake, and above all the principle: Common good before own good, a struggle against all parasitism and especially against easy and unearned income. And we were aware that in this fight we can rely on no one but our own people. We are convinced that socialism in the right sense will only be possible in nations and races that are Aryan, and there in the first place we hope for our own people and are convinced that socialism is inseparable from nationalism. - "Why We Are Anti-Semites" (August 15, 1920 speech in Munich at the Hofbräuhaus). Translated from Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, 16. Jahrg., 4. H. (October 1968), pp. 390-420. Edited by Carolyn Yeager. - There comes a time when it will be obvious that socialism can only be carried out accompanied by nationalism and antisemitism. - "Why We Are Anti-Semites" (August 15, 1920) Translated from Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, 16. Jahrg., 4. H. (October 1968), pp. 390-420. Edited by Carolyn Yeager. - If we are socialists, then we must definitely be anti-semites - and the opposite, in that case, is Materialism and Mammonism, which we seek to oppose... How, as a socialist, can you not be an anti-semite? - "Why We Are Anti-Semites," August 15, 1920 speech in Munich at the Hofbräuhaus. Translated from Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, 16. Jahrg., 4. H. (Oct., 1968), pp. 390-420. Edited by Carolyn Yeager. - For if the Jew has a racial determination, so have we, and we are also obliged to act accordingly. Because it seems inseparable from the social idea and we do not believe that there could ever exist a state with lasting inner health if it is not built on internal social justice, and so we have joined forces with this knowledge. - "Why We Are Anti-Semites," August 15, 1920 speech in Munich at the Hofbräuhaus. Translated from Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, 16. Jahrg., 4. H. (Oct., 1968), pp. 390-420. Edited by Carolyn Yeager. - Everyone was at one time a Social Democrat. - As quoted in Hitler: Sämtliche Aufzeichnungen 1905-1924, Eberhard Jäckel and Axel Kuhn, (editors) Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1980, p. 448 (quote from 1921) - The Jews have shown real genius in profiting by politics. This capitalistic people, which was brought into existence by the unscrupulous exploitation of men, has understood how to get the leadership of the Fourth Estate into its own hands; and by acting both on the Right and on the Left it has its apostles in both camps. On the Right the Jew does his best to encourage all the evils there are to such an extent that the man of the people, poor devil, will be exasperated as much as possible— greed of money, unscrupulousness, hard- heartedness, abominable snobbishness. More and more Jews have wormed their way into our upper-class families; and the consequence has been that the ruling class has been alienated from its own people. - As quoted in A History of National Socialism, Konrad Heiden, Methuen & Company, LTD, London: UK, 1934, p. 58. Speech in April, 1922 - There are only two possibilities in Germany; do not imagine that the people will forever go with the middle party, the party of compromises; one day it will turn to those who have most consistently foretold the coming ruin and have sought to dissociate themselves from it. And that party is either the Left: and then God help us! for it will lead us to complete destruction - to Bolshevism, or else it is a party of the Right which at the last, when the people is in utter despair, when it has lost all its spirit and has no longer any faith in anything, is determined for its part ruthlessly to seize the reins of power - that is the beginning of resistance of which I spoke a few minutes ago. Here, too, there can be no compromise - there are only two possibilities: either victory of the Aryan, or annihilation of the Aryan and the victory of the Jew. And if we ask who was responsible for our misfortune, then we must inquire who profited by our collapse. And the answer to that question is that 'Banks and Stock Exchanges are more flourishing than ever before.' We were told that capitalism would be destroyed, and when we ventured to remind one or the other of these famous statesmen and said 'Don't forget that Jews too have capital,' then the answer was: 'What are you worrying about? Capitalism as a whole will now be destroyed, the whole people will now be free. We are not fighting Jewish or Christian capitalism, we are fighting very capitalism: we are making the people completely free.' ... It is only the international Stock Exchange and loan- capital, the so-called 'supra-state capital,' which has profited from the collapse of our economic life, the capital which receives its character from the single supra-state nation which is itself national to the core, which fancies itself to be above all other nations, which places itself above other nations and which already rules over them. The international Stock Exchange capital would be unthinkable, it would never have come, without its founders the supra-national, because intensely national, Jews. We must on principle free ourselves from any class standpoint. 'NATIONAL' AND 'SOCIAL' ARE TWO IDENTICAL CONCEPTIONS. It was only the Jew who succeeded, through falsifying the social idea and turning it into Marxism, not only in divorcing the social idea from the national, but in actually representing them as utterly contradictory. I am perhaps more capable than anyone else of understanding and realizing the nature and the whole life of the various German castes. THERE ARE NO SUCH THINGS AS CLASSES: THEY CANNOT BE. Class means caste and caste means race. If there are castes in India, well and good; there it is possible, for there there were formerly Aryans and dark aborigines. So it was in Egypt and in Rome. But with us in Germany where everyone who is a German at all has the same blood, has the same eyes, and speaks the same language, here there can be no class, here there can be only a single people and beyond that nothing else. At the founding of this Movement we formed the decision that we would give expression to this idea of ours of the identity of the two conceptions: despite all warnings, on the basis of what we had come to believe, on the basis of the sincerity of our will, we christened it "National Socialist.' We said to ourselves that to be 'national' means above everything to act with a boundless and all-embracing love for the people and, if necessary, even to die for it. And similarly to be 'social' means so to build up the state and the community of the people that every individual acts in the interest of the community of the people and must be to such an extent convinced of the goodness, of the honorable straightforwardness of this community of the people as to be ready to die for it. - Once I really am in power, my first and foremost task will be the annihilation of the Jews. As soon as I have the power to do so, I will have gallows built in rows—at the Marienplatz in Munich, for example—as many as traffic allows. Then the Jews will be hanged indiscriminately, and they will remain hanging until they stink; they will hang there as long as the principles of hygiene permit. As soon as they have been untied, the next batch will be strung up, and so on down the line, until the last Jew in Munich has been exterminated. Other cities will follow suit, precisely in this fashion, until all Germany has been completely cleansed of Jews. - Statement to Josef Heil, 1922 quoted in Gerald Fleming, Hitler and the Final Solution pg. 17 - The Treaty of Versailles and the Treaty of St Germain are kept alive by Bolshevism in Germany. The Peace Treaty and Bolshevism are two heads of one monster. We must decapitate both. In my scheme of the German state, there will be no room for the alien, no use for the wastrel, for the usurer or speculator, or anyone incapable of productive work. Socialism is the science of dealing with the common weal. Communism is not Socialism. Marxism is not Socialism. The Marxians have stolen the term and confused its meaning. I shall take Socialism away from the Socialists. Socialism is an ancient Aryan, Germanic institution. Our German ancestors held certain lands in common. They cultivated the idea of the common weal. Marxism has no right to disguise itself as socialism. Socialism, unlike Marxism, does not repudiate private property. Unlike Marxism, it involves no negation of personality, and unlike Marxism, it is patriotic. We might have called ourselves the Liberal Party. We chose to call ourselves the National Socialists. We are not internationalists. Our socialism is national. We demand the fulfilment of the just claims of the productive classes by the state on the basis of race solidarity. To us state and race are one. - Wenn deine Mutter alt geworden, und älter du geworden bist, wenn ihr, was früher leicht und mühlos, nunmehr zur Last geworden ist, wenn ihre lieben, treuen Augen, nicht mehr wie einst ins Leben seh'n, wenn ihre Füße, kraftgebrochen, sie nicht mehr tragen woll'n mein Geh'n, dann reich ihr deinen Arm zur Stütze, geleite sie mit froher Lust, die Stunde kommt, da du sie weinend zum letzten Gang begleiten musst. Und fragt sie dich, so gib ihr Antwort, und fragt sie wieder, - sprich auch du, und fragt sie nochmals, - steh' ihr Rede, nicht ungestüm, in sanfter Ruh! Und kann sie dich nicht recht verstehen, erklär ihr alles frohbewegt, die Stunde kommt, die bitt're Stunde, da dich ihr Mund nach nichts mehr frägt. - When your mother has grown old and with her so have you, When that which once came easy has at last become a burden, When her loving, true eyes no longer see life as once they did When her weary feet no longer want to wear her as she stands, then reach an arm to her shoulder, escort her gently, with happiness and passion The hour will come, when you, crying, must take her on her final walk. And if she asks you, then give her an answer And if she asks you again, listen! And if she asks you again, take in her words not impetuously, but gently and in peace! And if she cannot quite understand you, explain all to her gladly For the hour will come, the bitter hour when her mouth will ask for nothing more. - Adolf Hitler, "Denk' es!" (Be Reminded!) 1923, first published in Sonntag-Morgenpost (14 May 1933). - When your mother has grown old - I alone bear the responsibility. But I am not a criminal because of that. If today I stand here as a revolutionary, it is as a revolutionary against the revolution. There is no such thing as high treason against the traitors of 1918. - At his trial, 24 February 1924 - If the National Socialist Movement should fail to understand the fundamental importance of this essential principle [race], if it should merely varnish the external appearance of the present State and adopt the majority principle, it would really do nothing more than compete with Marxism on its own ground. - Mein Kampf, Volume 2, Chapter IV, "Personality and the Ideal of the People's State," Trans. Marco Roberto, MVR, 2015, p. 33, first published 1926 - [I]t is absolutely wrong to infer any ideal sense of sacrifice in the Jews from the fact that they stand together in struggle, or, better expressed, in the plundering of their fellow men. - Mein Kampf, as quoted in Anthropology as Ethics: Nondualism and the Conduct of Sacrifice (2009), by T. M. S. Evens, p. 320 - As long as the Jew has not succeeded in mastering other peoples he is forced to speak their language whether he likes it or not. But the moment that the world would become the slave of the Jew it would have to learn some other language so that by this means the Jew could dominate all the more easily. - Mein Kampf, Chapter "Nation and Race" - His [the Jewish person's] life is only of this world, and his spirit is inwardly as alien to true Christianity as his nature two thousand years previous was to the great founder of the new doctrine. Of course, the latter made no secret of his attitude toward the Jewish people, and when necessary he even took to the whip to drive from the temple of the Lord this adversary of all humanity, who then as always saw in religion nothing but an instrument for his business existence. In return, Christ was nailed to the cross, while our present-day party Christians debase themselves to begging for Jewish votes at elections and later try to arrange political swindles with atheistic Jewish parties — and this against their own nation. - Mein Kampf, p. 307, first published 1926 - Even today I am not ashamed to say that, overpowered by stormy enthusiasm, I fell down on my knees and thanked Heaven from an overflowing heart for granting me the good fortune of being permitted to live at this time. - Mein Kampf, Chapter "The World War" - We reject the political aims of the industrialists. - Speech at the May 1927 NSDAP provincial congress in Stuttgart, quoted in Dietrich Orlow, The Nazi Party 1919-1945: A Complete History, Enigma Books (2010), p. 61 - It is impossible that a non-Jew would be able in the long run to compete with the Jews in a Jewish area (of business). At least for the Aryan it is impossible. There are peoples who are able to do so, like the Greeks and the Armenians. Sure, these peoples have come so far that they are able to economically even defeat the Jew. However, by doing this they have become Jews themselves. They have these specific, disgraceful characteristics we condemn in the Jews. - "Rede auf Generalmitgliederversammlung der NSDAP/NSDAV e.V. in München," doc. no. 159 (July 30, 1927), in Institut für Zeitgeschichte, ed., Hitler: Reden, Schriften, Anordnungen, Februar 1925 bis Januar 1933, vol. 2, pt. 2 (Munich: K. G. Saur, 1992), 429. - I believe that I have enough energy to lead our people whither it must shed its blood [zum blutigen Einsatz], not for an adjustment of its boundaries, but to save it into the most distant future by securing so much land and space that the future will receive back many times the blood shed. - Speech (23 May 1928), quoted in Gerhard L. Weinberg, 'The world through Hitler's eyes', in Germany, Hitler, and World War II: Essays in Modern German and World History (Cambridge University Press, 1996), p. 51 - I am a German nationalist. This means that I proclaim my nationality. My whole thought and action belongs to it. I am a socialist. I see no class and no social estate before me, but that community of the Folk, made up of people who are linked by blood, united by a language, and subject to a same general fate. I love this Folk and hate only its majority of the moment, because I view the latter to be just as little representative of the greatness of my Folk as it is of its happiness. - The National Socialist Movement, on the contrary, will always let its foreign policy be determined by the necessity to secure the space necessary to the life of our Folk. It knows no Germanising or Teutonising, as in the case of the national bourgeoisie, but only the spread of its own Folk. It will never see in the subjugated, so called Germanised, Czechs or Poles a national, let alone Folkish, strengthening, but only the racial weakening of our Folk. - The Folkish State, conversely, must under no conditions annex Poles with the intention of wanting to make Germans out of them some day. On the contrary, it must muster the determination either to seal off these alien racial elements, so that the blood of its own Folk will not be corrupted again, or it must without further ado remove them and hand over the vacated territory to its own National Comrades. - Jewry is a Folk with a racial core that is not wholly unitary. Nevertheless, as a Folk, it has special intrinsic characteristics which separate it from all other Folks living on the globe. Jewry is not a religious community, but the religious bond between Jews; rather is in reality the momentary governmental system of the Jewish Folk. The Jew has never had a territorially bounded State of his own in the manner of Aryan States. Nevertheless, his religious community is a real State, since it guarantees the preservation, the increase and the future of the Jewish Folk. But this is solely the task of the State. That the Jewish State is subject to no territorial limitation, as is the case with Aryan States, is connected with the character of the Jewish Folk, which is lacking in the productive forces for the construction and preservation of its own territorial State. - Because of the lack of productive capacities of its own, the Jewish Folk cannot carry out the construction of a State, viewed in a territorial sense, but as a support of its own existence it needs the work and creative activities of other nations. Thus the existence of the Jew himself becomes a parasitical one within the lives of other Folks. Hence the ultimate goal of the Jewish struggle for existence is the enslavement of productively active Folks. In order to achieve this goal, which in reality has represented Jewry's struggle for existence at all times, the Jew makes use of all weapons that are in keeping with the whole complex of his character. Therefore in domestic politics within the individual nations he fights first for equal rights and later for superior rights. The characteristics of cunning, intelligence, astuteness, knavery, dissimulation, and so on, rooted in the character of his Folkdom, serve him as weapons thereto. They are as much stratagems in his war of survival as those of other Folks in combat. In foreign policy, he tries to bring nations into a state of unrest, to divert them from their true interests, and to plunge them into reciprocal wars, and in this way gradually rise to mastery over them with the help of the power of money and propaganda. His ultimate goal is the denationalisation, the promiscuous bastardisation of other Folks, the lowering of the racial levy of the highest Folks, as well as the domination of this racial mishmash through the extirpation of the Folkish intelligentsia and its replacement by the members of his own Folk. - Politics is history in the making. - Zu einer solchen weisen Maßnahme waren einst Spart[j]aken [sie] fähig, aber nicht unser heutiges, verlogen sentimentales, bürgerlich-patriotisches Zeug. Die Herrschaft der 6000 Spartaner über 3 1/2 Hunderttausend Heloten war nur denkbar infolge des rassischen Hochwertes der Spartaner. Dieser aber war das Ergebnis einer planmäßigen Rasseerhaltung, so daß wir im spartanischen Staat den ersten völkischen zu sehen haben. Die Aussetzung kranker, schwächlicher, mißgestalteter Kinder, d. h. also deren Vernichtung, war menschenwürdiger und in Wirklichkeit tausendmal humaner als der erbärmliche Irrsinn unserer heutigen Zeit, die krankhaftesten Subjekte zu erhalten, und zwar um jeden Preis zu erhalten, und hunderttausend gesunden Kindern infolge der Geburtenbeschränkung oder durch Abtreibungsmittel das Leben zu nehmen, in der Folgezeit aber ein Geschlecht von mit Krankheiten belasteten Degeneraten heranzuzüchten. - At one time the Spartans were capable of such a wise measure, but not our present, mendaciously sentimental, bourgeois patriotic nonsense. The rule of six thousand Spartans over three hundred and fifty thousand Helots was only thinkable in consequence of the high racial value of the Spartans. But this was the result of a systematic race preservation; thus Sparta must be regarded as the first Völkisch State. The exposure of sick, weak, deformed children, in short their destruction, was more decent and in truth a thousand times more humane than the wretched insanity of our day which preserves the most pathological subject, and indeed at any price, and yet takes the life of a hundred thousand healthy children in consequence of birth control or through abortions, in order subsequently to breed a race of degenerates burdened with illnesses. - As translated in Hitler's Secret Book (1961) Grove Press edition, pp. 8-9, 17-18 - What right do these people have to demand a share of property or even in administration?... The employer who accepts the responsibility for production also gives the workpeople their means of livelihood. Our greatest industrialists are not concerned with the acquisition of wealth or with good living, but, above all else, with responsibility and power. They have worked their way to the top by their own abilities, and this proof of their capacity – a capacity only displayed by a higher race – gives them the right to lead. - Adolf Hitler to Max Amann, May 1930 quotes in A History of National Socialism (Responding to Fascism Vol 2) - To put it quite clearly: we have an economic programme. Point No. 13 in that programme demands the nationalisation of all public companies, in other words socialisation, or what is known here as socialism. ... the basic principle of my Party's economic programme should be made perfectly clear and that is the principle of authority... the good of the community takes priority over that of the individual. But the State should retain control; every owner should feel himself to be an agent of the State; it is his duty not to misuse his possessions to the detriment of the State or the interests of his fellow countrymen. That is the overriding point. The Third Reich will always retain the right to control property owners. If you say that the bourgeoisie is tearing its hair over the question of private property, that does not affect me in the least. Does the bourgeoisie expect some consideration from me?... Today's bourgeoisie is rotten to the core; it has no ideals any more; all it wants to do is earn money and so it does me what damage it can. The bourgeois press does me damage too and would like to consign me and my movement to the devil. I will tolerate no opposition. We recognize only subordination – authority downwards and responsibility upwards. You just tell the German bourgeoisie that I shall be finished with them far quicker than I shall with Marxism... When once the conservative forces in Germany realize that only I and my party can win the German proletariat over to the State and that no parliamentary games can be played with Marxist parties, then Germany will be saved for all time, then we can found a German Peoples State. Over the last forty years the German bourgeoisie has been a lamentable failure; it has not given the German people a single leader; it will have to bow without gainsaying to the totality of my ideology... The bourgeoisie rules by intrigue, but it can have no foothold in my movement because we accept no Jews or Jewish accomplices into our Party.- Hitler's interview with Richard Breiting, 1931, published in Edouard Calic, ed., "First Interview with Hitler,4 May 1931," Secret Conversations with Hitler: The Two Newly-Discovered 1931 Interviews, New York: John Day Co., 1971, pp. 36-37. Also published under the title Unmasked: Two Confidential Interviews with Hitler in 1931 published by Chatto & Windus in 1971 - What matters is to emphasize the fundamental idea in my party's economic program clearly; the idea of authority. I want the authority; I want everyone to keep the property he has acquired for himself according to the principle: 'Benefit to the community precedes benefit to the individual.' But the state should retain supervision and each property owner should consider himself appointed by the state. It is his duty not to use his property against the interests of others among his own people. This is the crucial matter. The Third Reich will always retain its right to control the owners of property. - In 1931, as quoted in Nazi Economics: Ideology, Theory, and Policy (1990), by Avraham Barkai, pp. 26–27 - This whole edifice of civilization is in its foundations and in all its stones nothing else than the result of the creative capacity, the achievement, the intelligence, the industry, of individuals: in its greatest triumphs it represents the great crowning achievement of individual God-favored geniuses, in its average accomplishment the achievement of men of average capacity, and in its sum doubtless the result of the use of human labor-force in order to turn to account the creations of genius and of talent. So it is only natural that when the capable intelligences of a nation, which are always in a minority, are regarded only as of the same value as all the rest, then genius, capacity, the value of personality are slowly subjected to the majority and this process is then falsely named the rule of the people. For this is not rule of the people, but in reality the rule of stupidity, of mediocrity, of half-heartedness, of cowardice, of weakness, and of inadequacy. Thus it must be admitted that in the economic sphere, from the start, in all branches men are not of equal value or of equal importance. And once this is admitted it is madness to say: in the economic sphere there are undoubtedly differences in value, but that is not true in the political sphere. It is absurd to build up economic life on the conceptions of achievement, of the value of personality, and therefore in practice the authority of personality, but in the political sphere to deny the authority of personality and to thrust into this place the law of the greater number — democracy.- Speech to the Industry Club (21 January 1932) as quoted in The Speeches of Adolf Hitler, April 1922 – August 1939 (1994) by Norman Hepburn Baynes, Oxford University Press, p.787 - I am a socialist because it seems incomprehensible to me to care for and treat a machine with care, but to allow the noblest representative of work, man himself, to degenerate. - Mein Programm, April 2, 1932. Quoted in Hitler: Reden, Schriften, Anordnungen, Februar 1925 bis Januar 1933, vol. 11, (Munich: K. G. Saur, 1992), p. 12. - ...lift up your hearts and draw new faith from the resurrection of our people... Ultimately we shall live to see the kingdom of freedom, honour and social justice. Long live Germany! - Speech at the Lustgarten in Berlin, April 4, 1932. As quoted in Hitler's Berlin: Abused City, Thomas Friedrich, Yale University Press, 2012, p. 272. - The November parties have ruined the German peasantry in fourteen years. In fourteen years they have created an army of millions of unemployed. The National Government will, with iron determination and unshakable steadfastness of purpose, put through the following plan: Within four years the German peasant must be rescued from the quagmire into which he has fallen. Within four years unemployment must be finally overcome. At the same time the conditions necessary for a revival in trade and commerce are provided. The Marxist parties and their lackeys have had fourteen years to show what they can do. The result is a heap of ruins. Now, people of Germany, give us four years and then pass judgment upon us. In accordance with Field Marshal von Hindenburg's command we shall begin now. May God Almighty give our work His blessing, strengthen our purpose, and endow us with wisdom and the trust of our people, for we are fighting not for ourselves but for Germany.- Speech in Berlin, 1 February 1933 - And now Staatsprasident Bolz says that Christianity and the Catholic faith are threatened by us. And to that charge I can answer: In the first place it is Christians and not international atheists who now stand at the head of Germany. I do not merely talk of Christianity, no, I also profess that I will never ally myself with the parties which destroy Christianity. If many wish today to take threatened Christianity under their protection, where, I would ask, was Christianity for them in these fourteen years when they went arm in arm with atheism? No, never and at no time was greater internal damage done to Christianity than in these fourteen years when a party, theoretically Christian, sat with those who denied God in one and the same Government. - Speech in Stuttgart, 15 February 1933 - I am for force, because in force I see strength, and in strength the eternal mother of rights, and in rights the root of life itself. - Speech (11 March 1933), quoted in Martin Gilbert, Sir Horace Rumbold: Portrait of a Diplomat, 1869–1941 (1973), p. 171 and The Times (22 March 1933), p. 15 - Weighing the sacrifices of the last war, we want to be true friends of a peace which will at last heal the wounds from which all have suffered. - Speech in Potsdam (21 March 1933), quoted in The Times (26 September 1939), p. 9 - Late you come, yet you do come!... You should have recognized the beneficial power of criticism when we were in the opposition. Back then, you had not yet been confronted with these words; back then our press was verboten and verboten and again verboten; our assemblies were banned; we were not allowed to speak, and I was not allowed to speak -- and that went on for years! And now you say criticism is beneficial! - Speech in the Reichstag (23 March 1933) on the passing of the Enabling Act of 1933. Hitler is responding to Otto Wels, leader of the Social Democrats, who had made a speech in favour of "criticism", i.e. freedom of political opposition. - Hitler opens his response with a quotation from Schiller, "Spät kommt ihr, doch ihr kommt!" - In a most generous and humane manner you, Mr. Field Marshal, plead the cause of those members of the Jewish people who were once compelled, by the requirements of universal military service, to serve in the war. I entirely understand these lofty sentiments, Mr. Field Marshal. But, with the greatest respect, may I point out that members and supporters of my movement, who are Germans, for years were driven from all government positions, without consideration for their wives and children or their war service... Those responsible for this cruelty were the same Jewish [political] parties which today complain when their supporters are denied the right to official positions, with a thousand times more justification, because they are of little use in these positions but can do limitless harm... - In general, the primary aim of this cleansing process is only to restore a certain sound and natural balance, and, secondly, to remove from official positions of national significance those elements to which one cannot entrust Germany's survival or destruction. For it will not be possible to avoid, in the next few years, [the need] to make sure that certain processes which must not be communicated to the rest of the world for reasons of the highest national interest, will indeed remain secret. This can only be guaranteed by the inner homogeneity of the administrative bodies concerned. - Letter to President Hindenberg, (April 5th 1933) - We want to earn the renewed ascent of the nation by honest means, through our industry, our persistence, our unshakable will! We are not asking of the Almighty, “Lord, make us free!” We want to take an active part, to work, to accept one another as brothers and unite in a common struggle so that one day the hour will come when we can step before the Lord and have the right to ask of Him, “Lord, You can see that we have changed. The German Volk is no longer a Volk of infamy, shame, self-reproach, faintheartedness, and little faith. No, Lord, the German Volk is once again strong in its will, strong in its persistence, strong in bearing any sacrifice. Lord, we will not give You up! Now bless our fight for our freedom and thus our German Volk und Vaterland!”- Speech in Lustgarten, Berlin, 1 May 1933 - No fresh European war is capable of putting something better in the place of unsatisfactory conditions which exist to-day. ... The outbreak of such madness without end would lead to the collapse of existing social order in Europe. ... The German Government are convinced that to-day there can be only one great task, and that it to assure the peace of the world. ... The German Government wish to settle all difficult questions with other Governments by peaceful methods. ... The German people have no thought of invading any country. - Speech in Berlin (17 May 1933), quoted in The Times (26 September 1939), p. 9 - We do not want a war merely for the purpose of bringing to Germany people who simply do not want to be, or cannot be, Germans. - Broadcast (27 May 1933), quoted in The Times (26 September 1939), p. 9 - I have sympathy for Mr. Roosevelt, because he marches straight toward his objectives over Congress, lobbies and bureaucracy." Hitler went on to note that he was the sole leader in Europe who expressed "understanding of the methods and motives of President Roosevelt." - The New York Times (July 1933), as quoted from: Adolf Hitler: The Definitive Biography New York, NY, Anchor Books, Doubleday (1992) p. 312n - There is no better guarantee for the peace of the world than the fanatical unity of the German people. - Speech in Kelheim (22 October 1933), quoted in The Times (26 September 1939), p. 9 - There are Germans and Poles in Europe, and they ought to live together in agreement. The Poles cannot think of Europe without the Germans and the Germans cannot think of Europe without the Poles. - Speech in Berlin (24 October 1933), quoted in The Times (26 September 1939), p. 9 - When an opponent declares, 'I will not come over to your side, and you will not get me on your side,' I calmly say, 'Your child belongs to me already. A people lives forever. What are you? You will pass on. Your descendants however now stand in the new camp. In a short time they will know nothing else but this new community.' - Statement by Hitler at Elbing, Germany, Voelkischer Beobachter Berlin edition, (6 November 1933) Vol. V p. 198, and William L. Shirer, The Rise of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany, Simon & Schuster, 2011, p. 249 - I am not crazy enough to want a war. ... The German people have but one wish—to be happy in their own way and to be left in peace. They do not interfere in other people's business, and others should not interfere in theirs. ... When has the German people ever broken its word? - Speech in Berlin (10 November 1933), quoted in The Times (26 September 1939), p. 9 - The struggle between the people and the hatred amongst them is being nurtured by very specific interested parties. It is a small, rootless, international clique that is turning the people against each other, that does not want them to have peace. It is the people who are at home both nowhere and everywhere, who do not have anywhere a soil on which they have grown up, but who live in Berlin today, in Brussels tomorrow, Paris the day after that, and then again in Prague or Vienna or London, and who feel at home everywhere. [Man in audience shouts 'Jews!'] They are the only ones who can be addressed as international elements, because they conduct their business everywhere, but the people cannot follow them. The people are bounded to their soil, bounded to its fatherland, bounded to the possibilities of life that the state, the nation, offers. - The National Socialist racial idea and the science underlying it do not lead to the underrating or disparagement of other nations but rather to the recognition of the duty to preserve and maintain the life of our own people. Hence it leads inevitably to a natural respect for the life and character of other peoples. It thus frees foreign political activities from those attempts to subjugate other peoples in order to rule them or to incorporate them as a mere numerical mass in one's own nation by imposing a foreign language upon them. This new idea entails equally great and fanatical devotion to the life and hence to the honour and freedom of one's own people as it does respect for the honour and freedom of others. This idea can therefore provide an essentially better basis to the effort for a true pacification of the world than the sorting of the nations into groups of victors and vanquished, of those with rights and of those subjugated without rights, from mere considerations of strength. - Speech to the Reichstag, January 30, 1934 [Source: 'Hitler's Speeches (The Speeches of Adolf Hitler: April 1922 - August 1939): An English translation of representative passages arranged under subjects and edited by Norman H. Baynes', Oxford University Press, issued under the auspices of the Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1942. Foreign Policy, vol. II, p. 1158. - We do not wish to interfere with the rights of others, to restrict the lives of other peoples, to oppress or subjugate other people. - Speech in Lippe (14 January 1934), quoted in The Times (26 September 1939), p. 9 - National Socialism derives from each of the two camps the pure idea that characterizes it, national resolution from bourgeois tradition; vital, creative socialism from the teaching of Marxism. - Interview by Hanns Johst in Frankforter Volksblatt (January 27, 1934), quoted in David Schoenbaum, Hitler's Social Revolution: Class and Status in Nazi Germany, 1933–1939 (New York: NY, W. W. Norton & Company, 1997), p. 57 - If we want a strong Germany, you must one day be strong, too. If we want a powerful Germany, you, too, must one day be powerful. If we want an honorable Germany, you must one day uphold this honor. If we want order in Germany, you must maintain this order. If we want to once again create a loyal Germany, you yourselves must learn to be loyal. You are the Germany of the future, and thus we want you to be what this Germany of the future must and will be. - Speech at a youth rally in Berlin, 1 May 1934 - The hammer will once more become the symbol of the German worker and the sickle the sign of the German peasant,... - May Day Speech at Tempelhof Air Field, Berlin (1 May 1934), Adolf Hitler: Collection of Speeches 1922-1945, ReichsMilitariaCom; 1st edition (2016), p. 184 - We have a great aim before us; a mighty work of reform of ourselves and our lives, of our life in common, of our economy, of our culture. This work does not disturb the rest of the world. We have enough to do in our own house. - Speech in Gera (17 June 1934), quoted in The Times (26 September 1939), p. 9 - Mutinies are crushed in accordance with eternal and unchanging iron laws. - Speech in the Reichstag (13 July 1934) on the Night of the Long Knives, quoted in Stephen H. Roberts, The House That Hitler Built (1945), p. 115 - And so long as but a single one of us can draw breath he will devote to this Movement his powers and will champion its cause just as in the years which lie behind us. One cannot become disloyal to that which has given to the whole of life its content, its meaning, and its purpose. It was a great distress and a mighty behest which seized upon us. A thing like this would never have been created out of nothing if a great command had not lain at the foundation of this work. And it was no earthly superior who gave us that command; that was given us by the God Who created our people and Who cannot will that His work should go to ruin only because a single generation had grown feeble. - Speech from the Sixth Nazi Party Congress, Nuremberg (7 September 1934), quoted in Norman H. Baynes (ed.), The Speeches of Adolf Hitler, April 1922 – August 1939, vol. 1, pt. 3 (Oxford University Press, 1994), p. 662 - It shall always be only a fraction of the people who stand out as truly active fighters, and more is expected from them than from the millions of their fellow countrymen. For them, the mere pledge of "I believe" is not enough, but rather the oath: "I fight!" - Speech from the Sixth Nazi Party Congress, Nuremberg (8 September 1934) . Video footage of this quotation can be found in the film Triumph of the Will - Speech from the Sixth Nazi Party Congress, Nuremberg (8 September 1934) . - What a man sacrifices in struggling for his Volk, a woman sacrifices in struggling to preserve this Volk in individual cases. What a man gives in heroic courage on the battlefield, woman gives in eternally patient devotion, in eternally patient suffering and endurance. Every child to which she gives birth is a battle which she wages in her Volk's fateful question of to be or not to be. - Speech from the Sixth Nazi Party Congress, Nuremberg (8 September 1934), quoted in Hitler: speeches and proclamations, 1932-1945 - Volume 2 - Page 533 - Germany will on her side never break the peace. Germany wishes to be on an honourable footing with the neighbour peoples. - Interview with George Ward Price of the Daily Mail (17 January 1935), quoted in Ivone Kirkpatrick, The Inner Circle (1959), p. 67 - That was not always the case. In 1813 the German Army was prohibited by treaty. Yet I do not recollect that at Waterloo Wellington said to Blücher: "Your army is illegal; kindly leave the field." - Reply to the British Foreign Secretary, John Simon, who told Hitler that the British liked to see treaties observed (c. 24–27 March 1935), quoted in Ivone Kirkpatrick, The Inner Circle (1959), p. 68 - The Germany of today is a National Socialist State. The ideology that dominates us is in diametrical contradiction to that of Soviet Russia. National Socialism is a doctrine that has reference exclusively to the German people. Bolshevism lays stress on international mission. We National Socialists believe a man can, in the long run, be happy only among his own people. We are convinced the happiness and achievements of Europe are indissolubly tied up with the continuation of the system of independent and free national States. Bolshevism preaches the establishment of a world empire and recognizes only section of a central international. We National Socialists grant each people the right to its own inner life according to its needs and its own nature. Bolshevism, on the other hand, establishes doctrinal theories that are to be accepted by all peoples, regardless of their particular essence, their special nature, traditions, etc. National Socialism speaks up for the solution of social problems, issues and tensions in their own nation, with methods that are consistent with our common human, spiritual, cultural and economic beliefs, traditions and conditions. Bolshevism preaches the international class struggle, the international world revolution with the weapons of the terror and the violence. National Socialism fights for the reconciliation and consequent adjustment of the differences in life and the union of all for common benefits. Bolshevism teaches the overcoming of an alleged class rule by the dictatorship of the power of a different class. National Socialism does not attach importance to a only theoretical rule of the working class, but especially on the practical improvement of their living conditions and standard of living. Bolshevism fights for a theory and, for it, sacrifices millions of people, immense values of traditional culture and traditions, and achieves, compared with us, only a very low standard of living for all. As National Socialists, our hearts are full with admiration and respect for the great achievements of the past, not only in our own people but also far beyond. We are happy to belong to an European cultural community that has so tremendously embossed today's world with a stamp of its mind. Bolshevism rejects this cultural achievement of mankind, claiming that has found the beginning of the real cultural and human history in the year of birth of Marxism. We, National Socialists, do not want to be of the same opinion as our church organizations in this or that organizational question. But we never want a lack of belief in religion or any faith, and do not wish that our churches become club-houses or cinemas. Bolshevism teaches the godlessness and acts accordingly. We National Socialists see in private property a higher level of human economic development that according to the differences in performance controls the management of what has been accomplished enabling and guaranteeing the advantage of a higher standard of living for everyone. Bolshevism destroys not only private property but also private initiative and the readiness to shoulder responsibility. It has not been able to save millions of human beings from starvation in Russia, the greatest Agrarian State in the world. It would be unthinkable to transfer such a catastrophe into Germany, because, at the end of the day, in Russia there are 10 city dwellers for every 90 country dwellers, but in Germany for only 25 farmers there are 75 city dwellers. National Socialists and Bolshevists both are convinced they are a world apart from each other and their differences can never be bridged. Apart from that, there were thousands of our people slain and maimed in the fight against Bolshevism. If Russia likes Bolshevism it is not our affair, but if Bolshevism casts its nets over to Germany, then we will fight it tooth and nail. - Speech made at the Reichstag (21 May 1935) Found in Translation of Herr Hitler's Speech to the German Reichstag on May 21, 1935 Foreign Office Press. German version. Published in the Windsor Star and The Gazette in May 22, 1935. - Germany has nothing to win in any European war. What we want is freedom and independence. Because of this desire we were ready to conclude pacts of non-aggression with all our neighbours. - Speech in the Reichstag (21 May 1935), quoted in The Times (22 May 1935), p. 18 - Germany neither intends nor wishes to interfere in the internal affairs of Austria, to annex Austria, or to conclude an Anschluss. - Speech in the Reichstag (21 May 1935), quoted in The Times (26 September 1939), p. 9 - Why do we call the whole world's attention to the fact that we have no past? It isn't enough that the Romans were erecting great buildings when our forefathers were still living in mud huts; now Himmler is starting to dig up these villages of mud huts and enthusing over every potsherd and stone axe he finds. All we prove by that is that we were still throwing stone hatchets and crouching around open fires when Greece and Rome had already reached the highest stage of culture. We really should do our best to keep quiet about this past. Instead Himmler makes a great fuss about it all. The present-day Romans must be having a laugh at these revelations. - Expounding his view on Himmler's heritage projects, formally pursued by the Ahnenerbe movement launched in July 1935, as quoted in Inside the Third Reich: Memoirs by Albert Speer, translated by Richard Winston and Clara Winston (New York: Macmillan, 1970), pp. 94-95 - Today women’s battalions were being formed in Marxist countries, and to that one could only reply, “That will never happen here! There are things a man does, and he alone is responsible for them. I would be ashamed to be a German man if ever, in the event of war, but a single woman were made to go to the front.” The woman had her own battlefield. With every child to which she gave birth for the nation, she was waging her battle for the nation. The man stands up for the Volk just as woman stands up for the family. A woman’s equal rights lie in the fact that she is treated with the high regard she deserves in those areas of life assigned to her by nature. - Address to the German women in Nuremberg, 13 September 1935 - We want this people to be faithful, and you must learn fidelity. We want this people to be obedient, and you must practice obedience. We want this people to be peace-loving but also courageous, and you must therefore be peace-loving and at the same time courageous. We do not want this people to grow soft, but we want it to be hard so that it will be able to withstand the hardships of life. And for this you have to harden yourselves in your youth. You must learn to be hard, to stand privations without breaking down. We want this people to love honor and you already in the days of your youth must live up to this concept of honor. - Speech (14 September 1935), quoted in Gordon W. Prange (1945). Hitler's Words. New York: American Council on Public Affairs, p. 124. - We have undertaken to give the German people an education that begins already in youth and will never come to an end. It starts with the child and will end with the 'old fighter'. Nobody will be able to say that he has a time in which he is left entirely alone to himself. - Nuremberg Party Rally (14 Sept. 1935) Quoted in Hitler: Speeches and Proclamations, 1931-1945, Chronicle of a Dictatorship, Max Domarus (ed.), Vol. 2, London, p. 701. - Germany is the bulwark of the West against Bolshevism, and, in combating it, will meet terror with terror and violence with violence. - Speech in Berlin (29 November 1935), quoted in The Times (26 September 1939), p. 9 - It is our will that this state shall endure for a thousand years. We are happy to know that the future is ours entirely! - We want this people to be hard, not soft, and you must steel yourselves for it in your youth! - We want a society with neither castes nor ranks and you must not allow these ideas to grow within you! - Our party remains as firm as this rock and will not be divided by any force in Germany. - When our party had only seven men, it already had two principles. First, it wanted to be a party with a true ideology. And second, it wanted to be the one and only power in Germany. - All upright Germans will be National Socialists, but only the best National Socialists will be party members! - It is not the state which commands us, but we who command the state. - We want to be a peace-loving element among the nations. We cannot repeat that often enough. - Speech in Berlin (30 January 1936), quoted in The Times (26 September 1939), p. 9 - The German people do not wish to continue waging war to readjust frontiers. Each readjustment is bought by sacrifices out of proportion to what is to be gained. - Speech in Berlin (15 March 1936), quoted in The Times (26 September 1939), p. 10 - I have been guided always by the principle that German freedom has nothing to do with injury to others. ... It is one of the most elementary principles that nations should allow each other to live within their own territories as they wish to live. - Speech in Berlin (22 March 1936), quoted in The Times (26 September 1939), p. 10 - Whenever I stand up for the German peasant, it is for the sake of the Volk. I have neither ancestral estate nor manor... I believe I am the only statesman in the world who does not have a bank account. I hold no stock, I have no shares in any companies. I do not draw any dividends. - Speech to the Krupp Locomotive factory workers in Essen (27 March 1936), quoted in Michael Burleigh, The Third Reich: A New History (Hill and Wang), 2001, p. 246 - Germany has no claims to make against the European nations except to live exactly like the others. ... What we have in mind is a legal order of European national states with equal rights. - Speech in Cologne (28 March 1936), quoted in The Times (26 September 1939), p. 10 - The lie goes forth again that Germany to-morrow or the other day will fall upon Austria or Czecho-Slovakia. - Speech in Berlin (1 May 1936), quoted in The Times (26 September 1939), p. 10 - The menace was Bolshevism. It was difficult to make people realize this, they think it is a fanatical obsession, but it was a real danger of which people should take account. It was as great a phenomenon in history and its menace to the national states of Europe as great as the migration of peoples, e.g. Mohammedan. It was necessary for Western Europe to stand together as a block against this danger. - Remarks to David Lloyd George (4 September 1936), quoted in Thomas Jones, A Diary with Letters. 1931-1950 (Oxford University Press, 1954), p. 245 - I only acknowledge one nobility—that of labour. - Quoted in the Nazi Party official newspaper Völkischer Beobachter (November 21, 1936), Richard Grunberger, The 12-year Reich: A Social History of Nazi Germany 1933–1945 (1971) p. 47 - The main plank in the National Socialist program is to abolish the liberalistic concept of the individual and the Marxist concept of humanity and to substitute therefore the folk community, rooted in the soil and bound together by the bond of its common blood. - On National Socialism and World Relations, speech in the German Reichstag (January 30, 1937). German translation published by H. Müller & Sohn in Berlin. - Is there a nobler or more excellent kind of Socialism and is there a truer form of Democracy than this National Socialism which is so organized that through it each one among the millions of German boys is given the possibility of finding his way to the highest office in the nation, should it please Providence to come to his aid. - Speech by Adolf Hitler, On National Socialism and World Relations, delivered in the German Reichstag (January 30, 1937). German translation published by H. Müller & Sohn in Berlin. - And numerous people whose families belong to the peasantry and working classes are now filling prominent positions in this National Socialist State. Some of them actually hold the highest offices in the leadership of the nation, as Cabinet Ministers, Reichsstatthalter and Gauleiter. But National Socialism always bears in mind the interests of the people as a whole and not the interests of one class or another. The National Socialist Revolution has not aimed at turning a privileged class into a class which will have no rights in the future. Its aim has been to grant equal rights to those social strata that hitherto were denied such rights. - Speech by Adolf Hitler, On National Socialism and World Relations, delivered in the German Reichstag (January 30, 1937). German translation published by H. Müller & Sohn in Berlin. - After four years from that date I now face the German people and you, gentlemen and members of the Reichstag, to give an account of what has been accomplished. On this occasion I do not think you will withhold your sanction from what the National Socialist Government has done and you will agree that I have fulfilled the promises I made four years ago. - Speech to the Reichstag, 30 January 1937 - There can be but one German Youth Movement, because there is but one way in which German youth can be educated and trained... This Reich stands, and is building itself up anew, upon its youth. And this Reich will hand over its youth to no one, but will take its education and its formation upon itself. - Speech on May 1, 1937, quoted in John S. Conway, The Nazi Persecution of the Churches, 1933-45 (New York, NY, Basic Books, 1968), p. 178 - We have set before ourselves the task of inoculating our youth ... at a very early age. ... This new Reich will give its youth to no one, but will itself take youth and give to youth its own education and its own upbringing. - As quoted in The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany, William L. Shirer, Simon & Schuster Paperbacks, New York, 1990, p. 249 (May 1, 1937) - "Works of art" which cannot be understood in themselves but, for the justification of their existence, need those bombastic instructions for their use, finally reaching that intimidated soul, who is patiently willing to accept such stupid or impertinent nonsense—these works of art from now on will no longer find their way to the German people. - Speech inaugurating the first Great German Art Exhibition on July 18, 1937, translated by Ilse Falk and quoted in Herschel B. Chipp, Theories of Modern Art: A Source Book by Artists and Critics (University of California Press, 1968), p. 479 - I have observed among the pictures submitted here, quite a few paintings which make one actually come to the conclusion that the eye shows things differently to certain human beings than the way they really are, that is, that there really are men who see the present population of our nation only as rotten cretins; who, on principle, see meadows blue, skies green, clouds sulphur yellow, and so on, or, as they say, experience them as such. I do not want to enter into an argument here about the question of whether the persons concerned really do or do not see or feel in such a way; but, in the name of the German people, I want to forbid these pitiful misfortunates who quite obviously suffer from an eye disease, to try vehemently to foist these products of their misinterpretation upon the age we live in, or even to wish to present them as "Art." - Speech inaugurating the first Great German Art Exhibition on July 18, 1937, translated by Ilse Falk and quoted in Herschel B. Chipp, Theories of Modern Art: A Source Book by Artists and Critics (University of California Press, 1968), p. 480 - There is a difference between the theoretical knowledge of socialism and the practical life of socialism. People are not born socialists, but must first be taught how to become them. - "German Volksgenossen!" Hitler's opening speech at the new Winterhilfswerk, Deutschlandhalle, Berlin (October 5, 1937). Also quoted in The Third Reich: A New History by Michael Burleigh - Shoot Gandhi, and if that does not suffice to reduce them to submission, shoot a dozen leading members of Congress; and if that does not suffice, shoot 200 and so on until order is established. You will see how quickly they will collapse as soon as you make it clear that you mean business. - Remarks to British government minister Lord Halifax at Berchtesgaden (19 November 1937), quoted in Ivone Kirkpatrick, The Inner Circle (1959), p. 97 and Andrew Roberts, 'The Holy Fox': The Life of Lord Halifax (1997), p. 72 - There are more than ten million Germans in two states, and in the Great War they fought side by side with German soldiers. Against their will they have been prevented from union with the Reich. Political separation, however, does not justify the disregard of national self-determination. Just as Britain stands up for her interests all over the globe, so Germany will know how to guard her more restricted interests. To these interests of the German Reich belongs the protection of those German peoples along our frontiers who are not in a position to secure their general human, political, and Weltanschauliche freedom by their own efforts. - Speech in the Reichstag (20 February 1938), quoted in Stephen H. Roberts, The House That Hitler Built (1945), p. 375 - The German people is no warlike nation. It is a soldierly one which means it does not want a war but does not fear it. It loves peace, but it also loves its honor and freedom. The new Reich shall belong to no class, no profession, but to the German people. It shall help the people find an easier road in this world. It shall help them in making their lot a happier one. Party, state, armed forces, economics are institutions and functions which can only be estimated as a means toward an end. They will be judged by history according to the services they render toward this goal. Their purpose, however, is to serve the people. I now pray to God that he will bless in the years to come our work, our deeds, our foresight, our resolve; that the almighty may protect us from both arrogance and cowardly servility, that he may help us find the right way which he has laid down for the German people and that he may always give us courage to do the right thing and never to falter or weaken before any power or any danger. Long live Germany and the German people!- Speech to the Reichstag, 20 February 1938 - Does anyone believe that there is an international conscience? - Speech in Leipzig (27 March 1938), quoted in Stephen H. Roberts, The House That Hitler Built (1945), p. 383 - Atatürk was the first to show that it is possible to mobilize and regenerate the resources that a country has lost. In this respect Atatürk was a teacher; Mussolini was his first and I his second student. - Meeting with a delegation of Turkish politicians and journalists (20 April 1938), quoted in Stefan Ihrig, Atatürk in the Nazi Imagination (2014), p. 116 - The motto must be, "Never war again." - Speech in Berlin (1 May 1938), quoted in The Times (26 September 1939), p. 10 - We are not interested in suppressing other nations. We do not want to see other nations among us. We want to live our own life. ... Germany and Poland are two nations, and these nations will live, and neither of them will be able to do away with the other. ... We have assured all our immediate neighbours of the integrity of their territory as far as Germany is concerned. That is no hollow phrase: it is our sacred will. ... The Sudetenland is the last territorial claim which I have to make in Europe. ... I have assured Mr. Chamberlain, and I emphasize it now, that when this problem is solved Germany has no more territorial problems in Europe. - Speech in Berlin (26 September 1938), quoted in The Times (26 September 1939), p. 10 - Now, as a strong State, we can be ready to pursue a policy of understanding with surrounding States. We want nothing from them. We have no wishes or demands; we desire peace. ... No other people can need peace more than we. - Speech in Saarbrücken (9 October 1938), quoted in The Times (26 September 1939), p. 10 - God helps only those who are prepared and determined to help themselves. - Speech in Weimar, 6 November 1938 - As a peace-loving man, I have made every effort to give the German nation the defence and the weapons which are appropriate to persuade others also for peace. A hedgehog never attacks another animal except when it is attacked. No one should come near us. We want only our quiet and the right to live. - Speech in Weimar (6 November 1938), quoted in The Times (26 September 1939), p. 10 - 'Socialist' I define from the word 'social; meaning in the main 'social equity'. A Socialist is one who serves the common good without giving up his individuality or personality or the product of his personal efficiency. Our adopted term 'Socialist' has nothing to do with Marxian Socialism. Marxism is anti-property; true socialism is not. Marxism places no value on the individual, or individual effort, of efficiency; true Socialism values the individual and encourages him in individual efficiency, at the same time holding that his interests as an individual must be in consonance with those of the community. All great inventions, discoveries, achievements were first the product of an individual brain. It is charged against me that I am against property, that I am an atheist. Both charges are false. - Speech given on December 4, 1938, quoted in The Speeches of Adolf Hitler: April 1922-August 1939, translator and editor Norman Hepburn Baynes, vol. one, Oxford University Press, (1942) pg. 93 at - There are people who have a true talent to spoil my every joy. - regarding Martin Bormann according to Heinrich Hoffman in his book "Hitler as I Saw Him", after Bormann forbid Bernile Nienau from appearing in Hoffman's magazine Berghof and Hoffman complained about it to Hitler - We are going to destroy the Jews. They are not going to get away with what they did on 9 November 1918. The day of reckoning has come. - To the Czechoslovakian foreign minister (January 21, 1939) quoted in Sarah Ann Gordon, Hitler, Germans, and the "Jewish Question" pg. 130 - When the statesmen of other countries threaten us with all kinds of economic counter measures I can only give the assurance that in such a case a desperate economic struggle would ensue which would be easy for us to carry out, easier for us than for the over-satisfied nations, because our leading idea would be a very simple one: The German nation must live—that means export or die. - Speech to the Reichstag (30 January 1939), quoted in The Times (31 January 1939), p. 14 - In the course of my life I have very often been a prophet, and have usually been ridiculed for it. During the time of my struggle for power it was in the first instance only the Jewish race that received my prophecies with laughter when I said that I would one day take over the leadership of the State, and with it that of the whole nation, and that I would then among other things settle the Jewish problem. Their laughter was uproarious, but I think that for some time now they have been laughing on the other side of their face. Today I will once more be a prophet: if the international Jewish financiers in and outside Europe should succeed in plunging the nations once more into a world war, then the result will not be the Bolshevizing of the earth, and thus the victory of Jewry, but the annihilation of the Jewish race in Europe! - Speech to the Reichstag, (30 January 1939), as quoted at The History Place. - We are rearming, but do not dream of attacking other nations, providing they leave us alone. ... We have given Central Europe a great fortune—namely, peace, which is protected by the German might. - Speech in Wilhelmshaven (1 April 1939), quoted in The Times (26 September 1939), p. 10 - The judgment whether a people is virtuous or not virtuous can hardly be passed by a human being. That should be left to God. - Speech delivered at Wilhelmshaven 1 April 1939; My New Order. New York: Reynal & Hitchcock. p. 621. - The liberty of the individual ends where it starts to harm the interests of the collective. - Speech in the Lustgarten, Berlin (1 May 1939) - Everything I undertake is directed against Russia. If the West is too stupid and blind to grasp this, then I shall be compelled to come to an agreement with Russia, beat the West and then after their defeat turn against the Soviet Union with all my forces. I need the Ukraine so that they can't starve us out, as happened in the last war. - Discussion with Jacob Burckhardt, League of Nation commissioner. Quoted in Norman Rich, Hitler's War Aims: Ideology, the Nazi State, and the Course of Expansion pg. 126 - What is important is that our Volk overcomes the aggressor and hence wins a future for itself. In a few weeks, the National Socialist combat readiness must have transformed itself into a unity sworn unto life and death. And then the capitalist war agitators in England and its satellite states shall shortly realize what it means to have attacked Europe's greatest Volk state without proper cause. - As quoted in Hitler: Speeches and Proclamations by Max Domarus - England, unlike in 1914, will not allow herself to blunder into a war lasting for years... Such is the fate of rich countries... Not even England has the money nowadays to fight a world war. What should England fight for? You don't get yourself killed for an ally. - 14 August 1939, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich by William L. Shirer - Our enemies are men below average, not men of action, not masters. They are little worms. I saw them at Munich. - Speech to his generals at the Berghof (22 August 1939), quoted in John W. Wheeler-Bennett, The Nemesis of Power: The German Army in Politics 1918-1945 (London: Macmillan, 1964), p. 447 - In view of the gravity of the situation, I wish to make a statement which I would like you to forward to M. Daladier. As I have already told him, I bear no enmity whatever towards France. I have personally renounced all claims to Alsace-Lorraine and recognized the Franco-German frontier. I do not want war with your country; my one desire is to maintain good relations with it. I find indeed the idea that I might have to fight France on account of Poland a very painful one. The Polish provocation, however, has placed the Reich in a position which cannot be allowed to continue. Several months ago I made extremely fair proposals to Poland, demanding the return of Danzig to the Reich and of a narrow strip of territory leading from this German city to East Prussia. But the guarantee given by the British Government has encouraged the Poles to be obstinate. Not only has the Warsaw Government rejected my proposals, but it has subjected the German minority, our blood-brothers, to the worst possible treatment, and has begun mobilization. At first, I forbade the Press of the Reich to publish accounts of the cruelties suffered by the Germans in Poland. But the situation has now become intolerable. Are you aware, that there have been cases of castration? That already there are more than 70,000 refugees in our camps? Yesterday seven Germans were killed by the police in Bielitz, and thirty German reservists were machine-gunned at Lodz. Our aeroplanes can no longer fly between Germany and East Prussia without being shot at; their route had been changed, but they are now even attacked over the sea. Thus, the plane which was carrying State Secretary Stuckart was fired at by Polish warships, a fresh incident which I was not yet in a position to bring to the notice of Sir Nevile Henderson this morning. No nation worthy of the name can put up with such unbearable insults. France would not tolerate it any more than Germany. These things have gone on long enough, and I will reply by force to any further provocations. I want to state once again: I wish to avoid war with your country. I will not attack France, but if she joins in the conflict, I will see it through to the bitter end. As you are aware, I have just concluded a pact with Moscow that is not only theoretical, but, I may say, practical. I believe I shall win, and you believe you will win: what is certain is that above all French and German blood will flow, the blood of two equally courageous peoples. I say again, it is painful to me to think we might come to that. Please tell this to President Daladier on my behalf.- 25 August 1939 summary conveyed by M. COULONDRE, French Ambassador in Berlin, to M. GEORGES BONNET, Minister for Foreign Affairs - To the defense forces: The Polish nation has refused my efforts for a peaceful regulation of neighborly relationsl instead it has appealed to weapons. - reported 1 September 1939 (the full proclamation available via the TimesMachine) in The New York Times "Hitler Gives Word" special cable from Otto D. Tolischus who was later awarded the Pulitzer prize in 1940 "for his dispatches from Berlin" (referenced in page 28 of 2021 book The Gray Lady Winked) - We know that the English people in their entirety cannot be held responsible for all this. Rather it is the aforesaid Jewish-plutocratic and democratic upper class who would like to conceive of the rest of the world as obedient slaves; who hate our new Reich because it sees it as a pioneer of social work which it fears might infect their countries as well. - Speech, "Appeal to the German Volk!" Adolf Hitler: Collection of Speeches 1922-1945 (3 September 1939) p. 621 - Declaration of war against Poland at the start of the Invasion of Poland, and what became World War II · Full English translation online - I am determined to solve (1) the Danzig question; (2) the question of the Corridor; and (3) to see to it that a change is made in the relationship between Germany and Poland that shall ensure a peaceful co-existence. In this I am resolved to continue to fight until either the present Polish government is willing to continue to bring about this change or until another Polish Government is ready to do so. I am resolved to remove from the German frontiers the element of uncertainty, the everlasting atmosphere of conditions resembling civil war. I will see to it that in the East there is, on the frontier, a peace precisely similar to that on our other frontiers. In this I will take the necessary measures to se that they do not contradict the proposals I have already made known in the Reichstag itself to the rest of the world, that is to say, I will not war against women and children. I have ordered my air force to restrict itself to attacks on military objectives. If, however, the enemy thinks he can form that draw carte blanche on his side to fight by the other methods he will receive an answer that will deprive him of hearing and sight. - This night for the first time Polish regular soldiers fired on our territory. Since 5.45 A.M. we have been returning the fire, and from now on bombs will be met by bombs. Whoever fight with poison gas will be fought with poison gas. Whoever departs from the rules of humane warfare can only expect that we shall do the same. I will continue this struggle, no matter against whom, until the safety of the Reich and its rights are secured. - What they hate is the Germany which sets a dangerous example for them, this social Germany. It is the Germany of a social labor legislation which they already hated before the World War and which they still hate today. It is the Germany of social welfare, of social equality, of the elimination of class differences—this is what they hate! They hate this Germany which in the course of seven years has labored to afford its Volksgenossen a decent life. They hate this Germany which has eliminated unemployment, which, in spite of all their wealth, they have not been able to eliminate. This Germany which grants its laborers decent housing—this is what they hate because they have a feeling their own peoples could be "infected" thereby. They hate this Germany of social legislation, this Germany which celebrates the first of May as the day of honest labor. - Speech "Party Comrades! My German Volksgenossen! at the Bürgerbräukeller in Munich (8 November 1939) pp. 664-665 - The Non-Aggression and Mutual Assistance Pact with the Soviet Union constituted the most outstanding feature of the year now past. From the outset, the attempt of the plutocratic statesmen of the West to pit Germany and Russia against each other was foiled;... [T]he reactionary Jewish warmongers in the capitalist democracies were not willing to let this opportunity to destroy Germany pass: too long had they prepared for this. For years they had waited for this hour. These Herren warmongers wanted war: they were to get it. - Speech, "New Year's Proclamation to the National Socialists and Party Comrades", Adolf Hitler: Collection of Speeches 1922-1945 (1 January 1940) pp. 678-679 - Then the spirits of our fallen comrades shall rise from their graves to thank all those whose courage and loyalty have now once more atoned for the sins committed in an hour of weakness against them and against our Volk. Let our avowal of faith on this day be a solemn oath: the war forced upon the Greater German Reich by the capitalist rulers of France and England must be transformed into the most glorious victory in German history! - Speech in the Berlin Zeughaus (March 10, 1940) p. 699 - The blood of every single Englishman is too valuable to shed. Our two peoples belong together racially and traditionally. That is and always has been my aim, even if our generals can't grasp it. - Said when the Dunkirk halt order was given, quoted in Hitler, Germans, and the "Jewish Question" by Sarah Ann Gordon, May 1940[page needed] - The National Socialist Movement has, besides its delivery from the Jewish capitalist shackles imposed by a plutocratic-democratic, dwindling class of exploiters at home, pronounced its resolve to free the Reich from the shackles of the Diktat of Versailles abroad. The German demands for a revision were an absolute necessity, a matter of course for the existence and the honor of any great people. Posterity will some day come to regard them as exceedingly modest. I was scolded for my peace proposal, even personally insulted. Mr. Chamberlain virtually spat in my face before the world public and declined to even talk of peace... And it was thus that the big capitalist clique of war profiteers cried for a continuation of the war. And this continuation has now begun.- Speech to the Reichstag "Deputies, Men of the German Reichstag!" (July 19, 1940) pp. 712-713 - We want to build up a new state! That is why the others hate us so much today. They have often said as much. They said: "Yes, their social experiment is very dangerous! If it takes hold, and our own workers come to see this too, then this will be highly disquieting. It costs billions and does not bring any results. It cannot be expressed in terms of profit, nor of dividends. What is the point?! We are not interested in such a development. We welcome everything which serves the material progress of mankind insofar as this progress translates into economic profit. But social experiments, all they are doing there, this can only lead to the awakening of greed in the masses. Then we will have to descend from our pedestal. They cannot expect this of us." And we were seen as setting a bad example. Any institution we conceived was rejected, as it served social purposes. They already regarded this as a concession on the way to social legislation and thereby to the type of social development these states loathe. They are, after all, plutocracies in which a tiny clique of capitalists dominate the masses, and this, naturally, in close cooperation with international Jews and Freemasons. - Speech at the Berlin Sportpalast on the opening of the Kriegswinterhilfswerk, September 4, 1940, Adolf Hitler collection of speeches 1922-1945 - After mastering its internal divisions, National Socialist Germany has proceeded step by step to cast off its enslavement.... Nevertheless, the Jewish-internationalist capitalists in connection with socially reactionary classes in the Western States have successfully roused the world democracies against Germany. - As quoted in The Third Reich: A New History by Michael Burleigh, p.1909 - After the conquest of England, the British Empire would be apportioned as a gigantic world-wide estate in bankruptcy of forty million square kilometres. In this bankrupt estate there would be for Russia access to the ice-free and really open ocean. Thus far, a minority of forty-five million Englishmen had ruled six hundred million inhabitants of the British Empire. He was about to crush this minority.... Under these circumstances there arose world-wide perspectives.... All the countries which could possibly be interested in the bankrupt estate would have to stop all controversies among themselves and concern themselves exclusively with the partition of the British Empire. This applied to Germany, France, Italy, Russia and Japan. - To Vyacheslav Molotov, 13 November 1940, quoted in The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich - After all, there are two worlds which confront each other. And they are right when they say: 'We can never reconcile ourselves to the National Socialist world.' For how could a narrow-minded capitalist possibly declare his agreement with my principles? It would be easier for the devil to go to church and take holy water. - "Speech To Workers of Berlin," (Rheinmetall-Borsig works), Adolf Hitler: Collection of Speeches 1922-1945 (December 10, 1940) p. 747 - The creation of a socially just state, a model society that would continue to eradicate all social barriers. - In those countries, it is actually capital that rules; that is, nothing more than a clique of a few hundred men who possess untold wealth and, as a consequence of the peculiar structure of their national life, are more or less independent and free. They say: 'Here we have liberty.' By this they mean, above all, an uncontrolled economy, and by an uncontrolled economy, the freedom not only to acquire capital but to make absolutely free use of it. That means freedom from national control or control by the people both in the acquisition of capital and in its employment. This is really what they mean when they speak of liberty. These capitalists create their own press and then speak of the 'freedom of the press.' In reality, every one of the newspapers has a master, and in every case this master is the capitalist, the owner. This master, not the editor, is the one who directs the policy of the paper. If the editor tries to write other than what suits the master, he is ousted the next day. This press, which is the absolutely submissive and characterless slave of the owners, molds public opinion. Yes, certainly, we jeopardize the liberty to profiteer at the expense of the community, and, if necessary, we even abolish it. All my life I have been a 'have-not.' At home I was a 'have-not.' I regard myself as belonging to them and have always fought exclusively for them. I defended them and, therefore, I stand before the world as their representative.- Speech to the Workers of Berlin (10 December 1940) (Wikisource) - Truly, this earth is a trophy cup for the industrious man. And this rightly so, in the service of natural selection. He who does not possess the force to secure his Lebensraum in this world, and, if necessary, to enlarge it, does not deserve to possess the necessities of life. He must step aside and allow stronger peoples to pass him by. - Speech to officer cadets at the Berlin Sportpalast, 18 December 1940. Domarus, Max (1997). Hitler: Speeches and Proclamations, 1932-1945 (English Volume III: 1939-1940). Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers. p. 2162. ISBN 0865166277. - quotes from unspecified earlier dates per Otto Strasser, Boston, MA, Houghton Mifflin Company (1940) - I am a socialist, and a very different kind of socialist from your rich friend Reventlow. I was once an ordinary workingman... But your kind of socialism is nothing but Marxism. - p. 106 - A strong State will see that production is carried on in the national interests, and, if these interests are contravened, can proceed to expropriate the enterprise concerned and take over its administration. - pp. 113-114 - The German world, as well as the Italian world, has overcome the age of the privileges of a few plutocratic capitalists and has replaced it with the age of the people. If Mr. Churchill and his appendage now declare that they cannot live in such a world, then they will not destroy the German world as a result, but instead, sooner or later, their own leaders will fall and thus give the people their freedom. In the struggle of plutocratic privilege against the National Socialist people's rights (Volksrechte), the latter will succeed! With this belief, we enter the year 1941. - Speech, "New Year's Proclamation to the National Socialists and Party Comrades", Adolf Hitler: Collection of Speeches 1922-1945 (January 1, 1941) pp. 763-764 - And justice is on the side of those nations that fight for their threatened existence. And this struggle for existence will spur these nations on to the most tremendous accomplishments in world history. If profit is the driving force for production in the democracies—a profit that industrialists, bankers, and corrupt politicians pocket—then the driving force in National Socialist Germany and Fascist Italy is the realization by millions of laborers that, in this war, it is they who are being fought against. They realize that the democracies, if they should ever win, would rage with the full capitalist cruelty, that cruelty of which only those are capable whose only god is gold, who know no human sentiments other than their obsession with profit, and who are ready to sacrifice all noble thought to this profit instinct without hesitation... This struggle is not an attack on the rights of other nations, but on the arrogance and avarice of a narrow capitalist upper class, one which refuses to acknowledge that the days are over when gold ruled the world, and that, by contrast, a future is dawning when the people will be the determining force in the life of a nation. - Speech, "New Year's Proclamation to the National Socialists and Party Comrades", Adolf Hitler: Collection of Speeches 1922-1945 (January 1, 1941) pp. 764-765 - Germany's economic policy is conducted exclusively in accordance with the interests of the German people. In this respect I am a fanatical socialist, one who has ever in mind the interests of all his people. - I purchase the necessities of life with the productive power of German workmen. The results of our economic policy speak for us, not for the gold standard people. For we, the poor have abolished unemployment because we no longer pay homage to this madness, because we regard our entire economic existence as a production problem and no longer as a capitalistic problem. We placed the whole organized strength of the nation, the discipline of the entire nation, behind our economic policy. We explained to the nation that it was madness to wage internal economic wars between the various classes, in which they all perish together. - Speech on the "21st Anniversary of the National Socialist Party" (24 February 1941) - It is already war history how the German Armies defeated the legions of capitalism and plutocracy. After forty-five days this campaign in the West was equally and emphatically terminated. - What the world did not deem possible the German people have achieved.... It is already war history how the German Armies defeated the legions of capitalism and plutocracy. After forty-five days this campaign in the West was equally and emphatically terminated. - "Adolf Hitler's Order of the Day Calling for Invasion of Yugoslavia and Greece," Berlin, (April 6, 1941), The New York Times, April 7, 1941 - My party at the time consisted of ninety per cent of people from the left. - Monologue on Nov. 30, 1941, Rainer Zitelmann, “The role of anti-capitalism in Hitler's world view,” Wiley Online Library, Nov. 13, 2022, Hitler, A. (1980b), p. 146, Monologe im Führerhauptquartier 1941–1944 (ed. W. Jochmann). Albrecht Knaus Verlag. - For over five years this man has been chasing around Europe like a madman in search of something he could set on fire. Unfortunately he again and again finds hirelings who open the gates of their country to this international incendiary. - speaking about Winston Churchill at the Reichstag, 4 May 1941 . - Turkey had been our ally in the World War. Its unfortunate result was as heavy a burden for Turkey as it was for us. The great and ingenious reconstructor of the new Turkey gave his Allies, beaten by fate, the first example of resurrection. While Turkey, thanks to the realistic attitude of her State leadership, preserved her independent attitude Yugoslavia fell a victim to British intrigues. - speaking about Turkey and Mustafa Kemal Atatürk at the Reichstag on 4 May 1941. - The war against Russia will be such that it cannot be conducted in a knightly fashion. This struggle is one of ideologies and racial differences and will have to be conducted with unprecedented, unmerciful, and unrelenting harshness. All officers will have to rid themselves of obsolete ideologies. I know that the necessity for such means of waging war is beyond the comprehension of you generals but . . . I insist absolutely that my orders be executed without contradiction. - Speaking about the invasion of Russia . - I, on the other hand, have tried for two decades to build a new socialist order in Germany, with a minimum of interference and without harming our productive capacity. - Hitler's "Barbarossa" Proclamation, (June 22, 1941) - German people, in this very hour a movement of troops is taking place which in its extent and magnitude is the greatest that the world has ever seen. ... The task of this front is no longer the protection of individual countries but the safety of Europe and the salvation of us all. I have therefore decided to-day once again to entrust the fate and the future of the German Reich and of our nation to the hands of our soldiers. May our Lord God aid us in this greatest of all struggles. - Proclamation (22 June 1941), quoted in The Times (23 June 1941), p. 3 - When National Socialism has ruled long enough, it will no longer be possible to conceive of a form of life different from ours. In the long run, National Socialism and religion will no longer be able to exist together.- 11-12 July 1941, quoted in Hitler's Table Talk, 1941–1944 - The heaviest blow that ever struck humanity was the coming of Christianity. Bolshevism is Christianity's illegitimate child. Both are inventions of the Jew. The deliberate lie in the matter of religion was introduced into the world by Christianity. Bolshevism practises a lie of the same nature, when it claims to bring liberty to men, whereas in reality it seeks only to enslave them. In the ancient world, the relations between men and gods were founded on an instinctive respect. It was a world enlightened by the idea of tolerance. Christianity was the first creed in the world to exterminate its adversaries in the name of love. Its key-note is intolerance. Without Christianity, we should not have had Islam. The Roman Empire, under Germanic influence, would have developed in the direction of world-domination, and humanity would not have extinguished fifteen centuries of civilisation at a single stroke. Let it not be said that Christianity brought man the life of the soul, for that evolution was in the natural order of things.- 11-12 July 1941, quoted in Hitler's Table Talk, 1941–1944 - If I had known that the figures for Russian tank strength which you gave in your book were in fact the true ones, I would not—I believe—ever have started this war. - Said to General Heinz Guderian, 4 August 1941, as quoted Panzer Leader (1952) by Heinz Guderian - [T]he raw materials and agriculture of the Ukraine were vitally necessary for the future prosecution of the war. ... [the Crimea is] that Soviet aircraft carrier for attacking the Rumanian oilfields. ... My generals know nothing about the economic aspects of war. - Remarks to General Guderian (23 August 1941), quoted in Heinz Guderian, Panzer Leader (1952), p. 200 - I did not want this struggle. Since January, 1933, when Providence entrusted me with the leadership of the German Reich, I had an aim before my eyes which was essentially incorporated in the program of our National Socialist party. I have never been disloyal to this aim and have never abandoned my program... Only when the entire German people become a single community of sacrifice can we expect and hope that Almighty God will help us. The Almighty has never helped a lazy man. He does not help the coward. He does not help a people that cannot help itself. The principle applies here, help yourselves and Almighty God will not deny you his assistance. - Radio broadcast from Berlin, 3 October 1941. - By virtue of an inherent law, these riches belong to him who conquers them. The great migrations set out from the East. With us begins the ebb, from West to East. That's in accordance with the laws of nature. By means of struggle, the élites are continually renewed. The law of selection justifies this incessant struggle, by allowing the survival of the fittest. Christianity is a rebellion against natural law, a protest against nature. Taken to its logical extreme, Christianity would mean the systematic cultivation of the human failure. - 10 October 1941, quoted in Hitler's Table Talk, 1941–1944 - There is only one duty: to Germanise this country [the East] by the immigration of Germans, and to look upon the natives as Redskins. - Secret conversation October 17, 1941 quoted in World History, Volume 1 pg. 703 and The Holocaust Encyclopedia - The reason why the ancient world was so pure, light and serene was that it knew nothing of the two great scourges: the pox and Christianity. Christianity is a prototype of Bolshevism: the mobilisation by the Jew of the masses of slaves with the object of undermining society. Thus one understands that the healthy elements of the Roman world were proof against this doctrine. Yet Rome to-day allows itself to reproach Bolshevism with having destroyed the Christian churches! As if Christianity hadn't behaved in the same way towards the pagan temples. - 19 October 1941, quoted in Hitler's Table Talk, 1941–1944 - But Christianity is an invention of sick brains: one could imagine nothing more senseless, nor any more indecent way of turning the idea of the godhead into a mockery. - 13 December 1941, quoted in Hitler's Table Talk, 1941–1944 - Pure Christianity—the Christianity of the catacombs—is concerned with translating the Christian doctrine into facts. It leads quite simply to the annihilation of mankind. It is merely whole-hearted Bolshevism, under a tinsel of metaphysics. - 14 December 1941, quoted in Hitler's Table Talk, 1941–1944 - "Speech Declaring War Against the United States" at Jewish Virtual Library - National-Socialism came to power in Germany in the same year as Roosevelt was elected President. . . Roosevelt comes from a rich family and belongs to the class whose path is smoothed in the Democracies. I am only the child of a small, poor family and had to fight my way by work and industry. When the Great War came, Roosevelt occupied a position where he got to know only its pleasant consequences, enjoyed by those who do business while others bleed. . . I shared the fate of millions, and Franklin Roosevelt only the fate of the so-called Upper Ten Thousand. . . he made profits out of the inflation, out of the misery of others, while I, together with many hundreds of thousands more, lay in hospital. - When Churchill and Roosevelt state that they want to build up a new social order, later on, it is like a hairdresser with a bald head recommending an unfortunate hair-restorer. These men, who live in the most socially backward states, have misery and distress enough in their own countries to occupy themselves with the distribution of foodstuffs.... We are allied with strong peoples, who in the same need are faced with the same enemies. The American President and his Plutocratic clique have mocked us as the Have-nots-that is true, but the Have-nots will see to it that they are not robbed of the little they have. - [A]ll that which America did not get from Europe may seem worthy of admiration to a Jewified mixed race, but Europe regards that merely as symptomatic of decay in artistic and cultural life, the product of Jewish or Negroid blood mixture. - We National Socialists are not at all surprised that the Anglo-American, Jewish and capitalist world is united together with Bolshevism. In our country we have always found them in the same community. Alone we successfully fought against them here in Germany, and after 14 years of struggle for power we were finally able to annihilate our enemies. - Thus the home-front need not be warned, and the prayer of this priest of the devil, the wish that Europe may be punished with Bolshevism, will not be fulfilled, but rather that the prayer may be fulfilled: "Lord God, give us the strength that we may retain our liberty for our children and our children's children, not only for ourselves but also for the other peoples of Europe, for this is a war which we all wage, this time, not for our German people alone, it is a war for all of Europe and with it, in the long run, for all of mankind." - Speech in Berlin, 30 January 1942 - Churchill is the very type of a corrupt journalist. There's not a worse prostitute in politics. He himself has written that it's unimaginable what can be done in war with the help of lies. He's an utterly amoral, repulsive creature. I'm convinced that he has his place of refuge ready beyond the Atlantic. He obviously won't seek sanctuary in Canada. In Canada he'd be beaten up. He'll go to his friends the Yankees. As soon as this damnable winter is over, we'll remedy all that. - 18 February 1942, quoted in Hitler's Table Talk, 1941–1944 - Christianity is the worst of the regressions that mankind can ever have undergone, and it's the Jew who, thanks to this diabolic invention, has thrown him back fifteen centuries. The only thing that would be still worse would be victory for the Jew through Bolshevism. If Bolshevism triumphed, mankind would lose the gift of laughter and joy. It would become merely a shapeless mass, doomed to grayness and despair. - 20-21 February 1942, quoted in Hitler's Table Talk, 1941–1944 - It would always be disagreeable for me to go down to posterity as a man who made concessions in this field. I realise that man, in his imperfection, can commit innumerable errors— but to devote myself deliberately to error, that is something I cannot do. I shall never come personally to terms with the Christian lie. In acting as I do, I'm very far from the wish to scandalise. But I rebel when I see the very idea of Providence flouted in this fashion. - 27 February 1942, quoted in Hitler's Table Talk, 1941–1944 - Our epoch will certainly see the end of the disease of Christianity. It will last another hundred years, two hundred years perhaps. My regret will have been that I couldn't, like whoever the prophet was, behold the promised land from afar. - 27 February 1942, quoted in Hitler's Table Talk, 1941–1944 - The English language lacks the ability to express thoughts that surpass the order of concrete things. It’s because the German language has this ability that Germany is the country of thinkers. - 7 March 1942, quoted in Hitler's Table Talk, 1941–1944 - One may regret living at a period when it's impossible to form an idea of the shape the world of the future will assume. But there's one thing I can predict to eaters of meat: the world of the future will be vegetarian. - Stenographic transcripts translated by Hugh Trevor-Roper Bullock, 11 November 1941, Alan (1993). Hitler and Stalin : Parallel Lives. Vintage. p. 679. ISBN 0-679-72994-1. - For many people the causes of this terrible war into which we were forced in 1939, began to be more clearly recognized, for this war did not bear the characteristics of the previous conflicts among the European nations to which we were accustomed. To an ever increasing degree it began to be generally realized that the reasons for this conflict were no longer to be sought in the usual interests even if plausible of the various nations, but that in reality it was one of those elementary struggles which shaking the foundations of the world but once in a thousand years, introduce a new millennium. - Speech to the Reichstag, 26 April 1942 - In this tremendous and truly historical uprising of the nations we are all now taking our part, some of us as leaders, others as actors or performers. On one side we find the exponents of democracy, that is Jewish capitalism with all its deadweight of obsolete political theories and parliamentary corruption, its out-moded social order, the Jewish brain trust, the Jewish newspapers, stock exchanges and banks, a concern of mixed political and economic profiteers of the worst order, arm in arm with the Bolshevist state. - "Speech to the Reichstag Assuming New Powers", (April 26, 1942) - The Jews were the carriers of that Bolshevist infection which once threatened to destroy Europe. It was also they who incited the ranks of the plutocracies to war, and it is the Jews who have driven America to war against all her own interests, simply and solely from the Jewish capitalistic point of view. - "Speech to the Reichstag Assuming New Powers", (April 26, 1942) - If I don't get the oil of Maykop and Grozny, then I must finish (liquidieren) this war. - Remark to Friedrich Paulus (1 June 1942), quoted in Ian Kershaw, Hitler, 1936–1945: Nemesis (2001), p. 514 and N. Polmar and T. B. Allen, World War II: the Encyclopedia of the War Years, 1941-1945 (2012), p. 194 - Had I finished off France in '39, then world history would have taken another course. But then I had to wait until 1940. Then a two-front war, that was bad luck. After that, even we were broken. - In a meeting with Mannerheim, 4 June 1942 - The rapidity with which Mustapha Kemal Ataturk rid himself of his parsons makes one of the most remarkable chapters in history. He hanged thirty-nine of them out of hand, the rest he flung out, and St. Sophia in Constantinople is now a museum! - 1 August 1942, quoted in Gerhard L. Weinberg (ed.), Hitler's Table Talk, 1941–1944 (2008), p. 458 - A state like Switzerland, which is nothing but a pimple on the face of Europe, cannot be allowed to continue. - 26 August 1942, quoted in Hitler's Table Talk, 1941–1944 - In my eyes, the year 1942 already has behind it the most fateful trial of our people. That was the winter of '41 to '42. I may be permitted to say that in that winter the German people, and in particular its Wehrmacht, were weighed in the balance by Providence. Nothing worse can or will happen. That we conquered that winter, that "General Winter," that at last the German fronts stood, and that this spring, that is, early this summer, we were able to proceed again, that, I believe, is the proof that Providence was content with the German people... You do not realize what is hidden beneath these words in the way of human heroism, and also of human pain, and suffering, and we may say, often anxiety too, naturally, deathly anxiety on the part of all those who, especially for the first time, are placed before the trial of God in this highest court. - Address at the Opening of the Winter Relief Campaign (September 30, 1942) - "Speech on the 19th Anniversary of the 'Beer Hall Putsch' " at Jewish Virtual Library - And today I stand by this same view. Fate, or Providence, will give the victory to those who most deserve it. (...) And when now, after 10 years, I again survey this period, I can say that upon no people has Providence ever bestowed more successes than upon us. The miracles we have achieved in the last three years in the face of a whole world of enemies are unique in history, especially the crises we very naturally often had in these years. - That which distinguishes our period from the last one is the fact that at that time the people did not stand behind the Kaiser while behind me stands one of the most splendid organizations that has ever been built up on this earth, and that organization represents the German people. Vice versa, however, what distinguishes the present time from then is the fact that at the head of this people there is no one who would ever, in critical times, go to a foreign land, but that at the head of this people is someone who has never known anything but struggle, and who has always known but one principle: "Strike, strike and strike again." - You know my opinion of Franco... We ought to keep these Red Spaniards on the back burner... They're lost to democracy, and to that reactionary crew round Franco too... I believe you to the letter, Speer, that they were impressive people. I must say, in general, that during the civil war the idealism was not on Franco's side; it was to be found among the Reds ... one of these days we'll be able to make use of them... The whole thing will start all over again. But with us on the opposite side. - As quoted in Albert Speer's diary entry for 26 December 1950 recalling a conversation with Hitler in January 1943, published in Spandau: The Secret Diary (2000), p. 167 - Surrender is forbidden. Sixth Army will hold their positions to the last man and the last round and by their heroic endurance will make an unforgettable contribution toward the establishment of a defensive front and the salvation of the Western world. - In a message to General Paulus, 24 January 1943 - Instead, it will increasingly strive to realize, in the service of the national interest everywhere, a true Volksgemeinschaft as the highest ideal. All the more so after the war, the German National Socialist state, which pursued this goal from the beginning, will tirelessly work for the realization of a program that will ultimately lead to a complete elimination of class differences and to the creation of a true socialist community. Thus, the five hundred forty-two thousand dead that this Second World War has up to now claimed will not have fallen in vain. Instead, they will live on eternally in our ranks as the undying heroes and pioneers of a better age. May the Almighty, who has not denied us His blessings throughout these trials and Who has thereby reinforced our inherent strength, also grant us His assistance in the fulfillment of what we must do for our Volk, what we owe it, until the victory. We again bow reverently before our dead comrades, their family members in mourning, the murdered men, women, and children in the homeland, and all the sacrifices of our allies. - Soldiers of the Reich! This day, you are to take part in an offensive of such importance that the whole future of the war may depend on its outcome. More than anything else, your victory will show the whole world that resistance to the power of the German Army is hopeless. - In a message to German soldiers at the start of the Battle of Kursk, 5 July 1943, as quoted in Kursk by Rupert Matthews - Additionally, on special petition men should be able to enter into a binding martial relationship not only with one woman, but also with another, who would then get his name without complications, and the children automatically getting the father's name - 27-28 January 1944 according to point 28.(2) of a 29 January 1944 memo from Martin Bormann recounting a conversation about "Safeguarding the future of the German People", according to pages 83-84 of "A History of the Münster Anabaptists: Inner Emigration and the Third Reich", a critical 2008-edition translation by George von der Lippe and Viktoria Reck-Malleczewen of "Friedrich Reck-Malleczewen's Bockelson: A Tale of Mass Insanity" referencing Lang 478 - I am a pious man, and believe that whoever fights bravely in defense of the natural laws framed by God and never capitulates will never be deserted by the Lawgiver, but will, in the end, receive the blessings of Providence. - Speech delivered on 5 July 1944; in Charles Bracelen Flood's Hitler: The Path to Power. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1989, p. 208. - Providence shows no mercy to weak nations, but recognizes the right of existence-only of sound and strong nations... This Jewish bolshevist annihilation of nations and its western European and American procurers can be met only in one way: by using every ounce of strength with the extreme fanaticism and stubborn steadfastness that merciful God gives to men in hard times for the defense of their own lives... We have suffered so much that it only steels us to fanatical resolve to hate Our enemies a thousand times more and to regard them for what they are destroyers of an eternal culture and annihilators of humanity. Out of this hate a holy will is born to oppose these destroyers of our existence with all the strength that God has given us and to crush them in the end. During its 2,000-year history our people has survived so many terrible times that we have no doubt that we will also master our present plight. - If the war is lost, the nation will also perish. This fate is inevitable. There is no necessity to take into consideration the basis which the people will need to continue even a most primitive existence. On the contrary, it will be better to destroy these things ourselves, because this nation will have proved to be the weaker one and the future will belong solely to the stronger eastern nation (Russia). Besides, those who will remain after the battle are only the inferior ones, for the good ones have all been killed. - To Albert Speer (1945), as quoted in "Defeat of Hitler: Enter the Bunker" (2010), The History Place - The soldiers on the Eastern Front fight far better. The reason they give in so easily in the West is simply the fault of that stupid Geneva convention which promises them good treatment as prisoners. We must scrap the idiotic thing. - Remarks to General Guderian (March 1945), quoted in Heinz Guderian, Panzer Leader (1952), p. 427 - The war is lost! - Regarding the fate of World War II (1945), as quoted in "Defeat of Hitler: Enter the Bunker" (2010), The History Place - It is untrue that I or anybody else in Germany wanted war in 1939. - In his Last Political Testament, 29 April 1945 - The Palace of Justice in Brussels lies like a cyclops above the city, building a court of justice above a city, that is really something special. - be/gSE-FRtJwvQ?t=367 Histories - Hitler in Belgium, Part 1- The humiliation. (2 Part documentary about Hitlers victory tour in Belgium on July 1, 1940.) Hitler was a Big fan of Leopold II's architect Joseph Poelaert, so much so that Hitler will send his own Architect Albert speer who at that moment is in charcge of the embellishment works of Berlin to Brussels later that year to make a study of the Palace of Justice of Brussels. - We do not want any other god than Germany itself. It is essential to have fanatical faith and hope and love in and for Germany. - As quoted in A History of National Socialism, Konrad Heiden, A. A. Knopf (1935) p. 100 - In a hundred years time, perhaps, a great man will appear who may offer them (the Germans) a chance at salvation. He'll take me as a model, use my ideas, and follow the course I have charted. - As quoted in "Der Führer als Redner," Adolf Hitler. Bilder aus dem Leben des Führers" (The Fuhrer as a speaker) by Joseph Goebbels in 1936 - We shall banish want. We shall banish fear. The essence of National Socialism is human welfare. There must be cheap Volkswagen for workers to ride in, broad Reich Autobahns for the Volkswagen. National Socialism is the Revolution of the Common Man. Rooted in a fuller life for every German from childhood to old age, National Socialism means a new day of abundance at home and a Better World Order abroad. - As quoted in Men in Motion, Henry J. Taylor, Doubleday, Doran & Co., New York: NY, (1944) p. 59. Also quoted in As We Go Marching, John T. Flynn, New York: NY, Free Life Edition (1973) p. 154, first published 1944 - As quoted in Men in Motion, Henry J. Taylor, Doubleday, Doran & Co., New York: NY, (1944) p. 59. - In our movement the two extremes come together: the Communists from the Left and the officers and students from the Right. These two have always been the most active elements, and it was the greatest crime that they used to oppose each other in street fights... Our party has already succeeded in uniting these two utter extremes within the ranks of our storm troops. They will form the core of the great German liberation movement, in which all without distinction will stand together when the day comes to say: 'The Nation arises, the storm is breaking!' - As quoted in Der Fuehrer: Hitler's Rise to Power, Konrad Heiden, Boston, MA, Beacon Press, 1969, p. 147, first published 1944. Part of Hitler's quote also cited in Totalitarianism: Part Three of The Origins of Totalitarianism, Hannah Arendt, A Harvest Book, 1985, footnote, p. 7 - As quoted in Der Fuehrer: Hitler's Rise to Power, Konrad Heiden, Boston, MA, Beacon Press, 1969, p. 147, first published 1944. - 5. Now, it is a fact that women who find themselves without a man after this war cannot have children by the Holy Spirit but only by men who have survived. Increased propagation by the individual man is - obviously from the standpoint of the good of the people - only desired in the case of a portion of these men. Good men with strong character, physically and psychically healthy, are the ones who should reproduce extra generously, not the ones warped in body and mind. 6. If the dead of the past world war and the present are not to have died in vain, we must secure the victory with all means at hand. Every woman whose husband or brother or father or other relative was killed in one of these struggles must wish that! This means that every woman must wish that every healthy woman capable of doing so after the war's end will have as many children as possible, to secure the victory and to secure the future of our people and the future of her own grandchildren. 7. Now government regulations alone, particularly in this ticklish area, serve no purpose whatsoever. Here only a very serious conviction born along by the Movement can lead to the required attitude. The question is too serious for wisecracks and cheap jokes; here what is truly at stake is the safeguarding of the future of our people. 8. After this war we cannot command women and girls to have babies. What is called for is the most intelligent enlightenment possible - and here the much overused superlative is used advisedly. 9. This [enlightenment] must in my opinion not be carried out by men who might too easily be considered personally interested parties, [sexual] profiteers. In my opinion only older men should be allowed to speak on this theme, and above all, our women's organizations must perform the necessary job of enlightenment. 10. These needful actions involve not only convincing the women who have lost husbands or will never get one, but what is needed first of all is the enlightenment of the old folks, the mothers and fathers, who grew up among quite different attitudes in the past. 11. Still more necessary is the enlightenment of the wives, who in many cases turn into fanatical [advocates] of respectability only after their marriage. 12. When we reflect on what is necessary to bring this so vitally important problem for our people to a successful solution, then we must make the situation clear for the individual case. At first many women - want of logic is something women are born with - will affirm the appropriateness [of the new order of things], but in the individual case, applied to their personal lives, they will fanatically reject it. 13. The public, i.e., general, enlightenment [campaign] can, for obvious reasons, only get under way after the war. To mention only one reason: we cannot yet appeal today to the women whose husbands might become casualties in the future, and also out of consideration for our soldiers we cannot begin our enlightenment campaign; that would assume that we would have to get this line of thinking across to our men now serving as soldiers, but not every soldier will accept the prospect of his wide or bride bearing children by another man after his own death. 14. Meanwhile we must be fully cognizant of the steps that can be taken while the war is still on, and of those to be introduced immediately after the war's end. 15. We must begin immediately to remove all impediments to the attainment of our objective; in particular, the point is to orientate contemporary poets and writers. New novels, short stories and stage plays based on marriage and divorce are no longer to be permitted, and by the same token [we will allow] no poems, writings, motion pictures that treat the child born out of wedlock [unehelich] as of diminished worth, as a bastard. (The word "unchelich" must, as I pointed out long ago, be expunged [right ouf of the language]. The prefix "un" generally denotes something to be rejected.- as quoted on page 835 of "The Third Reich Sourcebook" by Anson Rabinbach and Sander L. Gilman, published 10 July 2013 by University of California Press. From chapter "397. Martin Bormann, Safeguarding the Future of the German People (1944)" (pg 834) under section "29. Total War: 1939-1945" (pg 815), under "PART TEN. WAR, CONQUEST, AND THE ANNIHILATION OF THE JEWS" (pg 720) - as quoted on page 835 of "The Third Reich Sourcebook" by Anson Rabinbach and Sander L. Gilman, published 10 July 2013 by University of California Press. - I know that some Man capable of giving our problems a final solution must appear. I have sought such a Man. I could nowhere discover Him. And that is why I have set myself to do the preparatory work; only the most urgent preparatory work, for I know that I am myself not, the One. And I know also what is missing in me. But the other One still remains aloof, and nobody comes forward, and there is no more time to be lost. - As quoted in Warum? Woher? Aber Wohin? (published 1 January 1954) by Hans Grimm, p. 14 - We stand for the maintenance of private property... We shall protect free enterprise as the most expedient, or rather the sole possible economic order. - Quoted in Der Fuehrer, Hitler's Rise to Power, by Konrad Heiden. Statement of the 1920. - I am certain through him (Edward VIII) permanent friendly relations could have been achieved. If he had stayed, everything would have been different. His abdication was a severe loss for us. - As quoted by Albert Speer in Inside the Third Reich (1970) New York: Macmillan - I intend to set up a thousand-year Reich and anyone who supports me in this battle is a fellow-fighter for a unique spiritual—I would say divine—creation... Rudolf Hess, my assistant of many years standing, would tell you: If we have such a leader, God is with us. - As quoted in Secret Conversations with Hitler: The Two Newly-Discovered 1931 Interviews (1971) by Richard Breiting, p. 68 - Genius is a will-o'-the-wisp if it lacks a solid foundation of perseverance and fanatical tenacity. This is the most important thing in all of human life... - As quoted in How the Allies Won (1995) by Richard Overy, citing Hitler: The Man and the Military Leader (1972) by P.E. Schramm - National socialism is the determination to create a new man. There will no longer exist any individual arbitrary will, nor realms in which the individual belongs to himself. The time of happiness as a private matter is over. - As quoted in Hitler (1974) by Joachim C. Fest, p. 533 - They bring in high earnings without work. One of these days I'll sweep away this outrage and nationalize all corporations. - As quoted in Spandau: The Secret Diaries, Albert Speer, New York, NY, Pocket Books (1977) p. 84 - The god of war has gone over to the other side. - Statement to Alfred Jodl, after losses in the Battle of Stalingrad, as quoted in The Second World War: An Illustrated History (1979) by A. J. P. Taylor - This German Volksgemeinschaft is truly practical socialism and therefore National Socialism in the best sense of the word. Here everyone is obligated to carry his load. - As quoted in Stagnation and Renewal in Social Policy: The Rise and Fall of Policy Regimes, editors: Martin Rein, Gøsta Esping-Andersen, and Lee Rainwater (1987) p. 63 - If the Italians hadn't attacked Greece and needed our help, the war would have taken a different course. We could have anticipated the Russian cold by weeks and conquered Leningrad and Moscow. There would have been no Stalingrad. - Quoted in Leni Riefenstahl: A Memoir by Leni Riefenstahl - You will never learn what I am thinking. And those who boast most loudly that they know my thought, to such people I lie even more. - Statement to Franz Halder, as quoted in The Psychopathic God (1993) by Robert George Leeson Waite, p. xi - I regard Ford as my inspiration. - Attributed in Bill McGraw, "Forced Labor and Ford: History of Nazi Labor Stares Ford in the Face", Detroit Free Press, 21 December 1999, p. B1; as cited in Timothy W. Ryback, Hitler's Private Library: The Books That Shaped His Life, p. 71 & footnote p. 275. - The broad mass is feminine." - As quoted in Hitler 1889-1936: Hubris, Ian Kershaw, Page iii (published 4 April 2000) - (p.1884) I never lost my belief, in the midst of setbacks which were not spared me during my period of struggle. Providence has had the last word and brought me success. (p.2842) Not long ago, an American magazine wrote that what was worst about National Socialism was its women. They said that National Socialism did more for women than any other nation. It improved their social position. It began to bring them together in tremendous organizations. It sent the women of the educated classes into the factories so that female workers could go on vacation, and so on. The paper concluded that the democracies could not imitate this.- As quoted 1 November 2002 in The Third Reich: A New History by Michael Burleigh - I never loved my father, [he used to say,] but feared him. He was prone to rages and would resort to violence. My poor mother would then always be afraid for me. When I read Karl May once that it was a sign of bravery to hide one's pain, I decided that when he beat me the next time I would make no sound. When it happened – I knew my mother was standing anxiously at the door – I counted every stroke out loud. Mother thought I had gone mad when I reported to her with a beaming smile, 'Thirty-two strokes father gave me!' From that day I never needed to repeat the experiment, for my father never beat me again. - Statement about his parents Alois and Klara Hitler, quoted in Christa Schroeder, He Was My Chief: The Memoirs of Adolf Hitler's Secretary (Frontline Books, 2009), translated by Geoffrey Brooks, p. 40–41 Quotes about Hitler Quotes before the end of World War II - (Note: many of the worst atrocities of Hitler's regime did not begin to become widely known until the final months of the war) - Sorted chronologically - He is credibly credited with being actuated by lofty, unselfish patriotism. He probably does not know himself just what he wants to accomplish. The keynote of his propaganda in speaking and writing is violent anti-Semitism. His followers are nicknamed the "Hakenkreuzler." So violent are Hitler's fulminations against the Jews that a number of prominent Jewish citizens are reported to have sought safe asylums in the Bavarian highlands, easily reached by fast motor cars, whence they could hurry their women and children when forewarned of an anti-Semitic St. Bartholomew's night. - But several reliable, well-informed sources confirmed the idea that Hitler's anti-Semitism was not so genuine or violent as it sounded, and that he was merely using anti-Semitic propaganda as a bait to catch masses of followers and keep them aroused, enthusiastic, and in line for the time when his organization is perfected and sufficiently powerful to be employed effectively for political purposes. - A sophisticated politician credited Hitler with peculiar political cleverness for laying emphasis and over-emphasis on anti-Semitism, saying: "You can't expect the masses to understand or appreciate your finer real aims. You must feed the masses with cruder morsels and ideas like anti-Semitism. It would be politically all wrong to tell them the truth about where you really are leading them." - Cyril Brown writing in The New York Times (November 21, 1922) - Los Hitler, los Mussolini.../¡Balas! ¡Balas! ¡Balas! ¡Balas!/Las dos víboras de Europa/que con la muerte se pactan. - The Hitlers, the Mussolinis.../Bullets! Bullets! Bullets! Bullets!/The two vipers of Europe/who pact with death. - Song of the Simple Truth: The Complete Poems of Julia de Burgos (1982) - Most respected and dear Hitler, ... It is hardly surprising that a man like that can give peace to a poor suffering spirit! Especially when he is dedicated to the service of the fatherland. My faith in Germandom has not wavered for a moment, though my hopes were—I confess—at a low ebb. With one stroke you have transformed the state of my soul. That Germany, in the hour of her greatest need, brings forth a Hitler—that is proof of her vitality ... that the magnificent Ludendorff openly supports you and your movement: What wonderful confirmation! I can now go untroubled to sleep ... May God protect you! - Houston Stewart Chamberlain, quoted in The Nazi Germany Sourcebook: An Anthology of Texts by Roderick Stackelberg and Sally Anne Winkle, 7 October 1923 - Lenin is the greatest man, second only to Hitler, and that the difference between Communism and the Hitler faith is very slight. - Joseph Goebbels, The New York Times, "Hitlerite Riot in Berlin: Beer Glasses Fly When Speaker Compares Hitler to Lenin," November 28, 1925 (Goebbels' speech Nov. 27, 1925) - The final objective of the National-Socialist Party, Hitler makes clear, is to set up an organic people's state which will concentrate all of its energies upon promoting the interests of the Germans as a race apart. To this end Germany must work unceasingly for the acquisition of more land in Europe. This is one of Hitler's favorite theses and he returns to it at every opportunity. Before the war, he says, Germany was not a world power, and never will be a world power until she acquires more territory. The expansion of the race demands it. - But where is Germany to find the new territory she needs? From Russia, asserts Hitler. For centuries the German race pushed irresistibly to the south and west; now it must turn its gaze to the east. The fringe of small border states which now stand between Germany and Russia must not be allowed to block her path; in the affairs of a great people there is no place for altruism. - Of course France will never stand idly by and see Germany strengthen herself at Russia's expense, so France must be crushed first. France, says Hitler, will never be happy until Germany is destroyed; there is no defense against her, therefore, except to attack her. France is the mortal enemy, who must be broken before Germany can expand elsewhere. All this is to be accomplished, presumably, indeed, Hitler says as much, — through the help of alliances with England and Italy. That such a programme of conquest would again arouse the world against Germany, Hitler fails to see; or, if the possibility occurs to him, he waves it aside, drunk with his doctrine of the survival of the fittest, and his faith that the fittest of all are the Germans. - Nicholas Fairweather "Hitler and Hitlerism: Germany Under the Nazis", The Atlantic Monthly (April 1932) - You have delivered up our holy German Fatherland to one of the greatest demagogues of all time. I solemnly prophesy that this accursed man will cast our Reich into the abyss and bring inconceivable misery upon our nation. Future generations will curse you in your grave for your action. - Erich Ludendorff to Paul von Hindenburg after he appointed Hitler to Chancellor (c. late January/early February 1933), as quoted in Hitler 1889–1936: Hubris by Ian Kershaw (page 427). - Herr Hitler är en förolämpning. - Mr. Hitler is an insult. - Torgny Segerstedt in Göteborgs Handels- och Sjöfartstidning (3 February 1933). - The article spurred Hermann Göring to send a protest telegram where he condemned the newspaper for its publication. - [Mein Kampf makes clear beyond doubt] the principles which have guided him during the last fourteen years. He starts with the assertions that man is a fighting animal; therefore the nation is, he concludes, a fighting unit, being a community of fighters. Any living organism which ceases to fight for its existence is, he asserts, doomed to extinction. A country or a race which ceases to fight is equally doomed. The fighting capacity of a race depends on its purity. Hence the necessity for ridding it of foreign impurities. The Jewish race, owing to its universality, is of necessity pacifist and internationalist. Pacifism is the deadliest sin, for pacifism means the surrender of the race in the right for existence. The first duty of every country is, therefore, to nationalise the masses; intelligence is of secondary importance in the case of the individual; will and determination are of higher importance. The individual who is born to command is more valuable than countless thousands of subordinate natures. Only brute force can ensure the survival of the race. Hence the necessity for military forms. The German race, had it been united in time, would now be master of the globe today. The new Reich must gather within its fold all the scattered German elements in Europe. A race which has suffered defeat can be rescued by restoring its self-confidence. Above all things, the army must be taught to believe in its own invincibility. To restore the German nation again "it is only necessary to convince the people that the recovery of freedom by force of arms is a possibility"... I fear that it would be misleading to base any hope for a return to sanity or a serious modification of the views of the Chancellor or his entourage.- Horace Rumbold, despatch to the British Foreign Secretary, John Simon (26 April 1933), quoted in Martin Gilbert, Sir Horace Rumbold: Portrait of a Diplomat, 1869–1941 (1973), pp. 377-378 - Among the higher leadership [in the Nazi Party], while there is still a certain unity, personalities are beginning to play a constantly greater part. Hitler is perhaps more powerful than before, but he becomes more and more a figure separated from actualities. He depends a great deal on Hess, who is really his confidential man now and whom it is likely he may make Foreign Minister. Goering and Goebbels still remain good comrades of Hitler and are undoubtedly attached to him, but the difference between Goering and Goebbels are becoming more evident. Goering is more moderate, while Goebbels, sensing the feeling of the masses and being above all an opportunist is becoming more radical. If it would come to a show-down between the radical and moderate elements, Goering would, however, undoubtedly be likely to be on the radical side as the one having the more chances. [...] If this Government remains in power for another year and carries on in the same measure in this direction, it will go far towards making Germany a danger to world peace for years to come. This is a very disjointed and incoherent letter. I am dictating it under pressure as I wish to catch the courier pouch. What I do want to say really is that for the present this country is headed in directions which can only carry ruin to it and will create a situation here dangerous to world peace. With few exceptions, the men who are running this Government are of a mentality that you and I cannot understand. Some of them are psychopathic cases and would ordinarily be receiving treatment somewhere. Others are exalted and in a frame of mind that knows no reason. The majority are woefully ignorant and unprepared for the tasks which they have to carry through every day. Those men in the party and in responsible positions who are really worth-while, and there are quite a number of these, are powerless because they have to follow the orders of superiors who are suffering from the abnormal psychology prevailing in the country.- George S. Messersmith, U.S. Consul General at Berlin to the Under Secretary of State, William Phillips, letter dated 26 June 1933 - For what is healthy and what is sick, every people and age gives itself its own law, according to the inner greatness and extension of its existence. Now the German people are in the process of rediscovering their own essence and making themselves worthy of their great destiny. Adolf Hitler, our great Führer and chancellor, created, through the National Socialist revolution, a new state by which the people will assure itself anew of the duration and continuity of its history.... For every people, the first warranty of is authenticity and greatness is in its blood, its soil, and its physical growth. If it loses this good or even only allows it to become considerably weakened, all effort at state politics, all economic and technical ability, all spiritual action will remain in the end null and void. - Martin Heidegger, lecture at Freiburg University, August 1933; as quoted by Emmanuel Faye (2009), Heidegger, The Introduction of Nazism into Philosophy in Light of the Unpublished Seminars of 1933-1935, Yale University Press, transl. Michael B. Smith, p. 68 - Are we still dealing with the Hitler of Mein Kampf, lulling his opponents to sleep with fair words in order to gain time to arm his own people? Or is it a new Hitler, who has discovered the burden of responsible office? ... That is the riddle that has to be solved. - Maurice Hankey, 'Notes on Hitler's External Policy in Theory and in Practice', memorandum to the British government (24 October 1933), quoted in Stephen Roskill, Hankey, Man of Secrets: Volume III 1931–1963 (1974), p. 85 - With exemplary bravery and with dreadful sacrifices, the German Volk held the onslaught of an entire world at bay for four years. But the political leadership failed woefully in this struggle against the poisoning of the German Volk and the undermining of the German law and its sense of honor. To this very day we still atone for the hesitations and paralyzed state of the German governments during the World War. All moral outrage over the shame of such a collapse has coalesced in Adolf Hitler and has become in him the driving force of a political act. The experiences and warnings of the history of the German misfortune are alive in him. Most people are frightened by the severity of such warnings and would rather flee into an evasive and compensatory superficiality. The Führer, however, takes the warnings of German history quite seriously. This gives him the right and the power to found a new state and a new order. - Carl Schmitt, “Der Führer schützt das Recht: zur Reichstagsrede Adolf Hitlers vom 13. Juli 1934,” in his Positionen und Begriffe im Kampf mit Weimar—Genf—Versailles 1923–1939 (Hamburg: Hanseatische Verlagsanstalt, 1940), 198–201 - I don't like the look of him. - Benito Mussolini, to his aide after his first encounter with Hitler (1934), as quoted in The Gathering Storm (1946) by Winston Churchill - You will be interested to know that your work has played a powerful part in shaping the opinions of the group of intellectuals who are behind Hitler in this epoch-making program. Everywhere I sensed that their opinions have been tremendously stimulated by American thought... - Charles Goethe, writing to a colleague about American eugenics inspiring Hitler and other Nazi officials (1934), as quoted by Edwin Black, "Eugenics and the Nazis: The California Connection", The San Francisco Gate, November 9, 2003 - To be sure the Mussolinis and Hitlers are guilty of the same crime. They and their propaganda machines mow down every political opponent in their way. They also have added character assassination to the butchery of their victims. - Emma Goldman "The Tragedy of the Political Exiles" (1934) in The Nation - You [Hitler] may successfully resist any and all men, but you cannot successfully resist Jehovah God. ... In the name of Jehovah God and His anointed King, Christ Jesus, I demand that you give order to all officials and servants of your government that Jehovah's witnesses in Germany be permitted to peaceably assemble and without hindrance worship God. - Joseph Franklin Rutherford, cited in Awake! magazine, 1995, 8/22, article: The Evils of Nazism Exposed - On February 9, 1934, J. F. Rutherford, the president of the Watch Tower Society, sent a letter of protest to Hitler stating these words. As the Nazi rage against Jehovah's Witnesses reached new heights, the Witnesses' denunciations became ever more scathing. The May 15, 1940, issue of Consolation stated: "Hitler is such a perfect child of the Devil that these speeches and decisions flow through him like water through a well-built sewer". - Internationally the outlook is more disturbing. Despite the united front against war among the plain people of the earth, as expressed through conferences not only of pacifists, but of college faculty and students, of labor bodies, of women's associations, of radical and temperate organizations, the cloud of war darkens the horizon and the German influence cannot be ignored. Many people regard the Chancellor as insane or neurotic, perhaps in part because through all his denunciations and illogical conclusions he has shown no gleam of humor; nevertheless his leadership seems for the moment to sway the German nation. - Lillian Wald Windows on Henry Street (1934) - What is absolutely certain is that Germany intends to attack somewhere. Hitler's assurances are not to be believed, not even when he says that he has resigned Alsace-Lorraine. Germany is bent first upon revenge, then upon domination. - Maxim Litvinov, remarks to Anthony Eden (28 March 1935), quoted in Anthony Eden, The Eden Memoirs: Facing the Dictators (1962), p. 148 - [W]hen Hitler says that "the State dominates the nation because it alone represents it," he is only putting into loose popular language the formula of Hegel, that "the State is the general substance, whereof individuals are but accidents." - Albert Jay Nock, Our Enemy, The State, Caldwell, ID, The Caxton Printers (1950) pp. 21-22, first published in 1935 - One may dislike Hitler's system and yet admire his patriotic achievement. If our country were defeated, I hope we should find a champion as indomitable to restore our courage and lead us back to our place among the nations. - Winston Churchill, "Hitler and His Choice" in The Strand magazine (November 1935) - We cannot tell whether Hitler will be the man who will once again let loose upon the world another war in which civilisation will irretrievably succumb, or whether he will go down in history as the man who restored honour and peace of mind to the Great Germanic nation. - Winston Churchill, "Hitler and His Choice" in The Strand magazine (November 1935) - Hitherto, Hitler's triumphant career has been borne onwards, not only by a passionate love of Germany, but by currents of hatred so intense as to sear the souls of those who swim upon them. - Winston Churchill, "Hitler and His Choice", The Strand Magazine (November 1935), quoted in Martin Gilbert, Prophet of Truth: Winston S. Churchill, 1922–1939 (1976), p. 680 - The recent speech of Herr Hitler in Munich gives the essence of Nazi philosophy … The new racial philosophy which has very weak foundation stands for the glorification of the white races in general and the German race in particular. Herr Hitler has talked of the destiny of the white races to rule over the rest of the world … Apart from this new racial philosophy and selfish nationalism, there is another factor which affects us even more. Germany, in her desire to curry favour with Great Britain, finds it convenient to attack India and the Indian people. - Subhas Chandra Bose, letter written in March 1936, in Sitanshu Das, Subhas: A Political Biography, Rupa Publications India, 2001. quoted from Sanjeev Sanyal - Revolutionaries, The Other Story of How India Won Its Freedom-HarperCollins India (2023) - If I read the future aright Hitler's government will confront Europe with a series of outrageous events and ever-growing military might. It is events which will show our dangers, though for some the lesson will come too late. - Winston Churchill to Lord Londonderry (6 May 1936), quoted in Martin Gilbert, Prophet of Truth: Winston S. Churchill, 1922–1939 (1976), p. 733 - Hitler set up a tyranny: a state with a mighty police force, a growing army, a host of spies and informers, a secret espionage, backed by swift and cruel punishment, which migh vary from loss of job to imprisonment, incommunicado and without trial, to cold murder. - W. E. B. Du Bois, The Hitler State, Writing on National Socialism, Pittsburgh Courier, December 12, 1936. Republished in Aptheker, Herbert, ed (1986). Newspaper Columns: 1883-1944. Kraus-Thomson Organization. p. 145. ISBN 978-0-527-25347-9. - You protest, and with justice, each time Hitler jails an opponent; but you forget that Stalin and company have jailed and murdered a thousand times as many. It seems to me, and indeed the evidence is plain, that compared to the Moscow brigands and assassins, Hitler is hardly more than a common Ku Kluxer and Mussolini almost a philanthropist. - H. L. Mencken, in an open letter to Upton Sinclair, printed in The American Mercury, June 1936. - Hitler is a very great man, like an inspired religious leader, and as such rather fanatical, but not scheming, not selfish, not greedy for power, but a mystic, a visionary who really wants the best for his country. - Anne Morrow Lindbergh, quoted in Lindbergh by A. Scott Berg, 5 August 1936 - I thank heaven for a man like Adolf Hitler, who built a front line of defense against the anti-Christ of Communism. - Frank Buchman, in an interview to the New York World-Telegram, 25 August 1936 - He is a very great man. "Führer" is the proper name for him, for he is a born leader, yes, and statesman. - David Lloyd George, A. J. Sylvester's diary entry (4 September 1936), Colin Cross (ed.), Life with Lloyd George. The Diary of A. J. Sylvester 1931-45 (London: Macmillan, 1975), p. 148. - I have never met a happier people than the Germans and Hitler is one of the greatest men. The old trust him; the young idolise him. It is the worship of a national hero who has saved his country. - David Lloyd George, Daily Express, September 17, 1936. - Hitler didn't snub me; it was our president who snubbed me. The president didn't even send me a telegram. - Jesse Owens (15 October 1936), as quoted in Triumph: The Untold Story of Jesse Owens and Hitler's Olympics (2007), by Jeremy Schaap, New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, p. 211. - I have just returned from a visit to Germany. ... I have now seen the famous German leader and also something of the great change he has effected. Whatever one may think of his methods — and they are certainly not those of a Parliamentary country — there can be no doubt that he has achieved a marvellous transformation in the spirit of the people, in their attitude towards each other, and in their social and economic outlook. One man has accomplished this miracle. He is a born leader of men. A magnetic dynamic personality with a single-minded purpose, a resolute will, and a dauntless heart. He is the national Leader. He is also securing them against that constant dread of starvation which is one of the most poignant memories of the last years of the war and the first years of the Peace. The establishment of a German hegemony in Europe which was the aim and dream of the old prewar militarism, is not even on the horizon of Nazism.- David Lloyd George, The Daily Express (17 November 1936) - As I talked to him, I could not but think of Joan of Arc. He is distinctly a mystic. Hewel was telling me that the German people, many of them, begin to feel that he was a mission from God, and some of them would seek to reverence him almost as a God. He said Hitler himself tries to avoid that kind of thing. He dislikes any of them thinking of him as anything but a humble citizen who is trying to serve his country well. He is a teetotaler and also a vegetarian. Is unmarried, abstemist in all his habits and ways. Indeed his life as one gathers it from those who are closest to him would appear to be that very much of a recluse, excepting that he comes in contact with youth and large number of people from time to time. - William Lyon Mackenzie King, in his diary, 29 June 1937 - [The Fuehrer] is one of those lonely men of the ages on whom history is not tested, but who themselves are the makers of history. - Benito Mussolini, as quoted in The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich by William L. Shirer, 28 September 1937 - I never thought Hitler was such a bad chap. - Edward VIII, as quoted by Patrick Balfour in Love conquers all in Books and Bookmen, vol. 20 (1974) - Hitler was on the whole quiet and restrained, except now and again when he got excited; over Russia or the Press. I can quite see why he is a popular speaker; very much alive, eyes, which I was surprised were blue, moving about all the time, points in the argument reinforced by sharp gestures of the hands. And the play of emotion—sardonic humour, scorn, something almost wistful—is rapid. - Lord Halifax, diary entry (19 November 1937), quoted in Lord Halifax, Fulness of Days (1957), p. 188 - One had a feeling all the time that we had a totally different set of values and were speaking in a different language. It was not only the difference between a totalitarian and democratic state. He gave me the impression of feeling that, whilst he had attained power only after a hard struggle with present-day realities, the British Government was still living comfortably in a world of its own making, a fairy-land of strange, if respectable, illusions. It clung to shibboleths—‘collective security,’ ‘general settlement,’ ‘disarmament,’ ‘non-aggression pacts’—which offered no practical prospect of a solution of Europe's difficulties. He regards the whole conception embodied in a League of States equal in their rights of sovereignty as unreal, based on no foundation of fact; and consequently does not believe that discussions between large numbers of nations, with varying interests and of quite unequal value, can lead anywhere. Hence his preference for dealing with particular problems in isolation. With this goes the distrust of the democratic method, to him inefficient, blundering, paralysed by its love of talk, and totally unsuited to the rough world, constantly changing, in which we had to live. - Lord Halifax, diary entry (19 November 1937), quoted in Lord Halifax, Fulness of Days (1957), p. 189 - For Hitler first hatred was not Communism, but Austria-Hungary... And he loathed it for what? For its tolerance! He wanted eighty million Germans to rule with an iron hand an empire of eighty million 'inferiors'—Czechs, Slovaks, Magyars, Jews, Serbs, Poles and Croats. - Dorothy Thompson, "Let the Record Speak", Boston: MA, Houghton Mifflin Company (1939) p. 136 (newspaper column: "Write it Down," February 18, 1938) - Hitler was right in one thing. He calls the Jewish people a race and we are a race. - Rabbi Stephen S. Wise, (1938). "Dr. Wise Urges Jews To Declare Selves As Such." New York Herald Tribune, 13 June 1938. p. 12 - I doubt whether Chamberlain or the Government yet realise the nature of the man with whom they are dealing, or his ultimate ambitions. Hitler is devoid of all honour and scruples. He has no regard for pledges, conventions or life. He is, in fact, evil. - Horace Rumbold to his son (22 September 1938), quoted in Martin Gilbert, Sir Horace Rumbold: Portrait of a Diplomat, 1869–1941 (1973), p. 437 - [T]he fact remains that since Hitler's ascendancy to power all Jews without exception have been subjected to the most fiendish persecution and the most horrible indignities, besides being robbed of all of the possessions - Emma Goldman "On Zionism " (1938) - In Germany the common people are peace-loving, ... The Devil has put his representative Hitler in control, a man who is of unsound mind, cruel, malicious and ruthless . . . He cruelly persecutes the Jews because they were once Jehovah's covenant people and bore the name of Jehovah, and because Christ Jesus was a Jew. - Joseph Franklin Rutherford, cited in Awake! magazine, 1995, 8/22, article: The Evils of Nazism Exposed - On October 2, 1938, he delivered the address "Fascism or Freedom," in which he denounced Hitler in no uncertain terms. Rutherford regularly took to the airwaves, delivering powerful lectures on the satanic nature of Nazism. The lectures were rebroadcast globally and were printed for distribution by the millions. - Adolf Hitler never considered the domination of Europe as an end in itself. European conquest was but a step toward ultimate goals in all the other continents. It is unmistakably apparent to all of us that, unless the advance of Hitlerism is forcibly checked now, the Western Hemisphere will be within range of the Nazi weapons of destruction. - Franklin D. Roosevelt, Radio Address Announcing an Unlimited National Emergency. Online by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, The American Presidency Project https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/209607 - The belief that Hitler is homosexual has probably developed (a) from the fact that he does show so many feminine characteristics and (b) from the fact that there were so many homosexuals in the Party during the early days and many continue to occupy important positions. ... There is a possibility that Hitler has participated in a homosexual relationship at some time in his life. - A Psychological Analysis of Adolf Hitler: His Life and Legend, Walter C. Langer, Harvard psychologist, M.O. Branch Office of Strategic Service (OSS), Washington D.C. (1943) pp. 195-196 - The Chancellor of the Exchequer said it was the first time Herr Hitler had been made to retract – I think that was the word – in any degree. We really must not waste time after all this long Debate upon the difference between the positions reached at Berchtesgaden, at Godesberg and at Munich. They can be very simply epitomised, if the House will permit me to vary the metaphor. £1 was demanded at the pistol’s point. When it was given, £2 were demanded at the pistol’s point. Finally, the dictator consented to take £1 17s. 6d. and the rest in promises of goodwill for the future. - Winston Churchill, On the Munich Agreement, 5 October 1938 - I have always said that if Great Britain were defeated in war I hoped we should find a Hitler to lead us back to our rightful position among the nations. I am sorry, however, that he has not been mellowed by the great success that has attended him. The whole world would rejoice to see the Hitler of peace and tolerance, and nothing would adorn his name in world history so much as acts of magnanimity and of mercy and of pity to the forlorn and friendless, to the weak and poor... Let this great man search his own heart and conscience before he accuses anyone of being a warmonger. - Winston Churchill, "Mr. Churchill's Reply" in The Times (7 November 1938) This was in response to Hitler denouncing Churchill as a "warmonger". - Most cruel joke of all, however, has been played by Hitler & Co. on those German capitalists and small businessmen who once backed National Socialism as a means of saving Germany's bourgeois economic structure from radicalism. The Nazi credo that the individual belongs to the state also applies to business. Some businesses have been confiscated outright, on others what amounts to a capital tax has been levied. Profits have been strictly controlled. Some idea of the increasing Governmental control and interference in business could be deduced from the fact that 80% of all building and 50% of all industrial orders in Germany originated last year with the Government. Hard-pressed for foodstuffs as well as funds, the Nazi regime has taken over large estates and in many instances collectivized agriculture, a procedure fundamentally similar to Russian Communism. - "Adolf Hitler: Man of the Year, 1938", Time; January 2, 1939. - There is no question but that Hitler belongs in the category of the truly mystic medicine man. As somebody commented about him at the last Nürnberg party congress, since the time of Mohammed nothing like it has been seen in this world. His body does not suggest strength. The outstanding characteristic of his physiognomy is its dreamy look. I was especially struck by that when I saw pictures taken of him in the Czechoslovakian crisis; there was in his eyes the look of a seer. This markedly mystic characteristic of Hitler's is what makes him do things which seem to us illogical, inexplicable, and unreasonable. ... So you see, Hitler is a medicine man, a spiritual vessel, a demi-deity or, even better, a myth. - Carl Jung, During an interview with H. R. Knickerbocker, first published in Hearst's International Cosmopolitan (January 1939), in which Jung was asked to diagnose Adolf Hitler, Benito Mussolini, and Joseph Stalin, later published in Is Tomorrow Hitler's? (1941), by H. R. Knickerbocker, also published in The Seduction of Unreason : The Intellectual Romance with Fascism (2004) by Richard Wolin, Ch. 2 : Prometheus Unhinged : C. G. Jung and the Temptations of Aryan Religion, p. 75. - No nation keeps its word. A nation is a big, blind worm, following what? Fate perhaps. A nation has no honour, it has no word to keep. ... Hitler is himself the nation. That incidentally is why Hitler always has to talk so loud, even in private conversation — because he is speaking with 78 million voices. - Carl Jung, During an interview with H. R. Knickerbocker (1939), quoted in A Life of Jung (2002) by Ronald Hayman, p. 360 - We do not know whether Hitler is going to found a new Islam. He is already on the way; he is like Mohammad. The emotion in Germany is Islamic; warlike and Islamic. They are all drunk with wild god. That can be the historic future. - Carl Jung, The Symbolic Life, 1939. - It is quite clear that you are today the one person in the world who can prevent a war which may reduce humanity to the savage state. Must you pay that price for an object however worthy it may appear to you to be? Will you listen to the appeal of one who has deliberately shunned the method of war not without considerable success? - Mahatma Gandhi. Letter addressed to Hitler. 23 July 1939 (Collected Works, vol. 70, pp. 20–21). Quoted from Koenraad Elst: Return of the Swastika (2007). (Also in ) - Kirkpatrick...says...that once one begins to work with him, or sees him dealing with great affairs, one has such a sense of evil arrogance that one is almost nauseated. He confesses that he has been rendered physically sick by some of the interviews that he has witnessed. Evil and treachery and malice dart into Hitler's mystic eyes. ... We asked Kirkpatrick what gave him his sense of actual evil. He said that after Hitler had flown from Godesberg to Munich to murder Roehm, he returned in the very highest spirits, mimicking to his secretary the gestures of fear which Roehm had made. - Harold Nicolson's diary (30 August 1939), quoted in Harold Nicolson, Diaries and Letters, 1930–1939, ed. Nigel Nicolson (1966), pp. 414–415 - He failed to realise why his military-cum-police tyranny should be repugnant to British ideals of individual and national freedom and liberty, or why he should not be allowed a free hand in Central and Eastern Europe to subjugate smaller and, as he regards them, inferior peoples to superior German rule and culture. He believed he could buy British acquiescence in his own far-reaching schemes by offers of alliance with and guarantees for the British Empire. Such acquiescence was indispensable to the success of his ambitions and he worked unceasingly to secure it. His great mistake was his complete failure to understand the inherent British sense of morality, humanity and freedom. - Nevile Henderson, British Ambassador to Germany, final report to the British Foreign Secretary (20 September 1939), quoted in The Times (18 October 1939), p. 7 - Burckhardt ... says that Hitler has a dual personality, the first being that of the rather gentle artist, and the second that of the homicidal maniac. He is convinced that Hitler has no complete confidence in himself and that his actions are really governed by somnambulist certainty. He says that the main energy in Hitler is an energy of hatred, and that he has never met any human being capable of generating so terrific a condensation of envy, vituperation and malice. - Harold Nicolson's diary (3 October 1939), quoted in Harold Nicolson, Diaries and Letters, 1939–1945, ed. Nigel Nicolson (1967), p. 39 - The "Conqueror from Berlin," as he has named himself, has completely conquered Germany. And not only that. Unfortunately, many, all too many Germans living abroad, also have fallen for the cunning propaganda. - Friedrich Kellner, My Opposition, Diary entry of 24 October 1939. - (pg 59) [Hitler] was profoundly imbued with German paganism, more so, perhaps, than Ludendorff or Rosenberg himself. (pg 93) Hitler is an atheist.- Otto Strasser, Hitler and I, Boston: MA, Houghton Mifflin Company (1940) - Hitler could not have succeeded against his many rivals if it had not been for the attraction of his own personality, which one can feel even in the clumsy writing of Mein Kampf, and which is no doubt overwhelming when one hears his speeches. I should like to put it on record that I have never been able to dislike Hitler. Ever since he came to power—till then, like nearly everyone, I had been deceived into thinking that he did not matter—I have reflected that I would certainly kill him if I could get within reach of him, but that I could feel no personal animosity. The fact is that there is something deeply appealing about him. One feels it again when one sees his photographs—and I recommend especially the photograph at the beginning of Hurst and Blackett's edition, which shows Hitler in his early Brownshirt days. It is a pathetic, dog-like face, the face of a man suffering under intolerable wrongs. In a rather more manly way it reproduces the expression of innumerable pictures of Christ crucified, and there is little doubt that that is how Hitler sees himself. The initial, personal cause of his grievance against the universe can only be guessed at; but at any rate the grievance is there. He is the martyr, the victim, Prometheus chained to the rock, the self-sacrificing hero who fights single-handed against impossible odds. If he were killing a mouse he would know how to make it seem like a dragon. One feels, as with Napoleon, that he is fighting against destiny, that he can't win, and yet that he somehow deserves to. The attraction of such a pose is of course enormous; half the films that one sees turn upon some such theme. Also he has grasped the falsity of the hedonistic attitude to life. Nearly all western thought since the last war, certainly all "progressive" thought, has assumed tacitly that human beings desire nothing beyond ease, security and avoidance of pain. In such a view of life there is no room, for instance, for patriotism and military virtues. The Socialist who finds his children playing with soldiers is usually upset, but he is never able to think of a substitute for the tin soldiers; tin pacifists somehow won't do. Hitler, because in his own joyless mind he feels it with exceptional strength, knows that human beings don't only want comfort, safety, short working-hours, hygiene, birth-control and, in general, common sense; they also, at least intermittently, want struggle and self-sacrifice, not to mention drums, flags and loyalty-parades. However they may be as economic theories, Fascism and Nazism are psychologically far sounder than any hedonistic conception of life. The same is probably true of Stalin's militarised version of Socialism. All three of the great dictators have enhanced their power by imposing intolerable burdens on their peoples. Whereas Socialism, and even capitalism in a more grudging way, have said to people "I offer you a good time," Hitler has said to them "I offer you struggle, danger and death," and as a result a whole nation flings itself at his feet. Perhaps later on they will get sick of it and change their minds, as at the end of the last war. After a few years of slaughter and starvation "Greatest happiness of the greatest number" is a good slogan, but at this moment "Better an end with horror than a horror without end" is a winner. Now that we are fighting against the man who coined it, we ought not to underrate its emotional appeal.- George Orwell, Review of Mein Kampf (March, 1940) - Hitler is a prodigious genius. - David Lloyd George, A. J. Sylvester's diary entry (7 July 1940), Colin Cross (ed.), Life with Lloyd George. The Diary of A. J. Sylvester 1931-45 (London: Macmillan, 1975), p. 275. - That I address you as a friend is no formality. I own no foes. My business in life has been for the past 33 years to enlist the friendship of the whole of humanity by befriending mankind, irrespective of race, colour or creed. ... But your own writings and pronouncements and those of your friends and admirers leave no room for doubt that many of your acts are monstrous and unbecoming of human dignity, especially in the estimation of men like me who believe in human friendliness. Such are your humiliation of Czechoslovakia, the rape of Poland and the swallowing of Denmark. I am aware that your view of life regards such spoliations as virtuous acts. But we have been taught from childhood to regard them as acts degrading humanity... No spoliator can compass his end without a certain degree of co-operation, willing or unwilling, of the victim.... The rulers may have our land and bodies but not our souls... You are leaving no legacy to your people of which they would feel proud. - Mahatma Gandhi. Letter to Hitler. 24 December 1940. Quoted from Koenraad Elst: Return of the Swastika (2007). (Also in ) - I felt, that in the mind of Hitler there was much of spiritual matters, transcending material plans. When I met the Führer he said that since boyhood he had been attracted by Japan. He read carefully reports of Japan's victory over Russia when he was only 17 years old and was impressed by Japan's astonishing strength. - Tomoyuki Yamashita, quoted in Time 1940 - Both anti-fascism and anti-communism have utterly lost their meaning since Hitler and Stalin have ceased to conceal their alliance from the world. [...] I predicted the cooperation between the Nazis and Bolsheviks as early as 1925 in my article "Anti-Marxism." - Ludwig von Mises (, 1998). Interventionism: An Economic Analysis, trans. Thomas Francis McManus and Heinrich Bund, ed. Bettina Bien Greaves. Irvington-on-Hudson, NY: Foundation for Economic Education, Inc. ISBN 1-57246-071-7 p. xiv. - Hitler does not have a new secret weapon at his disposal. He does not owe his victory to an excellent intelligence service which informs him of the plans of his opponents. Even the much-talked-of "fifth column" was not decisive. He won because the supposed opponents were already quite sympathetic to the ideas for which he stood. [...] An ideological struggle cannot be fought successfully with constant concessions to the principles of the enemy. Those who refute capitalism because it supposedly is inimical to the interest of the masses, those who proclaim "as a matter of course" that after the victory over Hitler the market economy will have to be replaced by a better system and, therefore, everything should be done now to make the government control of business as complete as possible, are actually fighting for totalitarianism. The "progressives" who today masquerade as "liberals" may rant against "fascism"; yet it is their policy that paves the way for Hitlerism. Nothing could have been more helpful to the success of the National-Socialist (Nazi) movement than the methods used by the "progressives," denouncing Nazism as a party serving the interests of "capital."- Ludwig von Mises (, 1998). Interventionism: An Economic Analysis, trans. Thomas Francis McManus and Heinrich Bund, ed. Bettina Bien Greaves. Irvington-on-Hudson, NY: Foundation for Economic Education, Inc. ISBN 1-57246-071-7 p. 88. - German workers are the most reliable supporters of the Hitler regime. Nazism has won them over completely by eliminating unemployment and by reducing the entrepreneurs to the status of shop managers (Betriebsführer). Big business, shopkeepers, and peasants are disappointed. Labor is well satisfied and will stand by Hitler, unless the war takes a turn which would destroy their hope for a better life after the peace treaty. Only military reverses can deprive Hitler of the backing of the German workers. The fact that the capitalists and entrepreneurs, faced with the alternative of Communism or Nazism, chose the latter, does not require any further explanation. They preferred to live as shop managers under Hitler than to be "liquidated" as "bourgeois" by Stalin. Capitalists don't like to be killed any more than other people do. What pernicious effects may be produced by believing that the German workers are opposed to Hitler was proved by the English tactics during the first year of the war. The government of Neville Chamberlain firmly believed that the war would be brought to an end by a revolution of the German workers. Instead of concentrating on vigorous arming and fighting, they had their planes drop leaflets over Germany telling the German workers that England was not fighting this war against them, but against their oppressor, Hitler. The English government knew very well, they said, that the German people, particularly labor, were against war and were only forced into it by their self-imposed dictator.- Ludwig von Mises (, 1998). Interventionism: An Economic Analysis, trans. Thomas Francis McManus and Heinrich Bund, ed. Bettina Bien Greaves. Irvington-on-Hudson, NY: Foundation for Economic Education, Inc. ISBN 1-57246-071-7 p. 89. - ...we find an article in Harper's describing with a good deal of gusto the financial operations of the Hitler regime. We are told that we must not let the brutality of German political policy "divert our attention from the German financial program. It is revolutionary and it is successful." The author then tells us that if we will look behind the dictatorship we may possibly find "clues to the nature of our own recent financial ills, indicating what has been wrong and what can be done to strengthen economic democracy now and in the future." The men who built this German system are called men of unquestioned genius. It is becoming clear that "Germany's internal financial program is removing the limitations of her financial environment on rates of productive activity. For years prior to the present war German industry operated at capacity. To do these things she is changing capitalism but she is not destroying it." Of course there is nothing new about Hitler's financial operation, as anyone who has read the German chapter of this volume will remember. It is merely the adoption by Hitler of the spending and borrowing tactics of his predecessors, whom he so roundly denounced. Hitler was doing little more than Mussolini was doing, than the republicans and Social Democrats did before him in Germany, and what the old Italian and German Ministers did before the last war.- John T. Flynn (1944) As We Go Marching Doubleday and Company, pp. 183-184, quoting "The German Financial Revolution," by Dal Hitchcock, Harper's Magazine, Vol. 182, February 1941. Italics as in original - At the outset of the German Government's movement against the Jews, an American visitor asked Herr Hitler why he was making it so ruthless. The Reichskanzler replied that he had got the idea from us. Americans, he said, are the great rope and lamppost artists [i.e., lynching] of the world, known of all men as such. He was using the same methods against the Jews that we used against the loyalists of '76, the Indians, the Chinese on the Western coast, the Negroes, the Mexicans, the Filipinos — every helpless people in fact whom we had ever chanced to find underfoot. - Albert Jay Nock, "The Jewish Problem in America," Atlantic Monthly, June, 1941. - If Hitler invaded Hell, I would make at least a favourable reference to the devil in the House of Commons. - Winston Churchill, To his personal secretary John Colville the evening before Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of the Soviet Union (June 1941). As quoted by Andrew Nagorski in The Greatest Battle (2007), Simon & Schuster, pp. 150-151 ISBN 0743281101. - Hitler is a monster of wickedness, insatiable in his lust for blood and plunder. Not content with having all Europe under his heel, or else terrorised into various forms of abject submission, he must now carry his work of butchery and desolation among the vast multitudes of Russia and of Asia. The terrible military machine - which we and the rest of the civilised world so foolishly, so supinely, so insensately allowed the Nazi gangsters to build up year by year from almost nothing - cannot stand idle lest it rust or fall to pieces. ... So now this bloodthirsty guttersnipe must launch his mechanized armies upon new fields of slaughter, pillage and devastation. - Winston Churchill, Radio broadcast on the German invasion of Russia, June 22, 1941. In The Churchill War Papers : 1941 (1993), W.W. Norton, pp. 835-836 ISBN 0393019594. - Cabell and Hitler did not inhabit the same universe. - Alfred Kazin, On Native Grounds : An Interpretation of Modern American Prose Literature (1941), p. 231. - I have in this War a burning private grudge—which would probably make me a better soldier at 49 than I was at 22: against that ruddy little ignoramus Adolf Hitler (for the odd thing about demonic inspiration and impetus is that it in no way enhances the purely intellectual stature: it chiefly affects the mere will). Ruining, perverting, misapplying, and making for ever accursed, that noble northern spirit, a supreme contribution to Europe, which I have ever loved, and tried to present in its true light. - J. R. R. Tolkien The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien No. 45: To his son Michael Tolkien (1941-06-09). - Is it really true that German fascist troops are invincible, as is ceaselessly trumpeted by the boastful fascist propagandists? Of course not! History shows that there are no invincible armies and never have been. Napoleon's army was considered invincible but it was beaten successively by Russian, English and German armies. Kaiser Wilhelm's German Army in the period of the first imperialist war was also considered invincible, but it was beaten several times by the Russian and Anglo-French forces and was finally smashed by the Anglo-French forces. The same must be said of Hitler's German fascist army today. This army had not yet met with serious resistance on the continent of Europe. Only on our territory has it met serious resistance. And if, as a result of this resistance, the finest divisions of Hitler's German fascist army have been defeated by our Red Army, it means that this army too can be smashed and will be smashed as were the armies of Napoleon and Wilhelm. - "Progress" is for the convinced ochlocrats a consoling Utopia of madly increased comfort and technicism. This charming but dull vision was always the pseudoreligious consolation of millions of ecstatic believers in ochlocracy and in the relative perfection and wisdom of Mr. and Mrs. Averageman. Utopias in general are surrogates for heaven; they give a meager solace to the individual that his sufferings and endeavors may enable future generations to enter the chiliastic paradise. Communism works in a similar way. Its millennium is almost the same as that of ochlocracy. The Millennium of Lenin, the Millennium of Bellamy, the Millennium as represented in H. G. Wells's, "Of Things to Come," the Millennium of Adolf Hitler and Henry Ford — they are all basically the same; they often differ in their means to attain it but they all agree in the point of technical perfection and the classless or at least totally homogeneous society without grudge or envy. - Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn, writing under the pen name Francis Stewart Campbell (1943), Menace of the Herd, or, Procrustes at Large, Milwaukee, WI: The Bruce Publishing Company, pp. 35-36. - [Hitler is] a veritable reductio ad absurdum of "progressive" thought. - Francis Stuart Campbell, pen name of Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn (1943), Menace of the Herd, or, Procrustes at Large, Milwaukee, WI: The Bruce Publishing Company, p. 159. - It must be emphasized that an intensive study of national socialistic "prehistory" reveals a curious lack of original thought in Hitler's concepts; Hitler's strength consists solely in the clever use of already existing trends, ideas, and situations. It lies in the very nature of mass leaders that they cannot be "original"; the mass leader is necessarily a virtuoso of commonplaces which he may or may not repeat in the guise of a "new discovery." The modern dictator is not out to contradict but to confirm already existing views (and prejudices). - Francis Stuart Campbell, pen name of Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn (1943), Menace of the Herd, or, Procrustes at Large, Milwaukee, WI: The Bruce Publishing Company, p. 201. - An extended chapter of our talk was devoted by the Führer to the vegetarian question. He believes more than ever that meat-eating is harmful to humanity. Of course he knows that during the war we cannot completely upset our food system. After the war, however, he intends to tackle this problem also. Maybe he is right. Certainly the arguments that he adduces in favor of his standpoint are very compelling. - Joseph Goebbels, Louis P. Lochner (trans.) (1993). The Goebbels Diaries. Charter Books. p. 679. ISBN 0-441-29550-9. - The Fuhrer is deeply religious, though completely anti-Christian. He views Christianity as a symptom of decay. Rightly so. It is a branch of the Jewish race.” - Joseph Goebbels The Goebbels Diaries 1939-1941, ed. and trans, Fred Taylor (New York, NY: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1983, p. 77, Entry: Dec. 29, 1939) - Do you know that your Führer is a vegetarian, and that he does not eat meat because of his general attitude toward life and his love for the world of animals? Do you know that your Führer is an exemplary friend of animals, and even as a chancellor, he is not separated from the animals he has kept for years?...The Führer is an ardent opponent of any torture of animals, in particular vivisection, and has declared to terminate those conditions...thus fulfilling his role as the savior of animals, from continuous and nameless torments and pain. " - Neugeist/Die Weisse Fahne (contemporaneous pro-Nazi children's magazine) - So the bastard's dead? Too bad we didn't capture him alive! - Joseph Stalin, Said in April 1945 — On hearing of Hitler's suicide, as quoted in The Memoirs of Georgy Zhukov. - Adolf Hitler I'm not worthy to speak up for Adolf Hitler, and to any sentimental rousing his life and deeds do not invite. Hitler was a warrior, a warrior for humankind and a preacher of the gospel of justice for all nations. He was a reforming character of the highest order, and his historical fate was that he functioned in a time of exampleless [i.e., unequalled] brutality, which in the end felled him. Thus may the ordinary Western European look at Adolf Hitler. And we, his close followers, bow our heads at his death.- Knut Hamsun, Norwegian author and Nobel Prize-winner, obituary of Hitler published in the May 7, 1945 evening edition of Aftenposten - Adolf Hitler was a Jeanne d'Arc, a saint. He was a martyr. Like many martyrs, he held extreme views. - Ezra Pound, in an interview with Edd Johnson, published in The Chicago Sun (9 May 1945) - Chambers Dictionary of Great Quotations (2015), p. 692 - Every word that comes from Hitler's mouth is a lie. When he says peace, he means war, and when he blasphemously uses the name of the Almighty, he means the power of evil, the fallen angel, Satan. His mouth is the foul-smelling maw of Hell, and his might is at bottom accursed. True, we must conduct a struggle against the National Socialist terrorist state with rational means; but whoever today still doubts the reality, the existence of demonic powers, has failed by a wide margin to understand the metaphysical background of this war. - The White Rose, Fourth Leaflet. - Freedom and honour! For ten long years Hitler and his coadjutor have manhandled, squeezed, twisted, and debased these two splendid German words to the point of nausea, as only dilettantes can, casting the highest values of a nation before swine. They have sufficiently demonstrated in the ten years of destruction of all material and intellectual freedom, of all moral substance among the German people, what they understand by freedom and honour. The frightful bloodbath has opened the eyes of even the stupidest German—it is a slaughter which they arranged in the name of "freedom and honour of the German nation" throughout Europe, and which they daily start anew. - The White Rose, Sixth leaflet. - Shaken and broken, our people behold the loss of the men of Stalingrad. Three hundred and thirty thousand German men have been senselessly and irresponsibly driven to death and destruction by the inspired strategy of our World War I Private First Class. Führer, we thank you! - The White Rose, Sixth leaflet. - He was a warrior, a warrior for mankind, and a prophet of the gospel of justice for all nations. - Knut Hamsun, upon hearing of Hitler's death. The House That Hitler Built (1937; rev. edn., September 1938) - by Stephen H. Roberts, New York: Harper & Brothers - I think that he is primarily a dreamer, a visionary... He is so transparently honest when he is weaving visions of his own creation that nobody can doubt him. He is ready, like a medieval saint, to go through fire and water for his beliefs. I am not certain that he would not actually like being tortured; he would love playing the martyr, if only for his own mental delectation. He sees himself as a crusader; he thinks the whole time of saving mankind. That is why he reaches such a stage of mystical exaltation when he talks about saving the world from Bolshevism. It is the old Siegfried complex once again. Just as the young German knight of old went out into the dim, dark forests to kill dragons, so he goes out to exterminate Bolshevism. He is simply living again the romantic frescoes which mad King Ludwig painted round his castles to express the Wagnerian operas, and Hitler's spectacles are nothing more than an enlargement of this Wagnerian drop-scene, with the improvements offered by modern science. That accounts for his popular appeal, and it also makes him dangerous.- pp. 7-9 - Nobody would claim that Hitler is of outstanding mental stature. If he really expresses the Romantic Ideal carried to the point of absurdity, and if romanticism is the liberation of the less conscious levels of the mind...extreme mental clarity would not be expected from him. His life, as I see it, can be expressed as an attempt at escaping from reality and a more or less constant intoxication of his imagination by a free indulgence in fantasy. He has none of that "great measuring virtue" without which Ruskin asserts true greatness is impossible. The psycho-analysts have a marvellous subject for discussion in Herr Hitler. Some of them say that he shows the salient features of schizophrenia (split personality) because of his overwhelming ambition and conceit, his favourite role of himself as the saviour of mankind and his habit of speaking as if he received personal revelations from the Deity. Others hold that he is a manic-depressive; others again a paranoiac... The typical paranoid is terrified of imaginary persecutors, and defends himself against this fear by the annihilation in fantasy of his persecutors. Sometimes, as in the case of Hitler, the annihilation can to some extent be translated from fantasy into fact. Hitler's persecution of the Jews and Communists, for instance, can be explained from this point of view. This is all a matter for the experts, of course, but some of the facts certainly appear as evidence for the psycho-analyst's stress on Hitler's persecution mania, his ways of escape from reality, his great anxieties, his over-keen but distorted observation of realities, his alternating moods of melancholy and elation, his recurring doubts of himself—and contrasting sense of omnipotence. - p. 11 - Abstract intelligence and logic are not necessary in his scheme of things. He seems to have a single-track mind. Always a simplist, he cannot understand the complexities of most problems. He cannot, for instance, recognize the importance of diplomatic forms or the element of safety provided by the tortuous methods of conventional diplomacy. He simplifies every problem, even the most vital questions of domestic and foreign policy. He applies a general principle of an intuitive solution to a question complicated by centuries of history and arrives at some delusively simple outcome. Mein Kampf gives him away in this. After its publication he could never again claim subtlety of analysis or breadth of vision. - p. 12 - His strength, then, is the unduly assertive characteristic of a man not certain of himself and shunning a real analysis of the problems confronting him. It is a mixture of brazenness and empiricism, and above all, a form of escape from his own introspectiveness. He is harassed, tormented, tortured by imaginings and confused thoughts; and the only way out of the tangle is to take some act that is seemingly decisive, or, more often, to find refuge in the endless reiteration of stock arguments, such as those against Semitism or Bolshevism. - pp. 13-14 - [H]e certainly succeeds in winning his audiences. After all, he is appealing to their feelings, not their intellect, and he captures them in an ecstasy of emotion, whipping them hither and thither by the castigations of his rather harsh, and frequently breaking, voice. He always uses the same methods, the same tricks of oratory, the same half-dozen gestures (especially the outpointed finger and the curious corkscrew movement of his hand), the same appeal to the crudest emotions, the same exploitation of common hatreds, even the same words. Goebbels is an infinitely finer and more polished orator from our point of view, but it is always Hitler who grips the meetings. No display of emotionalism is too crude for him. He frequently weeps.- pp. 16-17 - He lives in an unnatural detachment that makes his disease of being a godhead batten on itself: the most balanced of human beings could not stand this kind of life without losing a sense of realities, and nobody would call Hitler emotionally balanced at the best of times. Most commentators make a great fuss about his diet or his celibacy: what seems to me far more important is his lack of ordinary human contacts. Abnormal himself, the constant adulation makes him pathological. He receives only the thrice-distilled views of the fanatics, intriguers and genuine patriots around him. Nobody can tell him anything or speak frankly, still less criticize his policy or himself. He lives in a mental world of his own, more aloof than any Sun-King, and he has only the narrow mental equipment and experience of an agitator to guide him. Unless one accepts the prevalent German view that he gets his inspiration direct from God (one of the most powerful Nazis once said he had a private line to heaven!), one must conclude that the future of Germany and the peace of the world rest on the tangled working of the mind of one man whom not even his friends would call normal. It is the most extraordinary comment on human evolution that, in this age of science and progress, the fate of mankind rests on the whimsy of an abnormal mind, infinitely more so than in the days of the old despots whom we criticize so much. - p. 22 - Hitler may achieve his avowed goal; he may consolidate the entire nation along the lines he wants. If this is so, the outlook for peace would still be clouded, because Hitler's consolidation is contingent upon ideas—such as economic Autarky, military aggressiveness, a dashing foreign policy, and a general Imperialistic ideology—which, of necessity, would lead to war. He cannot achieve some of these without war, and if he does not achieve them, the people will feel deluded, and in that case Hitler's consolidation will not be successful. That is his basic dilemma. If he persists in the policies he has enunciated, he plunges Europe into war; if he abandons them, he can no longer maintain his position within Germany. Logically, then, the success or the failure of Hitlerism brings war in its train.- p. 362 Three Portraits: Hitler, Mussolini, Stalin (1940) - by Emil Ludwig, New York & Toronto: Alliance Book Corporation, Longmans, Green and Company - Hitler's technique of oratory is largely the result of... mass psychology... He declared to his small, new party that everything depended on fascinating the crowd. Above all, he realized... restore to the German people, deprived of an army, their flags, bands and songs. ...He invented every emblem himself, except the swastika, designed his own flag, and prescribed every collar and button for the slowly-growing party troops. - Hitler's aim was to attract attention to himself. ...[H]e personally arranged all the lighting effects and spotlights, as well as his entry into a hall with fanfares. He trained crowds to salute with the right arm, taught them his songs, and transformed the audience from an apathetic mass into active collaborators in his festivities. - As a stage manager and advertiser, he gave proof as real genius. In his book... "The Entente," he writes, "won the war simply and solely by its propaganda." A crowd is ready to believe anything, "true or false," provided it is constantly reiterated; one only has to say the same thing often enough. - He is past-master in the technique of platform speaking, and he can be humorous, grave, witty, tragic and cynical as the occasion requires. - His effect, in complete contrast to Mussolini's... he juggles with mystical notions such as Honor, Blood, and Soil, and thus wraps his audience in that cloud of mysticism which the Germans love far more than mere prosaic logic. - [H]e works to create the single great impression that here is a prophet whose heart is bleeding for the fate of his people. ...[H]e is sly enough to use an arrangement on his speaker's desk through which, by pressing a button, the spotlights are switched on to him so that the ecstasies can be properly filmed for the news reels. A similar combination of ecstasy and artifice can be observed in other actors. - [H]e commanded over a hundred of his armed adherents to make an open attack on the armed police force. The latter met the rebel's attack... Shots were fired. Fourteen men lay dead on the Munich pavement. ...Hitler vanished ...The fourteen heroes of the Nazi movement were later eulogized... by the leader who had abandoned them in danger. - He realized that he could rise only through the support of the discontented and utterly disillusioned middle class. All he did later was to subjugate it. Rauschning describes in detail Hitler's intense hatred of Germany's laboring masses. - The pyramid familiar to the Germans... in which each individual carries another on his back but makes up for it by standing on somebody else, was set up anew by Hitler. - The Germans, who love order more than freedom, and whose ruling passion is obedience, rejoiced in their release from an uncomfortable equality into new ranks of superiors and inferiors. This is the second source of Hitler's success. - As a man without religion, without philosophy, without principles, he balked at nothing. ...[H]e concealed... his desire for self-aggrandizement, and... believes in his own idealism. - Since the banks and the big industrialists wished to rid themselves of the Socialists, with their wage demands and strikes, they contributed generously to this popular party. ...Hitler's speeches constantly promised the masses a renewal of the soldier-spirit, a new army and new victories. - Hitler, who had made his way to power by his great gifts as a stage manager and speaker, introduced into the Reichschancellory all that browbeating noise which the Germans are so prone to take for greatness. ...Immediately after his appointment as chancellor, Hitler resolved to prove to the world that he had come, a new Saint George, to slay the dragon of communism. While the German Reichstag was burning, he accused the Communists of the guilt... This trial he lost... for its sole result was to expose the guilt of the Nazis. - The Germans were wretched so long as they had no sword. ...Only a world once more trembling before the gigantic juggernaut of a German army could do... [A] genuine idealism ...inspires the German Nazi youth. It is bellicose... and looks forward to a hero's death... they believe in the superiority of the German race and its right to rule the world. Their new leader did not merely promise all this; he began to turn it into reality... The technique of government by advertisement... has enabled a ruler... to attain his aims by sheer propaganda and bluff... - That is the language of a gambler—of a man who stakes his all in one card... when the other players simply refuse to call a bluff, he may safely risk his stake. And yet, with the great triumphs Hitler has flaunted, with the increase in power and population... how are we to explain the apathy shared by... Germans, with exceptions of the few thousand commandeered to function at processions? They do not revolt, yet they are neither happy nor content... the enthusiasm wanes... as it has been since the third year of the Hitler régime... - The appointment of ignorant young men by the Party to high places in the German universities and clinics... has caused profound depression in the country... A country which no longer recognizes a written constitution, a country in which the Minister of Justice proclaims as his guiding principle, "Right is what is useful to Germany," a country in which the police force... watches with sympathetic interest any crime which is committed to the Party's advantage—is a country where none can feel safe. Even the free can hardly take much pleasure... where more than 100,000 souls are imprisoned... Any German who has not risen to wealth and position through the Party feels less free... Millions are ashamed because they are no longer citizens of a constitutional State. Meanwhile their Führer sits in his villa... and here he entertains his friends. ...As he talks ceaselessly and seldom listens... business cannot be settled. Quotes after the end of World War II - Sorted by Author - By exploiting material wealth confiscated and plundered in a racial war, Hitler's National Socialism achieved an unprecedented level of economic equality and created vast new opportunities for upward mobility for the German people. - Götz Aly, Hitler's Beneficiaries: Plunder, Racial War, and the Nazi Welfare State, New York: NY, Metropolitan Books (2007) pp. 7-8 - "I was born in 1933 in Vienna, Austria, the year Hitler came to power; his shadow shadowed me." So Evelyn Torton Beck began the narrative of her life as a Jewish lesbian feminist at the NYU "Women's Liberation and Jewish Identity" conference." - Joyce Antler Jewish Radical Feminism: Voices from the Women’s Liberation Movement (2018) - The only man for whom Hitler had 'unqualified respect' was Stalin the genius', and while in the case of Stalin and the Russian regime we do not... have the rich documentary material that is available for Germany, we nevertheless know since Khrushchev's speech before the Twentieth Party Congress that Stalin trusted only one man and that was Hitler. - Hannah Arendt, Totalitarianism: Part Three of the Origins of Totalitarianism, A Harvest Book, 1985, pp. 7-8 - The tragedy for Germany’s subsequent victims was that a critical mass of the population, desperate for order and respect, was eager to follow the most reckless criminal in history. Hitler managed to appeal to their worst instincts: resentment, intolerance, arrogance and, most dangerous of all, a sense of racial superiority. Any remaining belief in a Rechtsstaat, a nation based on respect for the rule of law, crumpled in the face of Hitler’s insistence that the judicial system must be the servant of the new order. Public institutions–the courts, the universities, the general staff and the press–kowtowed to the new regime. Opponents found themselves helplessly isolated and insulted as traitors to the new definition of the Fatherland, not only by the regime itself, but also by all those who supported it. The Gestapo, unlike Stalin’s own secret police, the NKVD, was surprisingly idle. Most of its arrests were purely in response to denunciations of people by their fellow Germans. - Antony Beevor, The Second World War (2016), pp. 14-15 - Brooks: Yes, absolutely. Of course it is impossible to take revenge for 6 million murdered Jews. But by using the medium of comedy, we can try to rob Hitler of his posthumous power and myths. In doing so, we should remember that Hitler did have some talents. He was able to fool an entire population into letting him be their leader. However, this role was basically a few numbers too great for him –- but he simply covered over this deficiency. - Spiegel: Was he a good actor? - Brooks: Yes, as he convinced many millions of Germans. It's not without good reason that comedies about Hitler often concern actors who should play him. Just think about Charlie Chaplin's The Great Dictator (1940) or Ernst Lubitsch's To Be or not To Be (1942). There's no doubt about it, Hitler worked in the same branch as we do: he created illusions. - Spiegel: In a documentary film about the downfall of the German battleship the Bismarck, US director James Cameron referred to Hitler as the "greatest pop star of his time." - Brooks: There's something in that. Hitler must have had a magnetic attractive force, like a rock star he used his voice to spellbind umpteen thousands of listeners. So it's only fitting when comic actors make him the limelight hog of world history. We take away from him the holy seriousness that always surrounded him and protected him like a cordon. - In Hitler's eyes, Christianity was a religion fit only for slaves; he detested its ethics in particular. Its teaching, he declared, was a rebellion against the natural law of selection by struggle and the survival of the fittest. - Alan Bullock, Hitler: A Study in Tyranny; Harper Perennial Edition (1991) p. 218. First published 1952 - [Hitler] himself saw Christianity as a temporary ally, for in his opinion 'one is either a Christian or a German'. To be both was impossible. Nazism itself was a religion, a pagan religion, and Hitler was its high priest... Its high altar [was] Germany itself and the German people, their soil and forests and language and traditions. - Geoffrey Blainey, A Short History of Christianity, Viking (2011) pp. 495–6 - "Everybody thinks Hitler got to power because of his armies, because they were willing to kill, and that's partially true, because in the real world power is always built on the threat of death and dishonor. But mostly he got to power on words, on the right words at the right time." - "I was just thinking of of comparing you to him." - Orson Scott Card Ender's Game p. 131 - Try explaining Hitler to a kid. - George Carlin, from Brain Droppings. - Men of action, when they are without faith, have never believed in anything but action. Hitler's untenable paradox lay precisely in wanting to found a stable order on perpetual change and no negation. - Albert Camus in The Rebel (1951) - But if you can breed cattle for milk yield, horses for running speed, and dogs for herding skill, why on Earth should it be impossible to breed humans for mathematical, musical or athletic ability? Objections such as "these are not one-dimensional abilities" apply equally to cows, horses and dogs and never stopped anybody in practice. I wonder whether, some 60 years after Hitler's death, we might at least venture to ask what the moral difference is between breeding for musical ability and forcing a child to take music lessons. Or why it is acceptable to train fast runners and high jumpers but not to breed them. I can think of some answers, and they are good ones, which would probably end up persuading me. But hasn't the time come when we should stop being frightened even to put the question? - Richard Dawkins, From the Afterword, The Herald Scotland, (November 20, 2006) - What's to prevent us from saying Hitler wasn't right? I mean, that is a genuinely difficult question. - This man, compounded of mystic and megalomaniac, orator and self-hypnotist, faithless and merciless in pursuit of his aims, was to bring upon his own country, upon Europe and more distant lands, suffering, destruction and death. He was to do worse. In the name of racial purity, he inspired a surge of beastliness unparalleled for centuries. Hitler was a failure, for he transformed the world in the sense in which he least wished. When the struggle was over, Europe lay prostrate and power had passed to Russia in the East and the United States in the West, countries he dreaded or despised. His opportunity came at a climacteric in history and he made terrible use of it.- Anthony Eden, The Eden Memoirs: Facing the Dictators (1962), p. 27 - It would assist us if the Chancellor could state his position about...Locarno. Hitler declared that the German Government would "scrupulously and faithfully observe every treaty into which they had entered of their own free will, including Locarno." The world must not expect to obtain Germany's signature on all occasions, but Germany's signature, once given, would be honoured. No assurance could have been firmer or more specific, if it could be believed. The argument was also clear enough. Hitler did not regard the Versailles Treaty as binding, because it had been signed under duress, but I thought at the time that Hitler might be genuine in this distinction and that he could intend to observe treaties "freely" signed by Germany. This possibility remained in my mind until the occupation of the Rhineland destroyed any further confidence I might have had in Hitler's statements.- Anthony Eden, The Eden Memoirs: Facing the Dictators (1962), p. 62 - I was most unfavourably impressed by Hitler's personality. Unlike Stalin as I was to know him, or Mussolini, he appeared negative to me, certainly not compelling; he was also rather shifty. Stalin and Mussolini were, in their separate ways, men whose personality would be felt in any company. Hitler was essentially the man who would pass in the crowd. - Anthony Eden, The Eden Memoirs: Facing the Dictators (1962), p. 133 - Two things made the German experience unique. The first was Hitler himself, who was in many ways more bizarre than Chaplin knew. An art-school reject who had once scraped a living by selling kitschy picture postcards; an Austrian draft-dodger who had ended up a decorated Bavarian corporal; a lazy mediocrity who rose late and enjoyed both Wagner's operas and Karl May's cowboy yarns - here indeed was an unlikely heir to the legacy of Frederick the Great and Otto von Bismarck. In Munich in the early 1920s he could be seen attending the soirées of a Romanian princess 'in his gangster hat and trenchcoat over his dinner jacket, touting a pistol and carrying as usual his dog-whip'. It is not altogether surprising that President Hindenburg assumed he was Bohemian. Others thought he looked more like 'a man trying to seduce the cook', or perhaps a renegade tram conductor. If it had not been for the advice of his publisher Max Amann, he would have called his first book Four and a Half Years of Struggle against Lies, Stupidity and Cowardice instead of the distinctly catchier My Struggle. The longer title captures something of Hitler's shrill and vituperative personality. As for his sexuality, about which there has long been speculation on the basis of circumstantial or tainted evidence, he may have had none. Hitler hated. He did not love. - Niall Ferguson, The War of the World: Twentieth-Century Conflict and the Descent of the West (2006), p. 232-233 - Superficially, Hitler's appeal to German voters is easy to understand. He simply offered more radical remedies to the Depression than his political rivals. Others might offer piecemeal solutions to unemployment; Hitler was willing to contemplate a bold programme of public works. Others might worry that financing public works with deficits would trigger a new inflation; Hitler bluntly stated that the hoodlums of his Sturmabteilung would deal with any profiteers who charged excessive prices. Others might argue, as Rathenau and Stresemann had, that Germany must try to pay reparations, if only to prove the impossibility of doing so, or must borrow to the hilt in New York so as to drive a rift between the Western creditors; Hitler essentially argued for default. It helped, of course, that the reparations system had itself collapsed by 1932; Germany had already defaulted, albeit with American consent, by the time Hitler came to power. It helped, too, that the Nazis were able to recruit the widely respected former Reichsbank President Hjalmar Schacht, who had resigned his post in 1930 after effectively endorsing Hitler's campaign against the revised reparations schedule known as the Young Plan. Yet even with his imprimatur on them, it took real political skill to sell such unorthodox economic solutions to a relatively sophisticated and highly variegated electorate. The Nazis' success without doubt owed much to Joseph Goebbels, the evil genius of twentieth-century marketing, who sold Hitler to the German public as if he were the miraculous offspring of the Messiah and Marlene Dietrich. The Nazi election campaigns of 1930, 1932. and 1933 were unprecedented assaults on public opinion, involving standardized mass meetings and eye-catching posters, as well as rousing songs (like the Horst-Wessel Lied) and calculated physical intimidation of opponents. Though much of this owed its inspiration to Mussolini - not least the snazzy uniforms for supporters, and the Roman salutes - Goebbels understood the need for finesse as well as bombast. For one thing, he saw more clearly than the star himself the need to adjust Hitler's message according to which of the German electorate's many segments was being addressed. - Niall Ferguson, The War of the World: Twentieth-Century Conflict and the Descent of the West (2006), p. 238-239 - Hitler is probably the world's most notorious tyrant. His name is virtually synonymous with evil. Rising from obscurity and failure, he found inspiration in the German army and entered politics after World War I. His Nazi Party became the largest in Germany, leading to his appointment as Chancellor in 1933. Within a year, he had turned Germany into a dictatorship. He built up the economy while establishing a police state based on terror. He pushed his country into World War II where his aggressive leadership produced spectacular vicotories until he was opposed by the Soviet Union and the United States. During the war, he ordered the murder of six million Jews and other minorities. With his country collapsing around him, he committed suicide. - Clive Foss, The Tyrants: 2,500 Years of Absolute Power and Corruption (2006), p. 140 - Hitler had no superior, and there was no appeal against him. The only alternative to obedience was imprisonment or death. He ruled Germany through the regular government and the increasingly powerful Nazi Party whose organizations reached every level of the population. The regime looked simple and streamlined, but Hitler, who believed in the survival of the fittest, encouraged competition among his subordinates, often appointing two people to very similar jobs, so that they would have to come to him for resolution. He rarely consulted his cabinet but relied on a loyal coterie headed by Heinrich Himmler, chief of the elite SS troops, and the Gestapo (secret police), Hermann Goring, commander of the air force and Joseph Goebbels, Minister of Propaganda. Hitler was the ultimate amateur, a skilled politician with no education but a photographic memory that enabled him to intimidate his officers. He distrusted educated specialists and believed he was right about everything. He met with his cronies over tea where he would endulge in endless monologues - tea, because he was a vegetarian and teetotaller who also firmly discouraged smoking. - Clive Foss, The Tyrants: 2,500 Years of Absolute Power and Corruption (2006), p. 141 - Hitler did a better job than Stalin of accomplishing Lenin's totalitarian promises—better, too, than Mussolini,... - François Furet, The Passing of an Illusion, The Idea of Communism in the Twentieth Century, University of Chicago Press (1999) p. 205 - What was new about Hitler and Stalin was what Friedrich Meinecke, in an attempt shortly after World War II to express his horror at Hitler's moral nihilism, called a 'Machiavellianism of the masses'. - François Furet, The Passing of an Illusion, The Idea of Communism in the Twentieth Century, University of Chicago Press (1999) p. 191 - In many thundering discourses, Hitler expressed his respect, if not admiration for Stalinist Communism and its leader. - François Furet, Passing of an Illusion: The Idea of Communism in the Twentieth Century, Chicago, Illinois; London, England, University of Chicago Press, 1999, p. 191 - The names of Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler will forever be linked to the tragic course of European history in the first half of the twentieth century. Only weeks after the Russian Revolution the Bolsheviks created secret police forces far more brutal than any that had existed under the tsar. The Nazis followed suit and were no sooner in power than they instituted the dreaded Gestapo. Under both regimes millions of people were incarcerated in concentration camps where they were tortured and frequently worked to death. - Robert Gellately, Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler : The Age of Social Catastrophe (New York: Random House, Knopf, 2007). - If all Hitler had done was kill people in vast numbers more efficiently than anyone else ever did, the debate over his lasting importance might end there. But Hitler's impact went beyond his willingness to kill without mercy. He did something civilization had not seen before. Genghis Khan operated in the context of the nomadic steppe, where pillaging villages was the norm. Hitler came out of the most civilized society on Earth, the land of Beethoven and Goethe and Schiller. He set out to kill people not for what they did but for who they were. Even Mao and Stalin were killing their "class enemies." Hitler killed a million Jewish babies just for existing. - Nancy Gibbs, as quoted in Time magazine (3 January 2000). - Check out Hitler, what did Hitler say to the German people in the middle of depression? What did he say were the causes of the problem in German? He said it was the Jews, he said it was the communists, and he said it was the people who sold out in the World War 1. Those were the three forces responsible for the downfall of Germany. What are Nixon and the other neo-fascists saying nowadays? What is the cause of the crisis that we have in our country and the United States and Puerto Rico and Hawaii? What are the causes? Well, it's the communists, it's the Third World people instead of the Jews this time, and it's the peace people. Same lines. Fascism always has the same lines. Fascism is a dictatorship, a capitalistic dictatorship. When things fall apart they started a dictatorship. - Juan González (journalist), "The Young Lords Party" speech (Nov. 1971) - To me there are two Hitlers: one who existed until the end of the French war; the other begins with the Russian campaign. In the beginning he was genial and pleasant. He would have extraordinary willpower and unheard-of influence on people. The important thing to remember is that the first Hitler, the man who I knew until the end of the French war, had much charm and goodwill. He was always frank. The second Hitler, who existed from the beginning of the Russian campaign until his suicide, was always suspicious, easily upset, and tense. He was distrustful to an extreme degree. - Hermann Göring (24 May 1946), quoted in Leon Goldensohn The Nuremberg Interviews (New York: Knopf, 2004) - Hitler was dead by his own hand and the Allies quickly went about gathering up officials of the Nazi regime. Germany was prostrated, its cities in rubble, its manufactories smashed, its people dispirited and unable even to feed themselves. They crawled out of their cellars and hiding places and looked around into a profound silence enveloping the entire nation. Many- probably most of them- were terribly embarrassed and ashamed at what their leaders had put them through but, after all, they had voted Hitler and the Nazis into power. It was one of the most horrid mistakes a democracy had ever made and a powerful lesson for today and tomorrow. The Third Reich that Hitler predicted would "last a thousand years" was abolished in little more than a decade, though at terrible cost. - Winston Groom, The Generals: Patton, MacArthur, Marshall, and the Winning of World War II (2015), p. 395 - [Hitler] was to all intents and purposes an atheist by the time I got to know him, although he still paid lip-service to religious beliefs and certainly acknowledged them as the basis for the thinking of others. - Ernst Hanfstaengl, Hitler: The Memoir of a Nazi Insider Who Turned Against the Führer , New York: NY, Arcade Publishing, 2011, p. 69 - [Hitler] would attack the former ruling classes for their surrender of the nation, their class prejudices and feudal economic system to applause from the Left-Wingers, and then riddle those who were prepared to decry the true traditions of German greatness to the applause of the Right-Wingers. - Ernst Hanfstaengl Hitler: The Memoir of a Nazi Insider Who Turned Against the Führer , New York: NY, Arcade Publishing, 2011, p. 69 - Hitler, who was so wound up in his theory of the Aryan race, was himself the antithesis of the Aryan type: dark, not very tall, narrow-shouldered, hysterical, nervous; had he met himself, who knows where he would have sent such a suspicious character. - Shulamith Hareven "Against Charisma" in The Vocabulary of Peace: Life, Culture, and Politics in the Middle East (1995) - Hitler's triumph made terribly clear the danger of our earlier notions, as well as the very stark differences between a fascist regime and "bourgeois democracy" as represented by someone like Franklin Delano Roosevelt. By the mid-1930s the issue of anti-fascism permeated all our mass work. - Dorothy Ray Healey California Red: A Life in the American Communist Party (1990) - Had Hitler died in middle of the 1930's, Nazism would probably have shown, under the leadership of a Goering, a fundamental change in its course, and the Second World War might have been averted. Yet the sepulcher of Hitler, the founder of a Nazi religion, might perhaps have been a greater evil than all the atrocities, bloodshed and destruction of Hitler's war. - Eric Hoffer, The True Believer (1951) Ch.18 Good and Bad Mass Movements, §122 - The monstrous evils of the twentieth century have shown us that the greediest money grubbers are gentle doves compared with money-hating wolves like Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler, who in less than three decades killed or maimed nearly a hundred million men, women, and children and brought untold suffering to a large portion of mankind. - Eric Hoffer (1976). In Our Time. New York: Harper & Row.. - I would have preferred it if he'd followed his original ambition and become an architect. - Paula Hitler, his much younger sister, during an interview with a U.S. intelligence operative in late 1945. - I admit, I was fascinated by Adolf Hitler. He was a pleasant boss and a fatherly friend. - Traudl Junge, Hitler's secretary. - Of course, the terrible things I heard from the Nuremberg Trials, about the six million Jews and the people from other races who were killed, were facts that shocked me deeply. But I wasn't able to see the connection with my own past. I was satisfied that I wasn't personally to blame and that I hadn't known about those things. I wasn't aware of the extent. But one day I went past the memorial plaque which had been put up for Sophie Scholl in Franz Josef Strasse, and I saw that she was born the same year as me, and she was executed the same year I started working for Hitler. And at that moment I actually sensed that it was no excuse to be young, and that it would have been possible to find things out. - Traudl Junge Hitler's secretary, in Im toten Winkel - Hitlers Sekretärin (Blind Spot: Hitler's Secretary) - After visiting these two places you can easily see how that within a few years Hitler will emerge from the hatred that surrounds him now as one of the most significant figures who ever lived. He had boundless ambition for his country, which rendered him a menace to the peace of the world, but he had a mystery about him in the way that he lived and in the manner of his death that will live and grow after him. He had in him the stuff of which legends are made. - The Post-War diary of John F. Kennedy, as quoted in Prelude to Leadership (pages 73–74, last two paragraphs). - We can never forget that everything Hitler did in Germany was "legal" and everything the Hungarian freedom fighters did was "illegal." It was "illegal" to aid and comfort a Jew in Hitler's Germany. Even so, I am sure that, had I lived in Germany at the time, I would have aided and comforted my Jewish brothers. - Martin Luther King, Jr., "Letter from a Birmingham Jail" in The Essential Martin Luther King, Jr. - Hitler was a wonderful actor. At times when he was beating his breast and assuring his visitor of his own devotion to peace, I was almost overwhelmed by the performance; and I was tempted to believe that my judgement must have gone to pieces in ever doubting the man's sincerity. But he was also so fundamentally wicked, and this appeared so clearly in his conversation that one's reason eventually got the upper hand. As the years passed, power visibly corrupted him. He became more intolerant of any opposition, more convinced of his mission and more openly ruthless. There was less need to dissemble and he almost gloried in his wickedness. - Ivone Kirkpatrick, The Inner Circle (1959), p. 69 - Hitler was never interested in legitimate ambitions. Mr. Churchill was right when he called him "that wicked man", for he was a logical and ruthless criminal. - Ivone Kirkpatrick, The Inner Circle (1959), p. 91 - My reliable informants in the German camp had already made it clear to me that Hitler regarded the Prime Minister [Neville Chamberlain] as an impertinent busybody who spoke the ridiculous jargon of an out-moded democracy. The umbrella, which to the ordinary German was the symbol of peace, was in Hitler's view only a subject of derision. - Ivone Kirkpatrick, The Inner Circle (1959), p. 122 - By this time [September 1938] it was clear to me that Hitler was bent on having his little war. I felt that the interview could have little result and Hitler's behaviour was so offensive that I wanted never to see him again. He seemed to be enveloped in an aura of such ruthless wickedness that it was oppressive and almost nightmarish to sit in the same room. I therefore asked Wilson if I might be excused from attending. This was very pusillanimous since the interviews were certainly interesting and exciting enough for the most blasé of officials. I can only say that Hitler had inspired me with such a physical repugnance that I could not bring myself to go. - Ivone Kirkpatrick, The Inner Circle (1959), p. 124 - If he (Hitler) does not eat meat, drink alcoholic beverages, or smoke, it is not due to the fact that he has some kind of inhibition or does it because he believes it will improve his health. He abstains from these because he is following the example of the great German, Richard Wagner, or because he has discovered that it increases his energy and endurance to such a degree that he can give much more of himself to the creation of the new German Reich. - Walter C. Langer, "The Mind of Adolf Hitler", Walter C. Langer, New York 1972 p.54-55 - [T]he British people found it difficult, when they first heard of him, to take Hitler too seriously, with his Charlie Chaplin moustache and his everlasting raincoat. Naturally, nobody had bothered to read Mein Kampf. Nor could anybody see below the apparent insignificance of his appearance the deep, cunning, malignant brain. Here was concealed a combination of deceit and wickedness under a certain guise of plausibility, which can only now be fully grasped, when all the documents have been published and the whole evil story fully displayed to the world. - Harold Macmillan, Winds of Change, 1914–1939 (1966), p. 385 - Beneš made one further concession. On 4 September , in the hope of reaching a settlement, he offered to accept the demands of the Sudeten Germans; that is to say, complete local autonomy... What would happen now? Hitler's speech at Nuremberg, due to take place on 12 September, would perhaps give us the answer... We had in 1938 some kind of radio set... [N]o listener could fail to grasp the import of the venomous insulting sentences hissed out by the orator—raucous, maniacal, almost inhuman—and of the roars of "Sieg Heil!" from the frenzied audience, bawled out like the battle-cry of a horde of savages. - Harold Macmillan, Winds of Change, 1914–1939 (1966), pp. 552-554 - [T]he very decency of ordinary men and women in Britain was a handicap. In our insularity, we neither read Hitler's gospel, Mein Kampf, nor understood the nature of his movement, or the scale of his ambitions. We shut our eyes to the character of his internal régime and comforted ourselves that if Germany had become a police State, it was no worse than Russia. We did not realise the difference. One country was slowly emerging from, the other relapsing into, barbarism. In any event, Germany was then the immediate threat to Britain and to Europe. Hitler had, or so it would appear, an almost mesmeric effect upon many of his visitors of very different types and backgrounds. Chamberlain was only the last of a long series of dupes who, having made the pilgrimage to Berchtesgaden, unexpectedly fell under his spell for varying periods of time. After his first meeting at Berchtesgaden, Chamberlain got the impression "that here was a man who could be relied upon when he had given his word". All failed to realise his extraordinary methods as a negotiator; the depths of deceit which he would practise; and the infamies to which he would sink... Hitler was notoriously guilty of dishonest breaches of faith time after time; yet, for some strange reason, he continued to be believed. - Harold Macmillan, Winds of Change, 1914–1939 (1966), p. 577 - In its turn Germany longed for vengeance after its defeat in 1918. The Treaty of Versailles, the ‘Dictated’, was widely seen by Germans of all political persuasions as vindictive and unjust and it was held to blame for much that went wrong in Germany in the 1920s. An English journalist met two elderly sisters who said they could no longer send their laundry out once a week, all because of the treaty. Hitler and the Nazis rose to power in large part because they promised to break its ‘chains’. And break them Hitler did, declaring reparations payments at an end, openly breaching the disarmament clauses, moving troops into the demilitarised Rhineland and incorporating Austria into Germany. His aim was always much greater than destroying the treaty or making Germany the most powerful nation on the Continent. It was to give the German people – the Aryan race, as he thought of them – a huge territory befitting their status as the master race and, ultimately, ensure them domination of the world. Ideologies, whether idealistic, messianic, wicked or simply crackpot, lie at the heart of some of the greatest conflicts in history. Nationalists – and that covers a wide range, from the racists at one extreme to the patriots who value a shared culture and history at the other – have fought and killed and still do today in the name of the nation. ‘I regret,’ said the American revolutionary soldier Nathan Hale, ‘that I have but one life to lose for my country.’ - Margaret MacMillan, War: How Conflict Shaped Us (2020) - Hitler ... was a hero, the hero-as-monster, embodying what had become the monstrous fantasy of a people, but the horror upon which the radical mind and liberal temperament foundered was that he gave outlet to the energies of the Germans and so presented the twentieth century with an index of how horrible had become the secret heart of its desire. - Norman Mailer, Superman Comes to the Supermarket. (November 1960) - The man governed by license is prepared to destroy everything and everybody that stands in his way-himself first and foremost. Destruction and self-destruction are the inevitable consequences of license. The suicide of Hitler and his holocaust is the supreme example of self-destruction as the final stage of license. Hitler believed that the whole of Germany would gather around the fire he had lighted. I have read that he spent his last days issuing a constant stream of orders to armies that no longer existed or had disintegrated. He was indignant at these vanished armies for failing to carry out his instructions. His behavior is an excellent illustration of Sergei Bulgakov's observation that license always leads to loss of touch with reality. Bulgakov understood this at a time when license had still not taken on the extreme forms we have seen in our days. - Nadezhda Mandelstam Hope Abandoned (1974) - Five hundred years from now, it won't be Hitler we remember. Hitler may have set the century's agenda; he was a sort of vortex of negative energy that sucked everything else in. But I think God takes fallible human beings like Roosevelt or Churchill and carves them for his purposes. In five centuries, we'll look back and say the story of the century was not Hitler or Stalin; it was the survival of the human spirit in the face of genocide. - Rauschning, at the end of 1939, denounced Hitler and his movement as 'the apocalyptic riders of world annihilation', and as an eruption of 'the beast from the abyss'. National Socialism, he added, was 'the Saint Vitus's dance of the twentieth century'; if Hitler won the war, it would mean the end of everything that made life worth living. - Meir Michaelis, 'World Power Status or World Dominion? A Survey of the Literature on Hitler's 'Plan of World Dominion' (1937-1970)', The Historical Journal, Vol. 15, No. 2 (Jun., 1972), p. 335 - As far as Hitler is concerned, we regarded him as a true man. He was only a corporal when he earned the Iron Cross First Class in World War I. In those days that was quite an achievement. When he spoke at meetings or rallies he managed to captivate his audience. He was able to get us in a mood where we believed everything he said and we left fired with enthusiasms. Everyone I met respected and trusted Hitler and I myself shared these feelings and opinions. - Standartenoberjunker Jan Munk - SS - People ask me who my heroes are. I admire Hitler because he pulled his country together when it was in a terrible state in the early thirties. But the situation here [Vietnam] is so desperate now that one man would not be enough. We need four or five Hitlers in Vietnam. - Nguyen Cao Ky, July, 1965 interview with the Daily Mirror. - When I came back to my native country, after all the stories about Hitler, I couldn't ride in the front of the bus. I had to go to the back door. I couldn't live where I wanted. I wasn't invited to shake hands with Hitler, but I wasn't invited to the White House to shake hands with the president, either. - Jesse Owens, as quoted in "Owens Pierced a Myth" (2005), by Larry Schwartz, ESPN SportsCentury. - When I passed the chancellor he arose, waved his hand at me, and I waved back at him. I think the writers showed bad taste in criticizing the man of the hour in Germany. - Jesse Owens, as quoted in The Jesse Owens Story (1970). - My generation really grew up at a very scary time. This time is probably twice as scary, but since we didn't know this time was coming-the Second World War was coming, the Spanish Civil War was happening when I was in high school. Mussolini had invaded Ethiopia and made all those idiotic statements that are famous to this day. Like how beautiful it was to bomb the Ethiopians. The Italian kids in my school were in heaven, they were so delighted and proud they were fainting with joy. It was a scary time. Hitler was coming inch by inch by inch. I remember my parents talking about it. - 1985 interview in Conversations with Grace Paley - I met Hitler for the first time on June 9, 1932. ... I found him curiously unimpressive. ... I could detect no inner quality which might explain his extraordinary hold on the masses. He was wearing a dark blue suit and seemed the complete petit-bourgeois. He had an unhealthy complexion, and with his little moustache and curious hair style had an indefinable bohemian quality. His demeanour was modest and polite, and although I had heard much about the magnetic quality of his eyes, I do not remember being impressed by them. ... [A]s he talked about his party's aims I was struck by the fanatical insistence with which he presented his arguments. I realized that the fate of my Government would depend to a large extent on the willingness of this man and his followers to back me up, and that this would be the most difficult problem with which I should have to deal. - Franz von Papen, Memoirs (1952), p. 162 - In prison for his part in the 1923 putsch, Hitler rethought the Italian example in the light of his own failure and concluded that he could only win power through the ballot box. Electoral propaganda was at first directed primarily at industrial workers, in the hope of detaching them from the KDP. But in the 1928 elections showed unexpected gains amongst the Protestant peasantry, who had suffered badly from the agricultural crisis. From then on Nazi propaganda was more targeted at conservative voters, and this paid off with electoral breakthrough in 1930. - For want of alternatives, the conservatives made Hitler chancellor on 30 January 1933. Like Mussolini, Hitler alone bridged the gap between parliamentary and street politics. - Nazism and Fascism are thoroughly beaten, but I must admit that their defeat does not mean that barbarism and brutality have been defeated. On the contrary, it is no use closing our eyes to the fact that these hateful ideas achieved something like a victory in defeat. I have to admit that Hitler succeeded in degrading the moral standards of our Western world, and that in the world of today there is more violence and brutal force than would have been tolerated even in the decade after the first World war. And we must face the possibility that our civilization may ultimately be destroyed by those new weapons which Hitlerism wished upon us, perhaps even within the first decade after the second World war; for no doubt the spirit of Hitlerism won its greatest victory over us when, after its defeat, we used the weapons which the threat of Nazism had induced us to develop. - Karl Popper in "Utopia and Violence" (1947) - Before Hitler, we thought we had sounded the depths of human nature. He showed how much lower we could go, and that's what was so horrifying. It gets us wondering not just at the depths he showed us but whether there is worse to come. - Hitler was able to announce his lies and offer them to us, like a bullfighter offering the cape. But we are not that furious beast of compulsive habit and compulsive thrust. We are a group of individuals; it was our own lies and wishes we were believing. Many of these lies had taken root then, and now they flourish. - Muriel Rukeyser The Life of Poetry (1949) - Hitler is an outcome of Rousseau. - Bertrand Russell, A History of Western Philosophy, New York: Simon and Schuster, 1945, p. 685. - In his infamous memoir, Adolf Hitler regretted that, early in life, he’d seen anti-Semitism as persecution of a people on the basis of religious belief, which he thought wrong. He later came to think of this as a Jewish lie to hide the reality that the Jewish people were a separate “race” whose goal was to enslave the rest of mankind. It should not be lost that enslaving all of mankind is a concise summary of Hitler’s own political project. - Adam Serwer Article (2022) - But without Adolf Hitler, who was possessed of a demonic personality, a granite will, uncanny instincts, a cold ruthlessness, a remarkable intellect, a soaring imagination and – until the end, when, drunk with power and success, he overreached himself – an amazing capacity to size up people and situations, there almost certainly would never have been a Third Reich. - William L. Shirer, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich - Adolf Hitler is probably the last of the great adventurer-conquerors in the tradition of Alexander, Caesar and Napoleon, and the Third Reich the last of the empires which set out on the path taken earlier by France, Rome and Macedonia. The curtain was rung on that phase of history, at least, by the sudden invention of the hydrogen bomb, of the ballistic missile and of rockets that can be aimed to hit the moon. In our new age of terrifying, lethal gadgets, which supplanted so swiftly the old one, the first great aggressive war, should it come, will be launched by suicidal little madmen pressing an electronic button. There will be no conquerors and no conquests, but only the charred bones of the dead on an uninhabited planet. - William L. Shirer, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich (1960), p. xii - In retrospect, it is easy to see that the horrors inflicted upon the Jews of Germany on November 9 and the harsh and brutal measures taken against them afterward were portents of a fatal weakening which in the end would bring the dictator, his regime and his nation down in utter ruin. The evidences of Hitler's megalomania we have seen permeating hundreds of pages of this narrative. But until now he had usually been able to hold it in check at critical stages in his rise and in that of his country. At such moments his genius for acting not only boldly, but usually only after a careful calculation of the consequences, had won him one crashing success after another. But now, as November 9 and its aftermath clearly showed, Hitler was losing his self-control. His megalomania was getting the upper hand. The stenographic record of the Goering meeting on November 12 reveals that it was Hitler who, in the final analysis, was responsible for the holocaust of that November evening; it was he who gave the necessary approval to launch it; he who pressed Goering to go ahead with the elimination of Jews from German life. From now on the absolute master of the Third Reich would show little of that restraint which had saved him so often before. And though his genius and that of his country would lead to further startling conquests, the poisonous seeds of eventual self-destruction for the dictator and his land had now been sown. Hitler's sickness was contagious; the nation was catching it, as if it were a virus. - William L. Shirer, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich (1960), p. 435 - It was 3:30PM on Monday, April 30, 1945, ten days after Adolf Hitler's sixty-fifth birthday and twelve years and three months to a day since he had become Chancellor of Germany and instituted the Third Reich. It would survive him but a week. - William L. Shirer, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich (1960), p. 1133 - In Hitler’s world, the law of the jungle was the only law. People were to suppress any inclination to be merciful and be as rapacious as they could. Hitler thus broke with the traditions of political thought that presented human beings as distinct from nature in their capacity to imagine and create new forms of association. Beginning from that assumption, political thinkers tried to describe not only the possible but the most just forms of society. For Hitler, however, nature was the singular, brutal, and overwhelming truth, and the whole history of attempting to think otherwise was an illusion. Carl Schmitt, a leading Nazi legal theorist, explained that politics arose not from history or concepts but from our sense of enmity. Our racial enemies were chosen by nature, and our task was to struggle and kill and die. - Timothy D. Snyder, Black Earth: The Holocaust as History and Warning (2015) - In contrast to the ultimate realization that he was dealing with a formidable enemy in the east, Hitler clung to the end to his preconceived opinion that the troops of the Western countries were poor fighting material. Even the Allied successes in Africa and Italy could not shake his belief that these soldiers would run away at the first serious onslaught. He was convinced that these soldiers would run away from the first serious onslaught. He was convinced that democracy enfeebled a nation. As late as the summer of 1944 he held to his theory that all the ground that had been lost in the West would be quickly reconquered. His opinions on the Western statesmen had a similar bias. He considered Churchill, as he often stated during the situation conferences, an incompetent, alcoholic demagogue. And he asserted in all seriousness that Roosevelt was not a victim of infantile paralysis but of syphilitic paralysis and was therefore mentally unsound. These opinions, too, were indications, of his flight from reality in the last years of his life. - Albert Speer, Inside the Third Reich: Memoirs (1970), p. 306-307 - Hitler preached "superior and inferior races." Stalin challenged him in one of the most sweeping statements ever made of human equality: "Neither language nor color of skin nor cultural back-wardeness nor the stage of political development can justify national and race inequality". - Anna Louise Strong, The Stalin Era (1957), p. 57 - At the beginning of the twentieth century, few people would have suspected that a nation considered by many to be the most cultured, advanced and civilized would elect to power a homicidal maniac and allow him to seize total control of every institution in the country and every facet of the community. A man who maltreated, gassed and otherwise murdered millions of people based on their racial and ethnic background. - Stefan B. Tahmassebi, as quoted in "Gun Control and Racism" (1991), by S.B. Tahmassebi, George Mason University Civil Rights Law Journal , Virginia: George Mason University, p. 67 - The ruling elites in Britain and France failed to realize in time that they were not dealing with a slightly more excitable version of Weimar’s Gustav Stresemann or Heinrich Brüning. Hitler was a new phenomenon: an ideologically driven leader who sought not reasonable national satisfaction but absolute power. How did so many people miss seeing this catastrophe in the making until it was (almost) too late? Professional property and industrial developers use (when they can get away with it) a clever but none-too-moral method of gaining permission from the planning authorities for dubious projects. This entails applying for – and being granted – a succession of minor, apparently reasonable, and not necessarily dangerous-looking permissions until, in effect, these accumulate into a permitted project that would not have been allowed had the authorities been presented with the overall plan from the start. This is known in the business as ‘salami slicing’. With hindsight, we can see that Hitler was adept at the ‘salami-slicing’ technique in his relations with the British, French, Czechoslovaks, Poles and other interested parties during the later 1930s. By 1939, showing his characteristic mixture of boldness and guile, the Führer had accumulated what he needed, in territory, diplomatic clout and military strength, in order to dominate Europe – not to mention, potentially, the Eurasian lands to the east. During this same year, the democratic powers began to realize the true extent of his aims. Of course, by then it was far too late to thwart him without resorting to massive force. - Frederick Taylor, 1939: A People's History (2020) - Hitler had genuine admiration for the decisive manner in which the President had taken over the reins of government. - John Toland, Adolf Hitler: The Definitive Biography, New York, NY, Anchor Books, Doubleday (1992) p. 312n - Hitler's socialism was his own and subordinate to his secret aims. His concept of organized economy was close to genuine socialism but he would be a socialist only so long as it served the greater goal. - John Toland Adolf Hitler: The Definitive Biography New York: NY, Anchor Books—Doubleday (1976) p. 314 - [H]e never abandoned his hopes of transforming the country's economic life so as to facilitate the rise of a new meritocratic elite. Hitler merely adjourned the whole subject of the economy's future shape until the day when he would realize his grandiose plans for conquest of vast territories. He thus demonstrated sufficient realism to recognize that he could not prepare Germany for a great war while undertaking a fundamental reorganization of its economy. Accordingly, he left in place the economic elite he had inherited and harnessed its talents for his purposes. Some observers have taken this as proof that he never seriously intended to tamper with the existing social order. But if one reads the monologues to which Hitler subjected his private entourage during the early phases of World War II, when his armies seemed invincible and victory appeared within his grasp, one must come to a different conclusion. For in those monologues Hitler affirmed his intention to alter Germany's economic life after the war so as to do away with what he condemned as the flaws that permitted too much wealth to accumulate in the hands of too few, and too often in what he regarded as undeserving hands. To the end Adolf Hitler held to his quest for a "third way" between capitalism and socialism. - Henry Ashby Turner, German Big Business and the Rise of Hitler (1985), p. 358 - [T]he erstwhile corporal and his 'ridiculously dangerous' Nazis, as I described them in a report. After the [Munich] Putsch he qualified as a topic, pennilessly raging against trade unions, Marxists, Masons, the Treaty of Versailles. Physically insecure he embodied frustration, and rang the bells of nationalism, which felt impotent too. Released from prison as negligible, he produced a rambling book cribbed from Houston Chamberlain. Few guessed that this was the new German Bible. Nobody in Britain read it, though statesmen must keep abreast of nonsense if they are to appraise our prospects. He also pinched Roman salute and blood-bath from Musso, and compounded a Welthanschauung of racialism. He had moustached disciples, a crackpot economist, Feder, a flair for hustings and 25 points. One of them made sense, but not good sense. - Lord Vansittart, The Mist Procession (1958), p. 305 - It seems likely that more will be written about Adolf Hitler than about anyone else in history with the exception of Jesus Christ. ... As long as people are fascinated by the range and depth of evil, Hitler will find readers, for he was the Molech who devoured human beings in a regime that was "the negation of God erected into a system of Government." - Robert George Leeson Waite, The Psychopathic God : Adolf Hitler (1993), p. xi - When [Friedrich] Krohn and Hitler first met around the time that Hitler first attended a meeting of what was to become the Nazi Party, Hitler told him that he favored a 'socialism' that took the form of a 'national Social Democracy' that was loyal to the state, not dissimilar to that of Scandinavia, England, and prewar Bavaria. - Thomas Weber, Becoming Hitler: The Making of a Nazi, New York, NY, Basic Books, 2017, pp. 66-67 - In theory, all Munich-based military units and thus Hitler's regiment, too, were part of the Red Army. In that sense, Hitler served in the Red Army. In reality, however, most regiments neither actively supported the Soviet [Bavarian] regime nor opposed it. - Thomas Weber, Becoming Hitler: The Making of a Nazi, New York, NY, Basic Books, 2017, p. 52 - For genius he had, genius on the grandest scale, a genius which finally found expression in works beside which those of Wagner sink to the timid maunderings of a church organist. The Nazi party was his brush, the German nation his palette, Europe – the world – his canvas. With these he created out of his sick imagination, out of all the anger, bitterness, frustration and contempt which boiled within him, one stupendous, horrible and tragic masterpiece. It was not in Ireland that Yeats's "terrible beauty" was born: but in Germany. In Hitler the romantic movement reaches a conclusion at once logical and grotesque. The artist, having established his independence of the world, now returns upon it as conqueror. The unacknowledged legislator is at last acknowledged, and lays down the law. The arch-romantic bends the world to his will, and expresses himself at the world's expense. He makes a picture out of our reality.- Colin Welch, "Hitler the Arch-Romantic – and His Masterpiece", The Daily Telegraph (8 November 1960), quoted in Colin Welch, The Odd Thing About the Colonel & Other Pieces, eds. Craig Brown and Frances Welch (1997), p. 72 - Was there no resistance to his disastrous projects? There was. But it was too feeble, too weak and too late to succeed... The fact is that Hitler was beloved by his people—not the military, at least not in the beginning, but by the average Germans who pledged to him an affection, a tenderness and a fidelity that bordered on the irrational... Winston Churchill was the only man of state who unmasked Hitler immediately and refused to let himself be duped by Hitler's repeated promises that this time he was making his "last territorial demand." ... In his own "logic," Hitler was persuaded for a fairly long time that the German and British people had every reason to get along and divide up spheres of influence throughout the world. He did not understand British obstinacy in its resistance to his racial philosophy and to the practical ends it engendered... After Rommel's defeat in North Africa, after the debacle at Stalingrad and even when the landings in Normandy were imminent, Hitler and his entourage still had the mind to come up with the Final Solution. In his testament, drafted in a underground bunker just hours before his suicide in Berlin, Hitler returns again to this hatred of the Jewish people that had never left him. But in the same testament, he settles his score with the German people. He wants them to be sacked, destroyed, reduced to misery and shame for having failed him by denying him his glory. The former corporal become commander in chief of all his armies and convinced of his strategic and political genius was not prepared to recognize his own responsibility for the defeat of his Reich. - Unlike Mussolini [Hitler] spurned the 'proletariat' and its Marxism, which was as bad as Christianity in his eyes, for it, too, was the faith of the downtrodden and the weak. In Vienna perhaps, certainly later in Munich, Hitler picked up, with a smattering of Nietzsche, the opposite religion of the strong. - Elizabeth Wiskemann in The Rome-Berlin Axis (page 13). - ...crazy, tasteless even, as it may sound, the problem with Hitler was that he was not violent enough, that his violence was not 'essential' enough... - Slavoj Žižek, In Defense of Lost Causes (2008), as quoted by Adam Kirsch, "The Deadly Jester", The New Republic, December 2, 2008 The War Aims and Strategies of Adolf Hitler (2005) - by Oscar Pinkus, Jefferson, NC: McFarland - Adolf Hitler was... a slightly stooped man... with drooping shoulders and a pallid face. ...His voice was shrill and raucus. His... plebian face and general resemblance to a clerk contrasted sharply with his speech... Sulky, morbid and slightly unkept... Because of his rather frail physical frame, he was rejected by the Austrians for military service... When later in the war his eyesight deteriorated he avoided wearing spectacles... He feared flying and distrusted the sea. He refused to indulge in any sport or competition, saying "A leader cannot afford to be beaten in games." - Hitler... ate no meat, drank no alcohol, and did not smoke, nor would he allow others to smoke in his presence. Instead, he was fond of sweets. He was not interested in wealth... Of the six women with whom he was involved... five attempted or committed suicide... - Hitler's education was rudimentary. The grades he received in school were poor and he failed to finish high school. For this he hated his teachers. ...Except for newspapers and books on military tactics he had no interest in reading for, said he, "Only a confused jumble of chaotic notions will result from all this reading." - Hitler completely lacked what is a common human trait—a sense of shame. - Vague, wary, secretive, he preferred endless talk. He had a remarkable memory... employed false data and false facts and when discovered never flinched, arguing "The New Testament is full of contradictions but did not prevent spread the spread of Christianity." - Hitler can be described as a possessed psycopath... Whatever he... formulated remained unaltered throughout his life and no... facts ever altered it. He bent and slanted reality to suit his conceptions... - All major decisions were taken by Hitler, without any consultation... - He exterminated by class, by nationality, by race; everyone with a university degree, all retarded people, all gypsies, all Jews, all Russian POWs—slaughtering entire populations according to his private demons. - Hitler must be classed as a nihilist because he possessed not one positive idea or objective. ...He had no love or loyalty to anyone or anything. - Before he committed suicide he ordered the destruction of... the Reich, pronouncing... the German people had no right to exist, for they had proved inferior to the "Eastern Peoples." - Norman H. Baynes, ed. The Speeches of Adolf Hitler, April 1922–August 1939, Vols. 1 and 2, Oxford University Press, 1942. - John Cornwell, Hitler's Pope: The Secret History of Pius XII, Viking, 1999. - Richard Steigmann-Gall, The Holy Reich: Nazi conception of Christianity, 1919–1945, Cambridge University Press, 2003. Find more information on Adolf Hitler by searching Wikiquote's sister projects | | Encyclopedia articles from Wikipedia | | Dictionary definitions from Wiktionary | | Textbooks from Wikibooks | | Source texts from Wikisource | | Images and media from Commons | | News stories from Wikinews | | Learning resources from Wikiversity | - Hebrew Nations - Why Man Should Not Be As Cruel As Nature, bartleby.com. - "the+only+religion+i+respect+is+islam" 2 - Gibbs, Walter (27 February 2009). "Norwegian Nobel Laureate, Once Shunned, Is Now Celebrated". The New York Times. Retrieved on 16 May 2011.

http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Adolf_hitler

Religion

en

Oddball space rock 'Oumuamua, discovered over a year ago, is the first interstellar object to visit our solar system and is unlike any comet or asteroid observed before. But does that mean that intelligent aliens created it? A new study examining 'Oumuamua's orbit hints that they might have. Two astronomers with the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics (CfA) recently took a closer look at the cigar-shaped object's unusual acceleration during its trip through our solar system, to figure out what may have caused the unexpected boost in the object's motion. Such acceleration during orbit is characteristic of comets, because their icy bodies evaporate, expelling water vapor that propels the objects. But prior analysis of 'Oumuamua (which means "messenger from afar arriving first" in Hawaiian) suggested that the strange object was no comet. This implies that other factors shaped 'Oumuamua's trajectory, the scientists reported in a new study. They found that pressure from solar radiation could propel 'Oumuamua if the object — or part of it — is thin enough and strong enough to act as a type of "light sail," which generates propulsion using solar energy. Such a structure could have formed naturally, but it could also represent "a light sail of artificial origin" crafted by intelligent extraterrestrials, the researchers wrote. [9 Strange, Scientific Excuses for Why We Haven't Found Alien Life Yet] However, that conclusion is just one of the possibilities presented in the new study, published online Oct. 26 in the preprint journal arXiv and submitted to The Astrophysical Journal Letters. Even when 'Oumuamua still resided in our cosmic neighborhood — it has now zipped beyond the reach of our telescopes — scientists were investigating if it might represent an alien spacecraft. Astronomers in Australia pointed a powerful telescope at the 1,300-foot-long (400 meters) 'Oumuamua to see if they could detect radio transmissions that would indicate signs of life on board the object (or ship). But only silence came back from 'Oumuamua, Live Science previously reported. As the visiting 'Oumuamua left our solar system, images showed that the object was speeding up. But other images captured as 'Oumuamua passed close to the sun showed no trailing tail and no halo of vapor — something that astronomers would expect to see in a water-releasing comet, the researchers wrote. Vapor off-gassing when a comet swings close by the sun also affects such an object's spin, but 'Oumuamua's spin appeared unchanged as it accelerated. Whatever 'Oumuamua is, it certainly didn't behave like a comet, the study authors reported. Sign up for the Live Science daily newsletter now Get the world’s most fascinating discoveries delivered straight to your inbox. But if 'Oumuamua didn't get a boost from evaporating ice, how did the object speed up? The likeliest explanation is solar radiation pressure — the force applied to an object's surface by sunlight — with 'Oumuamua acting as a "solar sail," the study said. For that to work, the researchers calculated, the so-called sail would have to be thin enough to respond to the pressures of radiation, yet durable enough to travel great distances and withstand the wear and tear that comes with flying through space. The scientists calculated that a solar sail with a thickness of about 0.01 to 0.04 inches (0.3 to 0.9 millimeters) could survive the inevitable collisions and erosion that 'Oumuamua likely encountered during its long journey. "If radiation pressure is the accelerating force, then 'Oumuamua represents a new class of thin interstellar material," the scientists said. As to what may have produced this previously unseen material, it could have emerged naturally from the debris of a planet-forming disk in a distant solar system going "through a yet-unknown process," the study authors suggested. But there's also a chance that 'Oumuamua's novel structure was crafted deliberately, the researchers added. One possible scenario is that 'Oumuamua is a bit of light-sail debris broken off from an advanced form of extraterrestrial technology, drifting aimlessly in space. Or maybe it was sent here on purpose, the scientists added. "A more exotic scenario is that 'Oumuamua may be a fully operational probe sent intentionally to Earth vicinity by an alien civilization," the study authors wrote. Because the opportunity to capture images or samples of 'Oumuamua is long gone, "its likely origin and mechanical properties could only be deciphered by searching for other objects of its type in the future," the researchers concluded. Originally published on Live Science. Mindy Weisberger is an editor at Scholastic and a former Live Science channel editor and senior writer. She has reported on general science, covering climate change, paleontology, biology and space. Mindy studied film at Columbia University; prior to Live Science she produced, wrote and directed media for the American Museum of Natural History in New York City. Her videos about dinosaurs, astrophysics, biodiversity and evolution appear in museums and science centers worldwide, earning awards such as the CINE Golden Eagle and the Communicator Award of Excellence. Her writing has also appeared in Scientific American, The Washington Post and How It Works Magazine. Her book "Rise of the Zombie Bugs: The Surprising Science of Parasitic Mind Control" will be published in spring 2025 by Johns Hopkins University Press.

https://www.livescience.com/64020-oumuamua-aliens-design.html

Culture

en

Top 5 Facts: Uses of coal Coal-fired power stations generate 40% of global electricity. Heat from burning coal boils water, and steam spins a propeller. A machine turns this into electricity. - Iron and steel About 70% of steel is created using coke, a high-carbon fuel made from coal. It is burned to melt and remove impurities from iron ore during iron and steel production. The dandruff and head lice-zapping power of some shampoos is thanks to coal tar, a thick, dark-coloured liquid produced when goal is turned into coke or coal gas fuel. - Plant fertiliser Coal can be turned into ammonia fertiliser by breaking it into carbon monoxide and hydrogen gas. The hydrogen mixes with nitrogen to make ammonia. Concrete is a building material made with cement. Coal is burned to make heat for cement production. Waste ash from coal-fired power stations can replace cement in concrete.

http://www.howitworksdaily.com/top-five-facts-uses-of-coal/

Politics

en

By Israel Drazin Ancient Jews believed that many gods exist but felt that they should only worship y-h-v-h and maintained this notion for hundreds of years, and this fact is found in hundreds of verses in the Hebrew Bible. This is not monotheism, but monolatry. Monotheism is the belief that only a single god exists. Monolatry, from the Greek mono = one and latreia = service, is the belief that many gods exist but only one should be served. Today, Judaism is strictly monotheistic, but scholars have recognized the many examples in the Hebrew Bible of the ancient Israelites being monolatric (although there are also statements in the Hebrew Bible that are clearly monotheistic). The following are some examples of monolatry. The Decalogue, meaning ten statements, commonly called Ten Commandments even though the ten statements contain more than ten commands, begins with y-h-v-h telling the Israelites that while there are other gods, he is the one who helped them in the past, and he alone should be worshipped by them. “I am y-h-v-h your God.” This phrase “your God” reappears frequently in Scripture. God does not say, I am God, meaning the only one, but I am your god, meaning that other nations have a different god. This is similar to saying “I am your father,” meaning that there are other fathers but I belong to you and you to me. Y-h-v-h continues by telling the Israelites why they should serve him, because he, not the other gods, “brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage.” Then he says that although there are other gods “Thou shalt have no other gods before me,” meaning, don’t serve them. The Israelites are told that if they serve any of the other gods, he, y-h-v-h, will be angry “for I, y-h-v-h, your god, am a jealous god.” The famous statement called shema in Deuteronomy 6:4 reflects monolatry: “Hear Israel, y-h-v-h is our God; y-h-v-h is one.” Psalm 82:1 is clearly monolatric: “God (elohim) stands in the Assembly of God (el): in the midst of the judges, he judges.” Many other psalms express monolatry, for example those recited in the Jewish Friday night service. Psalm 95: “For y-h-v-h is a great god and a greater king than all (other) gods…. He is our god.” This psalm lists things that y-h-v-h did for the Israelites. Psalm 96: “Y-h-v-h is great and very praiseworthy. He is more awesome than other gods. For (while) the gods of the nations are gods, y-h-v-h made the heaven.” Psalm 97: “All gods bow to him…. You are exalted above all gods.” Psalm 98 has words that are similar to 96. Psalm 99 repeats four times y-h-v-h is “our god.” Psalm 29 and many other sources speak of the Israelites being “God’s people.” This concept that Jews are the “chosen people,” as in the prayer “you have chosen us from all other people,” is misunderstood because people don’t realize that it is a monolatric statement. It is not saying that Jews are special. It is saying that the Israelites understood that y-h-v-h decided to be the god of the Israelites who in turn agreed to serve him rather than the other gods. The repeated references to y-h-v-h being the god of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, rather than saying that Jews accept him because he is the only god, means that Jews are faithful to the tradition and belief of their ancestors; the ancestors accepted y-h-v-h as god, and so will we. We see this, for example, in Exodus 15: “This is my god, and I will beautify him, my father’s god, and I will exalt him.” The oft repeated phrase y-h-v-h elohim, usually translated “Lord God,” should be understood as “the God y-h-v-h” differentiating him from other gods. The scholar Arnold Ehrlich (1848-1919), author of Mikra Ki-pheshuto, “The Bible Literally,” offered two other interesting examples. When y-h-v-h first spoke with Abraham in Genesis 12, he asked Abraham to make a covenant with him: Abraham should serve him and he, in turn, would reward Abraham for his service. Ehrlich suggests that if Abraham believed that only one god exists there would have been no need for a covenant. God would have simply said, “I am God, serve me.” There would have been no need to bargain, establish a covenant, and promise payment for the service. Ehrlich gives an example: when Adam joined with (married) Eve, he didn’t make a covenant with her, binding her to remain faithful only to him, because there was no need for it; there were no other men for Eve to be unfaithful with. Similarly, in Genesis 14:18, Abraham gives ten percent of the loot he acquired during his battle against the four kings to Melchizedek the priest of el elyon. Ehrlich explains that Melchizedek was not a priest to y-h-v-h, for if he was, he would have been closer to y-h-v-h than Abraham. Abraham gave ten percent of his booty because he had battled in the land where el elyon was god, and he thought that this was the proper thing to do. However, immediately afterwards, in verse 22, Abraham made an oath to his own God, y-h-v-h. This are just some of hundred of biblical verses that could be cited showing monolatry. The ancient Jews were called B’nei Yisrael, Israelites, in most of the Hebrew Bible. It was only after 536 BCE when many Israelites returned from the Babylonian exile to the small area that once belonged to the tribe of Judah that the people were called Judeans, after their land, or Jews in short. The Jewish God is named y-h-v-h in the Hebrew Bible. We no longer know how to pronounce these consonants. They are frequently written as Jehovah. Since early time, Jews felt that they should respectfully not mention God’s name. Thus in the first translation of the Bible in about 250 BCE, the Septuagint, the Jewish Greek translators substituted the Greek word curios, which means Lord, and this practice of substituting Lord for y-h-v-h has continued in most Bible translations today. The term “hear” in the Bible is often used as a metaphor, as it is in English, meaning “accept.” […] or not these people did, in fact, have other gods after Yahweh. According to Israel Draze, “Ancient Jews believed that many gods exist but felt that they should only worship y-h-v-h and …” We see this throughout the Old Testament as the Hebrew people are to the polytheistic […] […] used by Luke to show a comparison of God himself and not the act of baptism. Ancient Jews practiced monaltry which is the belief that many gods exist but only one should be served. With this in mind, it is important to consider what a metaphoric dove could represent in the other […]

http://booksnthoughts.com/ancient-jews-believed-in-the-existence-of-many-gods/

Religion

en

How can we solve financial crisis? 10 ways to solve financial crisis | Solving a financial crisis is complex and depends on various factors, such as its causes and severity. The ten general steps include: 1. Identify Root Causes: Understand the underlying issues that led to the crisis, whether it's a banking crisis, debt crisis, or economic recession. 2. Stabilize Financial Institutions: Ensure the stability of banks and financial institutions to prevent further collapse. This may involve government intervention, like bailouts or guarantees. 3. Monetary Policy: Central banks can use monetary policy tools, like interest rate adjustments, to influence economic activity and control inflation. 4. Fiscal Policy: Governments can implement fiscal stimulus through increased government spending or tax cuts to boost economic activity. 5. Regulatory Reforms: Strengthen financial regulations to prevent future crises. This may include stricter oversight of banks and financial markets. 6. Debt Management: Develop strategies to manage public and private debt levels, as excessive debt can contribute to financial crises. 7. International Cooperation: Collaborate with other countries and international organizations to address global financial issues. 8. Transparency and Accountability: Promote transparency in financial markets and hold individuals and institutions accountable for irresponsible behavior. 9. Social Safety Nets: Implement social safety nets to protect vulnerable populations affected by the crisis. 10. Long-Term Planning: Develop strategies for sustainable economic growth and resilience to future shocks. Solving a financial crisis often requires a combination of these measures, tailored to the specific circumstances of the crisis. It's essential for governments, central banks, and international organizations to work together effectively to restore confidence and stability in the financial system.

https://www.infozoner.com.ng/2023/08/10-ways-to-solve-financial-crisis.html

Business

en

Plagiarism means presenting someone else’s work as your own without giving proper credit to the original author. In academic writing, plagiarism involves using words, ideas, or information from a source without including a citation. Plagiarism can have serious consequences, even when it’s done accidentally.. Here are some important points every student should know about plagiarism: - Severity Levels of Plagiarism: - Mild: When a source is cited in the text but left out of the reference list, or when quotation marks are omitted around a quote. The likely consequence is a grade penalty or an automatic zero. - Moderate: Involves copying text from a source with a few words changed or paraphrasing a source without proper citation. The consequence may be failing grade for the course. - Severe: When a patchwork of different texts is passed off as original work or when an entire paper is written by someone else. Consequences can include academic probation or expulsion. - High School and College Applications: - Plagiarism can also impact high school students and college applicants. Many high schools use plagiarism checkers, and colleges treat plagiarism seriously. Admissions officers may disregard an application if they find any part of it has been plagiarized. - Why Plagiarism Is Serious: - Dishonesty: Plagiarism indicates a lack of honesty about one’s work. - Harm to Others: It harms the original authors whose work is stolen. - Learning Hindrance: When you plagiarize, your own creativity and learning process are hindered. Remember, even accidental plagiarism can have consequences. Familiarize yourself with your institution’s plagiarism policy and always give credit where it’s due!

https://academicscores.com/2024/02/22/what-every-student-should-know-about-plagiarism/

Education

en

What do the years 2020, 2024, 2028, 2032, 2036, 2040, and 2044 have in common? They’re Presidential election years in U.S., the summer Olympics are scheduled to occur, and they’re Leap Years, when February gets an extra day and is 29 days long. But why? The reasoning behind it is a little complicated. For example, most people believe that leap year occurs once every four years, but that’s not always the case. Why do we have leap year? A calendar year is typically 365 days long. These so called “common years” loosely define the number of days it takes the Earth to complete one orbit around the Sun. But 365 is actually a rounded number. It takes Earth 365.242190 days to orbit the Sun, or 365 days 5 hours 48 minutes and 56 seconds. This “sidereal” year is slightly longer than the calendar year, and that extra 5 hours 48 minutes and 56 seconds needs to be accounted for somehow. If we didn’t account for this extra time, the seasons would begin to drift. This would be annoying if not devasting, because over a period of about 700 years our summers, which we’ve come to expect in June in the northern hemisphere, would begin to occur in December! By adding an extra day every four years, our calendar years stay adjusted to the sidereal year, but that’s not quite right either. Why aren't leap years always every four years? Some simple math will show that over four years the difference between the calendar years and the sidereal year is not exactly 24hours. Instead, it’s 23.262222 hours. Rounding strikes again! By adding a leap day every four years, we actually make the calendar longer by over 44 minutes. Over time, these extra 44+ minutes would also cause the seasons to drift in our calendar. For this reason, not every four years is a leap year. The rule is that if the year is divisible by 100 and not divisible by 400, leap year is skipped. The year 2000 was a leap year, for example, but the years 1700, 1800, and 1900 were not. The next time a leap year will be skipped is the year 2100. Why is it called "leap year"? Well, a common year is 52 weeks and 1 day long. That means that if your birthday were to occur on a Monday one year, the next year it should occur on a Tuesday. However, the addition of an extra day during a leap year means that your birthday now “leaps” over a day. Instead of your birthday occurring on a Tuesday as it would following a common year, during a leap year, your birthday “leaps” over Tuesday and will now occur on a Wednesday. And if you happen to be born on leap day February 29, that doesn’t mean you only celebrate a birthday every four years. On years without leap days, you get to celebrate your birthday on March 1 and continue to grow old like the rest of us. Thanks to leap year, our seasons will always occur when we expect them to occur, and our calendar year will match the Earth’s sidereal year.

http://www.speak2nigeria.com.ng/2024/02/the-science-of-leap-year.html

Education

en

While most people experience flatulence, swallowing air or eating certain foods like broccoli may cause it to occur more frequently. Some health conditions like celiac disease may cause excessive gas. Also known as farting, passing wind, or having gas, flatulence is a medical term for releasing gas from the digestive system through the anus. It happens when gas collects inside the digestive system and is a normal process. Gas collects in the digestive tract when your body breaks down food. It can also happen when you swallow air while eating or drinking. Gas is usually made up of oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and occasionally methane. On average, people experience flatulence between In some cases, gas can cause pain and bloating and affect your daily activities. Adjusting your diet, taking medications, and exercising may help reduce gas discomfort. Gas collects in two main ways. Swallowing air (aerophagia) while you eat or drink can cause oxygen and nitrogen to collect in the digestive tract. Second, as your body breaks down food, gases like hydrogen, methane, and carbon dioxide collect in the digestive tract. Either method can cause flatulence. It’s natural to swallow air throughout the day, normally during eating and drinking. Typically, you’ll only swallow a small amount of air. If you frequently swallow more air, you may find that you experience excessive flatulence. It may also cause burping. Reasons that you may swallow more air than normal include: - chewing gum - wearing loose dentures - sucking on objects like pen tops - drinking carbonated beverages - eating or drinking too quickly The foods you eat could lead to excessive flatulence. Carbohydrates, for example, are known to cause gas. Proteins and fats tend to cause less gas than carbohydrates. Some proteins can cause gas to have a stronger odor, though. Some foods that increase gas include: - Brussels sprouts - whole grains - dairy products - oat bran - foods high in fructose or sorbitol, like fruit juices and sugar-free candies - processed foods These foods can take a long time to digest, leading to the unpleasant smell associated with flatulence. Also, there are some foods the body can’t fully absorb. This means that they pass from the intestines to the colon without being completely digested first. The colon contains a large amount of bacteria that then break down the food, releasing gases as they do so. The buildup of this gas causes flatulence. Not all foods will cause gas in all people. Keeping track of the foods you eat and flatulence symptoms you experience can help narrow down which ones cause gas in your body. If your diet doesn’t contain a large amount of carbohydrates or sugars, and you don’t swallow excessive air, your excessive flatulence may be caused by a medical condition. The conditions that can cause flatulence range from temporary health issues to chronic digestive problems. Some of these conditions include: - food intolerances, like lactose intolerance - Crohn’s disease - celiac disease - eating disorders - ulcerative colitis - dumping syndrome - gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) - autoimmune pancreatitis - peptic ulcers You may be able to relieve excess gas and reduce flatulence through a mix of lifestyle changes and diet adjustments. Home remedies for flatulence include: - Keeping a food diary. This will help you figure out which foods increase gas in your body. After you identify some foods that cause you excessive flatulence, you can try to eat less of them or avoid them altogether. - Adjusting your diet. If your diet includes a large amount of carbohydrates that are difficult to digest, try to replace them. Carbohydrates that are easier to digest, such rice and bananas, are substitutes that may reduce flatulence. - Eating smaller meals more frequently. Eating around five to six small meals a day instead of three larger ones may be easier on your digestive system. - Trying to swallow less air. Avoid doing anything that may increase the amount of air that you swallow. This includes making sure that you’re chewing your food properly, and avoiding chewing gum, smoking, and straws. - Drinking lots of water. Staying hydrated can help you avoid constipation, which causes gas. - Exercising regularly. Some people find that exercising helps to promote digestion and can prevent flatulence. - Taking probiotics. Probiotics, like Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium, may promote regular digestion, which can help reduce gas. These can be found in over-the-counter (OTC) supplements and fermented foods, like sauerkraut and yogurt. - Using charcoal pads. Lining your underwear with a “fart pad” made of charcoal could help reduce odor in some cases of excessive flatulence. - Changing your posture. Sitting in an upright position can help your body release excess gas. - Using a heating pad. Placing a heating pad or hot water bottle on your belly can help reduce pain and cramping from excess gas. - Consuming ginger. Ginger is known to promote digestion. Improving your digestion may help relieve flatulence and bloating. Medications can also be used to treat flatulence, depending on the cause of the problem. Treatment options include: - OTC medications: Drugstores offer a variety of medications, like bismuth subsalicylate (Pepto-Bismol) and simethicone (Gas-X, Phazyme), that can help relieve flatulence. - Prescription drugs: Certain prescription medications can target underlying conditions, like IBS or small intestinal bacterial overgrowth, that cause gas. Treating the condition may, in turn, reduce flatulence. - Supplements: If you’re lactose intolerant, taking lactase (available OTC) may help relieve gas when you consume dairy products. Another supplement, alpha-galactosidase (Beano), can help the body break down legumes and vegetables in order to reduce gas. Before adding any medications or supplements to your diet, consider checking in with a healthcare professional to make sure they’re safe for you. If you’re concerned about flatulence, connect with a healthcare professional. They’ll ask about: - your symptoms - your diet - your eating and drinking habits (like meal sizes and how quickly you eat) - medications and supplements you take - your medical history They may also conduct a physical exam to check for swelling, tenderness, or sounds in your abdomen. This may include a physical exam of your rectum. A healthcare professional may order additional medical tests, including X-rays, blood tests, and stool tests, to see if a potential health problem is behind your flatulence. You may need to keep a food diary and adjust your eating habits as you work to find the cause of your excess gas. Severe and persistent flatulence can make an impact on your physical well-being. It may cause pain, cramping, bloating, and other uncomfortable symptoms. Excess gas can also create complications for your mental health. You may find it stressful or embarrassing to deal with frequent flatulence, especially in social situations. Relieving gas with home remedies, medications, or both can help reduce the likelihood of complications, though. Try different strategies to see which ones work best for you, and consider talking with a healthcare professional if flatulence is causing complications in your life. If you have unexplained flatulence, or if you experience the following symptoms along with flatulence, you should see your doctor: - swollen abdomen - abdominal pain - gas that’s persistent and severe - unintentional weight loss - blood in stool These symptoms may be a sign of a serious underlying condition.

http://www.healthline.com/symptom/flatulence

Romance

en

Semen is a bodily fluid that is secreted by the gonads of male animals. It contains spermatozoa and fructose and other enzymes that help the sperm to survive and facilitate successful fertilization. During the process of ejaculation, the semen is ejaculated from the seminal vesicle in the pelvis, which is where it is produced. Image Credit: Tatiana Shepeleva / Shutterstock.com Amount of semen per ejaculate The volume of semen released per ejaculate varies. It is estimated that an average of around 3.4 milliliters (mL) is ejaculated at one time. The amount ejaculated can be as high as 4.99 mL or as low as 2.3 mL. If there is a prolonged gap between ejaculations, the number of sperm in the semen increases, but there is no overall increase in the semen. Composition of semen Semen passes through the ejaculatory ducts and mixes with fluids from the seminal vesicles, the prostate, and the bulbourethral glands. The seminal vesicles produce a viscous, fructose-rich fluid. This forms around 65-70% of the semen base. The white color of the semen is due to secretion from the prostate glands containing enzymes, citric acid, lipids, and acid phosphatase which, taken together, forms around 25-30% of the semen base. At each ejaculation, around 200-500 million spermatozoa are released by the testes. This forms about 2-5% of the semen composition. The bulbourethral glands produce a clear secretion that helps in the mobility of the sperm cells in the vagina and cervix. In addition, this clear secretion reduces the thickness of the channel that the sperm cells swim through and adds a cohesive, jelly-like consistency to the semen. The glands’ secretion contributes less than 1% to the overall semen composition. Semen also contains more than 50 different compounds including hormones, endorphins, neurotransmitters, and immunosuppressants. Other substances present in the semen include: - Ascorbic acid - Blood group antigens - Citric acid - Vitamin B12 - Uric acid - Lactic acid - Vitamin C Semen also consists of a variety of proteins that have antimicrobial activity against bacteria, viruses, and fungi. Possible beneficial effects of consumption of semen Also present in the semen are mood-enhancing compounds such as cortisol, estrone, oxytocin, thyrotropin-releasing hormone, prolactin, melatonin, and serotonin. For this reason, scientists have begun studying the health benefits of semen intake, both orally and vaginally. Some of the studies into the effects of swallowing semen are described here. In a Dutch study of women who engaged in oral sex and swallowed the semen, the researchers found that swallowing semen was associated with a lower risk of preeclampsia. One hypothesis for this is that substances in the semen adapt the mother’s immune system so that it accepts foreign proteins present in sperm, as well as in the placenta and fetus. This maintains the blood pressure at a low level and thereby reduces the preeclampsia risk. Research has also shown that some women are infertile or miscarry due to the presence of antibodies that destroy the proteins or antigens present in their partner’s semen. Having oral sex and swallowing the semen of the partner may help make the pregnancy safer and more successful as the woman is swallowing her partner's antigens. Work carried out by reproductive expert and psychologist Gordon Gallup from the State University of New York (SUNY) at Albany suggests that swallowing semen could provide a cure for morning sickness. Gordon hypothesizes that pregnant women vomit as a result of their bodies rejecting genetic material in the sperm as a foreign substance, but that by swallowing and ingesting the sperm of the baby’s father, they can build up immunity. In a study conducted by researchers from the University of Saskatchewan, a protein in semen was found to act on the female brain to induce ovulation. That protein is the same molecule that controls the growth, maintenance, and survival of neurons. The findings suggest that semen may work as a signaling hormone that acts via the hypothalamus and pituitary gland of the female brain, which triggers the release of other hormones involved in prompting ovulation. Some studies have shown that semen extracted from bulls rejuvenates damaged hair. Semen has been found to contain many proteins that may complement the protein present in hair molecules. Possible disadvantages of consumption of semen Semen can contain several viruses that may be transmitted via bodily fluids from an infected man. Some common examples of such sexually transmitted infections (STIs) include the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), hepatitis B and C, herpes, and chlamydia. The risk of transmitting an STI through oral sex is higher if there is an open sore in the mouth or if a person has gingivitis and bleeding gums. According to the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, hepatitis B can also be transmitted through contact with infected semen if an open sore is present in the mouth. Human papilloma virus The human papillomavirus has emerged as a serious concern in relation to oral sex. This virus can cause cervical cancer, anal cancer, and the development of other growths such as genital warts. In 2013, some research suggested the virus can even cause lung cancer. In 2010, a multinational review published in the British Medical Journal demonstrated that the incidence of oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma is on the rise in Western countries and that this increase seems to be linked to HPV, particularly the HPV-16 strain. The article implied that HPV is spread through sex, but in particular, oral sex. Chlamydia and gonorrhea The transmission of chlamydia and gonorrhea through oral sex has also become a concern. In May 2011, a study of female commercial sex workers showed that one in 25 of the workers had chlamydia in their throats. In addition, one in 50 of the sex workers had gonorrhea in their throats. Cultural practices and beliefs Some cultures believe that semen has special properties of masculinity. The idea of semen being associated with masculinity was prevalent in ancient Greece when Aristotle considered semen to be very important. To this end, Aristotle said that a connection existed between blood and semen, in that semen was produced from blood using body heat. Aristotle also believed that too early initiation of sexual activity may mean a loss of semen and, subsequently, a loss of valuable and much-needed nourishment. In Papua New Guinea, some communities believe that semen provides sexual maturation to the younger men of the tribe. The tribes believe that the semen of older men can bestow manliness and wisdom to the younger men and for this reason, the younger men fellate their elders in order to receive their authority and powers. In ancient eastern cultures, gemstones are believed to be drops of divine semen. Chinese believe jade is the dried semen of the celestial dragon.

http://www.news-medical.net/health/Swallowing-Semen.aspx

Romance

en

As with every year around this time, stories have been coming thick and fast about those parts of the world less inclined to get into the Christmas spirit. This year it is the Sultan of Brunei and Somalia who are leading the anti-Xmas charge, with the former banning Santa hats and the latter outlawing the Christian festival altogether. But animosity towards the festival is no new phenomenon. It was banned by the pilgrims when they first arrived in the New World and by the puritans under Oliver Cromwell in the UK. A number of socialist countries banned Christmas – some still do – long before the Muslim states that make headlines for their anti-Yule crackdowns in 2015. And while there are still a number of countries where Christians are forbidden from celebrating the day associated with the birth of Jesus, recent years have seen a number where restrictions have been lifted, including China, Cuba and Albania, while in Iraq and Pakistan the festival is being marked in both public and private despite violent radical insurgencies and other challenges. Below, IBTimes UK looks at the history of banning Christmas. Oliver Cromwell overthrew the monarchy and oversaw the execution of King Charles I during the English Civil War, but for many the fiery Puritan leader is better known for banning mince pies. Christmas and the celebration of saints' days was discouraged – if not prohibited – in England between 1647 and 1660 as the country was ruled by a puritanical movement that considered the feast day 'giving liberty to carnal and sensual delights'. They mandated that shops had to remain open and cracked down on celebrations, leading to violent clashes on the streets of London and other cities. Life returned to normal after Cromwell's death in 1658 and the Restoration two years later. Brunei banned public celebrations of Christmas and imposed fines and jail terms for those caught celebrating the festival last year, an edict that was reiterated this week by religious leaders writing in local newspaper, the Brunei Times. "These enforcement measures are ... intended to control the act of celebrating Christmas excessively and openly, which could damage the aqidah [beliefs] of the Muslim community," they said. It specifically banned the wearing of Christmas costumes such as Santa hats, the lighting of candles, the signing of religious songs and putting up decorations such as Christmas trees. The Sultan of Brunei, a billionaire who owns hotels across the world, introduced a strict interpretation of Sharia law on the territory last year. The reclusive former Soviet republic country's education ministry issued a decree in December outlawing Christmas trees, the exchange of presents, fireworks and festive meals. Sky News reported that while the restrictions in 2015 are the strongest yet, anti-Christmas regulations have been getting increasingly restrictive over the last few years in the Muslim-majority country. In 2014, the Tajik government banned Father Christmas and three years earlier a man dressed as Santa was stabbed to death in the capital on New Year's Eve. Tajikistan also bans Halloween and in 2013 and 2014 police rounded up revellers dressed as zombies and vampires. 4. Saudi Arabia Little surprise that Saudi Arabia, a theocracy governed by the strict Wahhabi doctrine of Islam, is not a big fan of Christmas. In the past, expatriates had quietly celebrated in the comfort of their own homes (and will likely continue to) but rumours of illicit Christmas parties prompted state media in January to reiterate that celebrating the festival was not allowed in the kingdom. It went further by forbidding Muslims from greeting non-Muslims at Christmas, with a Saudi scholar saying: "If they celebrate the birth of God's son and you greet them... it means you endorse their faith." This week it emerged that some expatriates in Saudi Arabia were going further, tweeting pictures of their Christmas trees and children dressed for the occasion. 5. North Korea Back in 2013 North and South Korea almost went to war after the latter erected a giant Christmas tree at the border of the two countries. North Korean state media said that the huge Christmas tree – which was lit up in a town close to the border and clearly visible from the North – was an act of psychological warfare. North Korea does not officially ban Christianity but is ranked among the most hostile countries in the world towards Christians. To complicate matters, December 24<sup>th – Christmas Eve – is celebrated in North Korea as the birthday of the Sacred Mother of the Revolution, Kim Jong Il's mum. Albania not only banned Christmas but religion as a whole in 1967, making the country the first and only constitutionally atheist state. The ban on any and all religious worship was only lifted after the fall of the Communist regime in 1990, when both Christians and Muslims were able to practice for the first time. During the Communist years many priests and religious leaders were rounded up and jailed, but the pious celebrated Christmas and Easter nonetheless in private. They would have cake or chicken at meal times as a way of marking the days Puritans, up to their usual tricks, attempted to ban Christmas when they arrived in the New World in 1620. They branded the festival 'Foolstide' and decreed that the only religious day that should be celebrated was the Sabbath. The Puritans managed to keep the ban going until the middle of the 18<sup>th century, at one point even arresting the Sir Edmund Andros, the Governor of Massachusetts, when he tried to sponsor a Christmas service. Fidel Castro announced the Cuban government as atheist as soon as it took power in 1959 but it wasn't until 1969 that the Communist leader actually banned Christmas, as he wanted the population to stop partying and start working on the sugar harvest. It was Pope John Paul II who eventually persuaded the ageing Cuban leader to lift his ban during a visit in 1998, when Castro agreed to make the day a national holiday. Somalia banned Christmas in 2013 when a directive from the Ministry of Justice and Religious Affairs stated that no Christian festivals could be held in Somalia. Sheikh Ali Dhere, the country's director of religious matters, called a press conference a week before Christmas to make the announcement. "We alert fellow Muslims in Somalia that some festivities to mark Christian days will take place around the world in this week. It is prohibited to celebrate those days in this country," he said. It was the first time that the Somali government had banned Christmas since the country's government collapsed in 1991. In 2015, the government in Mogadishu went further, banning New Year's Eve celebrations and ordering the police and army to disperse any celebrations it found. Christmas and Christianity as a whole were banned in China after 1949 but you would not know that if you were to visit during the festive season today. China goes mad for Christmas, and it is not just Chinese Christians that get in on the act – while Christmas is not a national holiday it is a widely celebrated festival day, akin to New Year, with fireworks and fancy dress in abundance. While Santa Claus costumes and hats are a common sight on the streets of Shanghai or Beijing during Christmas, other costumes are less traditional – devil horns, for example, are sold widely to mark the day. Couples also like to treat Christmas as akin to Valentine's Day, exchanging gifts and going out for romantic meals. Local media reported in 2012 that, like in the West, the Chinese use Christmas an opportunity to hit the shops, with Christmas Eve the biggest shopping night of the year for some retailers. © Copyright IBTimes 2024. All rights reserved.

http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/santa-not-welcome-ten-countries-that-banned-christmas-1534567

Religion

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The Freedman's Savings and Trust Company and African American Genealogical Research By Reginald Washington Among the most underused bodies of federal records useful for African American genealogical research are the records of the Freedman's Savings and Trust Company. Chartered by Congress in early 1865 for the benefit of ex-slaves, the surviving records relating to the bank and its collapse are a rich source of documentation about the African American family. In an effort to protect the interests of depositors and their heirs in the event of a depositor's death, the branches of what is generally referred to as the Freedman's Bank collected a substantial amount of detailed information about each depositor and his or her family. The data found in the files provide researchers with a rare opportunity to document the black family for the period immediately following the Civil War. In a meeting in New York on January 27, 1865, John W. Alvord, a Congregational minister and abolitionist, met with more than twenty philanthropists and leading members of the business community to explore the idea of establishing a savings bank for the benefit of African American soldiers. Alvord, who had worked with these soldiers in a variety of humanitarian ventures, informed the group that many black soldiers who were receiving back pay and bounty payments for enlisting in the service had no safe place to deposit their money. Others, who lacked experience in the business of managing their own affairs, were either squandering their pay or being victimized by swindlers. Alvord proposed a plan to establish a "benevolent" banking institution that would provide African American soldiers with a secure place to save their money and at the same time encourage "thrift and industry" in the African American community.(1) The Alvord plan was not the first attempt to assist the African American soldier to save. A few states in the North had instituted an "allotment" system that allowed both black and white soldiers to have portions of their pay deducted each month and sent to relatives or held by military officials until the soldiers left the service. Several concerned military commanders had also made attempts to assist African American soldiers, as well as civilians, to save for the future. In 1864, for example, Gen. Rufus Saxton, created the Military Savings Bank at Beaufort, South Carolina, eventually known as the South Carolina Freedmen's Savings Bank, to secure the deposits of African American soldiers and civilians. In the same year, Gen. Benjamin Butler established a similar bank in Norfolk, Virginia. In Louisiana, Gen. Nathaniel Banks established the "Free Labor Bank," which maintained deposits from thousands of African American soldiers and former slaves who worked on plantations under the control of the federal government. While these early efforts met with some success, Alvord saw them as temporary measures. In his view, a permanent savings bank was needed if African Americans were to make a successful transition from slavery to freedom and to be truly incorporated into the economic mainstream of American society.(2) After several reviews of the Alvord proposal, the New York group voted overwhelmingly for the plan and concluded that a charter should be secured from the federal government. On February 13, 1865, with the assistance of Senator Charles Sumner of Massachusetts, a bill to incorporate the Freedman's Savings and Trust Company was brought before Congress. After a brief discussion and some confusion about where the bank would be located, "An Act to Incorporate the Freedman's Savings and Trust Company" was signed into law by President Abraham Lincoln on March 3, 1865.(3) The act had a clear objective and purpose: a simple savings institution created primarily for former slaves and their descendants. The deposits received by the bank--with the exception of a fund set aside for operating costs and other emergencies--were to be invested in "stocks, bonds, Treasury notes, or other securities of the United States." The charter suggested that "no loans would be made" and that "all the assets of the Bank were owned by the depositors in proportion to the deposits of each." A board of fifty trustees was authorized to managed the bank, and the company's books "were to open for inspection and examination to such persons as Congress would appoint."(4) While the act made no provisions for branch offices outside the District of Columbia, Alvord always planned that the bank open branches where there were large African American communities, especially in the South. By January 1866, with its headquarters in New York (moved to Washington, D.C., in 1867) and the assets of the two military banks at Norfolk and Beaufort transferred to the company, Alvord and other bank officers moved with missionary-like zeal to open branches in Richmond, Charleston, Savannah, New Orleans, Vicksburg, and Houston. Between 1865 and 1871 the Freedman's Bank opened some thirty-seven branch offices in seventeen states and the District of Columbia. In less than a decade, an estimated seventy thousand depositors had opened and closed accounts, with bank deposits totaling more the fifty-seven million dollars.(5) In early 1874, however, overwhelmed by the effects of a 1870 amendment to its charter that changed its loan and investment policy, the Panic of 1873, problems of overexpansion, mismanagement, abuse, and outright fraud, the Freedman's Bank was on the brink of collapse. In March 1874, in an effort to maintain the confidence of its depositors, who had made "runs" on several of the branch offices, bank officials elected Frederick Douglas as president. Unaware of the true state of the bank's affairs, Douglass invested ten thousand dollars of his own money to demonstrate his faith in its future. After a few months of assessing the condition of the company, however, Douglass realized that he was "married to a corpse" and recommended to Congress that the bank be closed.(6) Congress, by an act of June 20, 1874, authorized the trustees, with approval of the secretary of the treasury, to appointed a three-member board to take charge of the assets of the company and to report on its financial condition to the secretary of the treasury. On June 29, 1874, less than a week after the act passed, the Freedman's Bank closed. In 1881 Congress abolished a board of three commissioners and authorized the secretary of the treasury to appoint the comptroller of the currency to oversee the affairs of the bank. The comptroller was required to submit annual reports to Congress. The final report of the comptroller was made in 1920. The closure of Freedman's Bank devastated the African American community. An idea that began as a well-meaning experiment in philanthropy had turned into an economic nightmare for tens of thousands African Americans who had entrusted their hard-earned money to the bank. Contrary to what many of its depositors were led to believe, the bank's assets were not protected by the federal government. Perhaps more far-reaching than the immediate lost of their tiny deposits, was the deadening effect the bank's closure had on many of the depositors' hopes and dreams for a brighter future. The bank's demise left bitter feelings of betrayal, abandonment, and distrust of the American banking system that would remain in the African American community for many years. While half of the depositors eventually received about three-fifths of the value of their accounts, others received nothing. Some depositors and their descendants spent more than thirty years petitioning Congress for reimbursement for losses.(7) The surviving records of twenty-nine branches of the Freedman's Bank are reproduced on National Archives Microfilm Publication M816, Registers of Signatures of Depositors in Branches of the Freedman's Savings and Trust Company, 1865-1874. This publication reproduces fifty-five volumes of signatures of and personal identification data about thousands of depositors who maintained accounts with the bank. While the amount of information collected by each branch varied, the records generally show the name of the depositor; account number; age; complexion; date of application; place of birth; place raised; occupation; spouse; children; names of parents, brothers, and sisters; remarks; and signature. Some of the earlier volumes contain the names of former owners or mistresses and the plantations where depositors resided. Some entries include copies of death certificates. The signatures of depositors are arranged alphabetically by name of the state, thereunder by name of the city in which the branch was located, thereunder by date when the account was established, and thereunder by account number. The registers of signatures are not indexed, however. National Archives Microfilm Publication M817, Indexes to Deposit Ledgers in Branches of the Freedman's Savings and Trust Company, 1865-1874, reproduces forty-six volumes of indexes to deposit ledgers that provide the names and account numbers of depositors in twenty-six branch offices of the Freedman's Bank. Some volumes show the amount of the deposit. The deposit ledgers themselves are not in the National Archives, and it is not known if they still exist. The indexes are arranged alphabetically by state and thereunder by name of the city where the branch was located. The names are indexed, for the most part, alphabetically by the first letter of the surname. Because the index entries include account numbers, researchers can use them as a rough finding aid to the registers of signatures. See appendix. Researchers, however, should proceed with caution when using the indexes. More than one index exists for some bank offices, and some indexes are not arranged in strict alphabetical order. It is therefore necessary to examine every name under the letter of the alphabet beginning the surname. Some indexes do not list all depositors whose surnames appear in the registers of signatures; many account numbers are missing; and in some instances account numbers assigned to depositors in the index are different from those in the signature cards. In such cases, it is necessary to search entire rolls of signature cards for bank offices where an ancestor resided. If there were no bank offices in the state and city where an ancestor lived, researchers should search for information about ancestors in the records of branch offices in neighboring states and cities. The National Archives microfilm collection of the Freedman's Bank records also includes M874, Journal of the Board of Trustees and Minutes of Committees and Inspectors of the Freedman's Savings and Trust Company, 1865–1874. The minutes include those of the Agency Committee, Finance Committee, and Examining Committee, although some committees' minutes are incomplete. An Educational and Improvement Committee was also established, but no minutes for it have been found. Entries in the journal and the minutes are arranged chronologically by the date of the meetings. While these records have little or no genealogical value, they are, nevertheless, useful for studying the administrative activities and financial decisions of the company. Despite the dismal financial state of the Freedman's Bank when it closed, the three commissioners appointed to liquidate the assets of the bank and repay its depositors announced the first dividend payments on November 1, 1875. Between 1875 and 1883, the commissioners and the comptroller of the currency declared five dividend payments, amounting to 62 percent of what was actually owed to depositors. To receive dividend payments, depositors had to mail in their passbooks with their return address to Washington. Of the 61,131 depositors eligible to receive the dividends, only 29,996 sent in passbooks. Most of these depositors were holders of large accounts. Many small depositors—some 31,000—never requested their dividends. Other depositors had died or moved and could not be located by commissioners.(8) Many depositors grew to distrust the federal government or became frustrated with the bureaucratic and costly procedures required to obtain dividend payments. For example, in cases where depositors died, heirs had to submit an affidavit, executed before a notary public, swearing that they were the true heirs or descendants of the depositor.9 In addition to the affidavit, depositors or heirs who made claims but were unable to produce deposit books had to complete a questionnaire responding to the same questions that were asked of depositors at the time they opened their accounts with the bank. The responses were then compared with signature records for accuracy. For many claimants who lacked resources or could not read or write, meeting the government's requirements was extremely difficult. Nonetheless, among the "Letters Received by the Commissioners of The Freedman's Savings and Trust Company and by the Comptroller of the Currency, 1870–1914," researchers will find numerous letters, passbooks, and questionnaires that were sent to commissioners regarding individual accounts and dividend payments. Also interspersed among these files are legal papers, dividend checks, payrolls, vouchers, loan papers, bonds, and insurance policies and deeds. These records have not been microfilmed and have a variety of arrangement schemes. The passbooks, for example, are arranged alphabetically by the city and thereunder alphabetically by the name of the depositor; the questionnaires are arranged alphabetically by the name of the depositor or heir; and the miscellaneous papers are unarranged. While most of the information found in the letters received relates to the liquidation of the bank, the records should be examined for genealogical data concerning depositors and their heirs. In some cases, these unfilmed records may be the only records available that document an ancestor's relations with the Freedman's Bank. The thirty-four volumes of "Letters Sent by Commissioners of the Freedman's Savings and Trust Company and by the Comptroller of the Currency as Ex Officio Commissioners, 1874–1913," like the letters received, relate primarily to the liquidation of the Freedmen's Bank. Some documentation in the files, however, concerns responses by commissioners to inquiries from depositors and their descendants about individual accounts. Also included are letters sent by commissioners and the comptroller soliciting the help of African American community leaders and other local officials in locating depositors or their heirs who were due dividend payments. The letters are arranged chronologically with an index in each volume. The sixteen volumes of "Dividend Payment Records, 1882–1889," are arranged by the city in which the branch office was located and thereunder by the depositor's account number. The records contain the amount a depositor had in his or her account when the bank closed and the number and amount of dividend payments received. Researchers examining these files will need to know the account numbers obtained from the signature records and the indexes to deposit ledgers. Freedman's Bank Depositors To encourage deposits and to convince the African American community that their money was in safe hands, Freedman's Bank officials used a number of methods and tactics. Passbooks and other bank literature contained numerous slogans and poems "on temperance, frugality, economy, chastity, the virtues of thrift & savings." Bank advertisements frequently included the names of prominent government officials, such as Abraham Lincoln and Oliver Otis Howard, often to the point of misleading depositors into believing that their deposits were backed by the federal government. Depositors were constantly reminded during public meetings and other bank-sponsored gatherings that the bank was under the charter of Congress, and thus under its complete protection. One writer remarked, "Small wonder that most freedmen never knew that the only power Congress had over the Bank was the right to inspect the books if it wished—which it didn't."(10) With such assurances that their deposits were safe, African Americans from a wide variety of backgrounds and occupations opened accounts with the Freedman's Bank between 1868 and 1874 at a phenomenal rate. Farmers, laborers, cooks, janitors, nurses, porters, seamstresses, carpenters, washers, draymen, gardeners, shoemakers, blacksmiths, and barbers deposited their savings. For many of these depositors, who were for the first time in their lives receiving wages for their services, owning a bank account was a great source of pride and excitement. Perhaps one of these enthusiastic depositors was Dilla Warren. Warren opened an account with the New Bern, North Carolina, branch on November 2, 1869. Her signature records not only provide an interesting example of the value of the Freedman's Bank records for genealogical research but also give a tragic example of the effect slavery had on the stability of the African American family. Warren, who turned fifty on February 17, 1869, was born in Chowan County, North Carolina. Despite being crippled, she was self-employed and made her living from sewing, knitting, washing, and ironing. Her husband, Pompey Nixon, was "sold away" seventeen years before the Civil War. Her signature records list eleven of her fifteen children, including those who either died or were sold: Harriet Ann (sold away), Ned Clark (sold), Oscar and Andrew (twins, both dead), Flora(dead), Joseph (dead), Ruess (dead), Lilla (dead), James Clark, and Jane and Maria (twins, both dead). Warren's father, Ned Clark, was sold thirty years before the Civil War. Her mother, Harriet Nixon, along with her two brothers, Ned and Allen, was sold seventeen years before the war. Another brother, Andrew M., was killed by lighting. Warren's signature records also provide the names of her two sisters, Ann Carter (sold thirty-five years before Warren opened her account) and Maria Gregory. Warren indicated that at the time of her death, any money in her account should be given to Edward Paxton, the son of her deceased brother, Andrew.(11) James Clinket (or Clinkot) deposited $225 in the District of Columbia branch on January 27, 1866. Born in King George County, Virginia, Clinket's former owners were Pinsett and Louisa Taylor. He and his wife, Julia, had three children: Mary S., Patsy, and Isaac. Clinket was among several depositors at the District of Columbia branch who listed their residence as Freedmen's Village.(12) Freedmen's Village was one of a number of contraband camps established in the Washington area in the early 1860s under the jurisdiction of various entities of the War Department. Between 1865 and 1870, the Bureau of Refugee, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands, commonly referred to as the Freedmen's Bureau, administered the village's affairs. The village served as refuge for thousands of fugitive slaves and other destitute freedmen, who came largely from Maryland and Virginia. Located near Arlington Heights, Virginia, on the estate formerly owned by Confederate Gen. Robert E. Lee, the camp stood as a "national showcase." Dotting the grounds were some fifty dwellings, a hospital, a home for the indigent, a school, a chapel, a variety shop, and several parks.(13) To promote "self-efficiency and industry" among its residents, all "able-bodied" men and women were required to work, and those who could, paid "house rent."(14) While Clinket's signature records do not mention his age or occupation, a September 1866 Freedmen's Bureau report of persons hired at Freedmen's Village indicates that Clinket--who was thirty-nine years old at the time—worked as a laborer at the camp, earning eight dollars a month. In another undated bureau report (probably 1866) showing the number of village residents who rented land, Clinket is listed as having rented five acres at ten dollars a year.(15) At the branch office in Augusta, Georgia, Stephen Brown, a forty-nine-year-old farmer, opened an account on January 21, 1871. Brown, who was born in the Barnwell District of South Carolina, lived in Land Hills, Georgia, with his second wife, Henrietta (his first wife is listed as Lidney). His son, Wilson Brown, apparently "went off" after Emancipation. Brown's mother and father were recorded as Hetty Jacob and Nixon Brown (dead). Also listed were his three brothers: Sam Flowers (dead), Dick Brown, and Brister Brown (dead). Brown's five sisters and their husbands were also documented in the files: Dilsey (wife of Dick Dunbar), Becky (wife of Cicero Campbell), Charlotte (wife of Lang Jenkins), Nanny (wife of Frank Wood), and Jane (wife of William Cook).(16) Stephen Brown, like many former slaves who held accounts at the Freedman's Bank, were not only able to amass small sums of money during slavery but managed to accumulate personal property as well. During the Civil War, hundreds of ex-slaves, free blacks, and whites had property seized by Federal troops as they advanced through the South. Brown filed a claim in 1871 before the Commissioners of Claims seeking compensation for a mule, hogs, corn, and bedding taken by "Yankee" soldiers from his owner's plantation. The Commissioners of Claims, commonly referred to as the Southern Claims Commission, was established by Congress on March 3, 1871, to review the claims of citizens who had property taken by Union forces and make recommendations for payment. Persons who submitted claims were required to show clear proof of ownership and provide satisfactory evidence that they had remained loyal to the federal government throughout the war. Brown told how he and his wife had been able to accumulate the property in his claim from the sale of crops produced from land set aside for them by their owner, John Lawson. In an attempt to convince commissioners of his loyalty to the federal cause, Brown alleged that he had received one hundred lashes from his owner for hiding a Yankee soldier in his home. In the end, though, Brown's claim was rejected.(17) The depositor most sought after by the Freedman's Bank, particularly during the early years of expansion, was the African American soldier. The back pay and bounty money of these soldiers composed the bulk of the first deposits in many of the branch banks. Bank cashiers were instructed to be present whenever soldiers were being paid, and they worked closely with Freedmen's Bureau distribution officers--who by an act of Congress of March 1867 were given the sole responsibility for distributing the back pay and bounties of African American soldiers—to secure whatever portion of a soldier's money they could. In a number of bank branches—Vicksburg, Mobile, Charleston, Jacksonville, Norfolk, and Louisville—cashiers doubled as bureau distributing officers.(18) Cashiers were not the only bank officials who held dual positions at both the bank and the bureau. John Alvord himself served as president of the bank while holding down the position of general superintendent of education of the bureau. This close relationship with the Freedmen's Bureau added to the depositors' belief that the Freedman's Bank was a federal government institution. The signature records of African American soldiers are perhaps one of the best examples of how documentation found in one body of federal records can lead a researcher to additional information in the records of another. One such record is the signature file for Jacob Reiley. Reiley, a twenty-two-year-old who had served with Company B of the Thirty-third United States Colored Troops (USCT), opened an account at the Savannah, Georgia, branch on April 6, 1866. Although living in Screven County at the time he opened his account, Reiley was born in Augusta, Georgia, where he was owned by Josiah Sibley. His signature records indicate that while in the military he had been a cook for General Sherman. Reiley's file gives the names of his stepfather, George Scott, and his mother, Tina. Also listed are his brother, Sandy, and three sisters, Alice, Amanda, and Cynthia. The file indicates that his natural father (no name given) resided in the Barnwell District in South Carolina.(19) The information in Reiley's signature records, identifying the company and regiment in which he served, can be used by his descendants to search for additional information about him among Civil War military records maintained at the National Archives. The National Archives holds military and pension records for some of the more than 185,000 African Americans who served with the USCT. Reiley enlisted on January 11, 1865, and received a one-hundred-dollar bounty payment when he was discharged on January 31, 1866, approximately three months before he opened his account with the Freedman's Bank. He applied for a pension on November 22, 1893, and was granted ten dollars a month. While Reiley's signature records only revealed that his natural father resided in the Barnwell District of South Carolina, his pension file indicated that his father was Aaron Reiley and that he was formerly owned by a Bill Eve; Reiley's mother was owned by Josiah Sibley. According to his pension records, Reiley died on December 28, 1919, and his wife, Mary, filed to complete the pension on June 28, 1920.(20) Bank branches not only solicited the deposits of African American adult civilians and soldiers, they also encouraged schoolchildren to make deposits and routinely "preached" to them about the importance of work and saving. Schoolchildren responded to the call and opened accounts ranging from as little as five cents to as much as twenty-five cents. In the Augusta, Georgia, branch, nearly 25 percent of the depositors were children. William Green, a six-year-old born in Hamburg, South Carolina, opened an account in the Augusta branch on January 27, 1871. (The account appears to have been opened on his behalf by his mother, Clarissa). Green attended a school in the city under the direction of a John Gardner. In addition to his parents, Monroe and Clarissa, his signature records list his three uncles (Henry, Reuben, and Jack) and three aunts (Patsy, Amy, and Emmeline). Green's mother, who washed and cooked for a living, opened a separate account on July 20, 1872. Her file provides the names of four of William's brothers and sisters not mentioned in his account records: John Thomas, Winny Thomas, Sarah (dead), and Mat (dead). Four more aunts and uncles were also named: Fanny, Dafney, Elvira, Patience, Richard, and Solomon. Mrs. Green also provided the names of her father and mother, Solomon (dead) and Phoebe. Her uncle, Steward, and grandfather, Billy, were also recorded in her file.(21) African American churches, private businesses, and beneficial societies also maintained accounts at the Freedman's Bank. These institutions often took the lead in making deposits and were the driving force behind getting many individual depositors to open accounts. When the Freedman's Bank closed, however, many of these institutions, particularly the churches and beneficial societies, had to suspend or drastically curtail vital services, thus adding to the social and economic woes of the African American community. While files of organizations generally contain very little information about the institutions, they do identify leading officials, many of whom also maintained their own personal accounts. The Union Church of Baltimore County, for example, opened an account at the Baltimore, Maryland, branch on March 24, 1868. The signature records provide the names of the board of trustees: Samuel Bruce, Nicholas Cross, Samuel Unsen, Alfred Dorsey, and Charles Johnson. The Reverend John H. Spriggs, whose signature appears on the file, apparently opened the account. Reverend Spriggs, a widower, also opened a personal amount on the same day. According to his records, he lived at 78 Sarah Ann Street with his three children: Clarissa Ann, Samuel Henry, and James Edward. Spriggs requested that in the event of sickness or death, a Miss Adeline Watts was the only person authorized to draw on his account.(22) Access to the Records The Freedman's Bank records are a part of Record Group 101, Records of the Comptroller of the Currency. Because of the bank's close association with the Freedmen's Bureau, researchers often confuse these records with those of the bureau, which is a separate body of records, Record Group 105. The microfilm collection of the Freedman's Bank records are available in the National Archives buildings in Washington, D.C., and College Park, Maryland. The unfilmed records are available only at College Park. Send written inquires regarding these records to the Textual Reference Branch, National Archives at College Park, MD 20740-6001. Some of the regional records services facilities may also have copies of the microfilmed records; however, researchers should contact the nearest region for information concerning their availability. 1. Carl R. Osthaus, Freedmen, Philanthropy, and Fraud: A History of the Freedman's Savings Bank (1976), pp. 1–2. 2. Ibid., pp. 2–3. 3. Ibid., pp. 4–5. 4. Ibid., pp. 5–6. 5. Walter L. Flemming, The Freedman's Savings Bank: A Chapter in the Economic History of the Negro Race (1927), pp. 33–34. 6. Abby L. Gilbert "The Comptroller of the Currency and the Freedman's Savings Bank," Journal of Negro History 57 (April 1972): 130–131. 7. Several committees of Congress investigated the affairs of the Freedman's Bank and received petitions from persons who sought compensation for losses suffered when the bank failed. Information concerning these matters can be found among the records of the U.S. Senate (Record Group 46) and the U.S. House of Representatives (Record Group 233). Researchers should also examined the Congressional Serial Set for published reports and documents regarding Freedman's Bank. 8. Paula K. Byers, African American Genealogical Sourcebook (1995), p. 63. 9. Ibid., p. 63. 10. Osthaus, Freedmen, Philanthropy, and Fraud, p. 56. 11. Signature records of Dilla Warren, No. 1333, New Bern, North Carolina, Registers of Signatures of Depositors in Branches of the Freedman's Savings and Trust Company, 1865–1874 (National Archives Microfilm Publication M816, roll 18), Records of the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency, RG 101, National Archives and Records Administration, Washington, DC (hereinafter, records in the National Archives will be cited as RG___, NA). 12. Signature records of James Clinket, No. 267, District of Columbia, M816, roll 4, RG 101, NA; See also signature records of Stephen Bailey, No. 17, M816, roll 4, RG 101, NA; Robert Law, No. 265, M816, roll 4, RG101, NA; Henry Lomax, No. 266, M816, roll 4, RG 101, NA; Mary Jane Jones, No. 268, M816, roll 4, RG 101, NA. 13. Joseph P. Reidy, "Coming from the Shadow of the Past: The Transition from Slavery to Freedom at Freedmen's Village, 1863-1900," The Virginia Magazine 95 (October 1987): 403–411. 14. Ibid., pp. 413–414. 15. Monthly Report of Persons and Articles Hired at Freedmen's Village, Office of the Assistant for the District of Columbia, September 1866, Entry 569, Records of the Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands, RG 105, NA; See also tabular statement showing the number of acres of land on the Arlington estate rented to freedpeople, RG 105, NA. 16. Signature records of Stephen Brown, No. 2407, Augusta, Georgia, M816, roll 7, RG 101, NA. 17. Claim of Stephen Brown, Office 192, Report 5, Disallowed Case Files of the Southern Claims Commission, 1871–1880, Records of the U.S. House of Representatives, RG 233, NA; For a discussion of African American claims before the Southern Claims Commission, see Reginald Washington, "The Southern Claims Commission: A Source for African-American Roots" Prologue: Quarterly of the National Archives (Winter 1995), vol. 27, no. 4, pp. 374–382. 18. Osthaus, Freedmen, Philanthropy, and Fraud, p. 27. 19. Signature records for Jacob Reiley, No. 153, Savannah, Georgia, M816, roll 8, RG 101, NA. 20. Compiled Military Services Record of Jacob Reiley, private, Co. B, Thirty-third USCT (First South Carolina Volunteers), Records of the Adjutant General's Office, RG 94, NA; Civil War pension file of Jacob Reiley, private, Co. B, Thirty-third USCT (First South Carolina Volunteers), WC 894620, Records of the Veterans Administration, RG 15, NA. 21. Signature records of William Green, No. 2410, Augusta, Georgia, M816, roll 7, RG 101, NA; For the signature records of Clarissa Green, see signature card after account No. 4687, Augusta, Georgia, M816, roll 7, RG 101, NA. 22. Signature records of the Union Church of Baltimore County, No. 6258, Baltimore, Maryland, M816, roll 13, RG 101, NA.

https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/1997/summer/freedmans-savings-and-trust.html

Literature

en

It is important to use primary and secondary data to test researcher bias and to gather enough information to fully explore a topic. Primary research is any data that is gathered by the researcher. This includes observations, interviews and anything else that is learned during the data collection process. In historical research, primary data is firsthand account of events and occurrences, and original documents. Secondary data is any information that was gathered by other researchers. For example, census data, financial records and statistical information are considered secondary data. Most books and news reports are also considered secondary data. There are faults with both types of research. First, primary research is subject to the researcher’s interpretation of the data, which might not always be accurate. Second, the researcher might unknowingly bias the research by using a limited perspective. On the other hand, secondary data has to be verified by the researcher. Not all secondary data is credible, so using the wrong kind of secondary data can compromise the new research. When primary and secondary data are used correctly, the researcher is able to test the validity of the research by analyzing secondary data. In addition, secondary data backs up the primary data the researcher collected.

https://meziesblog.com/should-researchers-combine-primary-and-secondary-data-in-studies/

Education

en

There's a lot of debate on the net. Unfortunately, much of it is of very low quality. The aim of this document is to explain the basics of logical reasoning, and hopefully improve the overall quality of debate. The Concise Oxford English Dictionary defines logic as "the science of reasoning, proof, thinking, or inference." Logic will let you analyze an argument or a piece of reasoning, and work out whether it is likely to be correct or not. You don't need to know logic to argue, of course; but if you know even a little, you'll find it easier to spot invalid arguments. There are many kinds of logic, such as fuzzy logic and constructive logic; they have different rules, and different strengths and weaknesses. This document discusses simple Boolean logic, because it's commonplace and relatively easy to understand. When people talk about something being 'logical', they usually mean the type of logic described here. It's worth mentioning a couple of things which logic is not. Firstly, logical reasoning is not an absolute law which governs the universe. Many times in the past, people have concluded that because something is logically impossible (given the science of the day), it must be impossible, period. It was also believed at one time that Euclidean geometry was a universal law; it is, after all, logically consistent. Again, we now know that the rules of Euclidean geometry are not universal. Secondly, logic is not a set of rules which govern human behavior. Humans may have logically conflicting goals. For example: John wishes to speak to whoever is in charge. The person in charge is Steve. Therefore John wishes to speak to Steve. Unfortunately, John may have a conflicting goal of avoiding Steve, meaning that the reasoned answer may be inapplicable to real life. This document only explains how to use logic; you must decide whether logic is the right tool for the job. There are other ways to communicate, discuss and debate. An argument is, to quote the Monty Python sketch, "a connected series of statements to establish a definite proposition." Many types of argument exist; we will discuss the deductive argument. Deductive arguments are generally viewed as the most precise and the most persuasive; they provide conclusive proof of their conclusion, and are either valid or invalid. Deductive arguments have three stages: premises, inference, and conclusion. However, before we can consider those stages in detail, we must discuss the building blocks of a deductive argument: propositions. A proposition is a statement which is either true or false. The proposition is the meaning of the statement, not the precise arrangement of words used to convey that meaning. For example, "There exists an even prime number greater than two" is a proposition. (A false one, in this case.) "An even prime number greater than two exists" is the same proposition, re-worded. Unfortunately, it's very easy to unintentionally change the meaning of a statement by rephrasing it. It's generally safer to consider the wording of a proposition as significant. It's possible to use formal linguistics to analyze and re-phrase a statement without changing its meaning; but how to do so is outside the scope of this document. A deductive argument always requires a number of core assumptions. These are called premises, and are the assumptions the argument is built on; or to look at it another way, the reasons for accepting the argument. Premises are only premises in the context of a particular argument; they might be conclusions in other arguments, for example. You should always state the premises of the argument explicitly; this is the principle of audiatur et altera pars. Failing to state your assumptions is often viewed as suspicious, and will likely reduce the acceptance of your argument. The premises of an argument are often introduced with words such as "Assume...", "Since...", "Obviously..." and "Because...." It's a good idea to get your opponent to agree with the premises of your argument before proceeding any further. The word "obviously" is also often viewed with suspicion. It occasionally gets used to persuade people to accept false statements, rather than admit that they don't understand why something is 'obvious'. So don't be afraid to question statements which people tell you are 'obvious' -- when you've heard the explanation you can always say something like "You're right, now that I think about it that way, it is obvious." Once the premises have been agreed, the argument proceeds via a step-by-step process called inference. In inference, you start with one or more propositions which have been accepted; you then use those propositions to arrive at a new proposition. If the inference is valid, that proposition should also be accepted. You can use the new proposition for inference later on. So initially, you can only infer things from the premises of the argument. But as the argument proceeds, the number of statements available for inference increases. There are various kinds of valid inference - and also some invalid kinds, which we'll look at later in this document. Inference steps are often identified by phrases like "therefore..." or "...implies that..." Hopefully you will arrive at a proposition which is the conclusion of the argument - the result you are trying to prove. The conclusion is the result of the final step of inference. It's only a conclusion in the context of a particular argument; it could be a premise or assumption in another argument. The conclusion is said to be affirmed on the basis of the premises, and the inference from them. This is a subtle point which deserves further explanation. Clearly you can build a valid argument from true premises, and arrive at a true conclusion. You can also build a valid argument from false premises, and arrive at a false conclusion. The tricky part is that you can start with false premises, proceed via valid inference, and reach a true conclusion. For example: There's one thing you can't do, though: start from true premises, proceed via valid deductive inference, and reach a false conclusion. We can summarize these results as a "truth table" for implication. The symbol "=>" denotes implication; "A" is the premise, "B" the conclusion. "T" and "F" represent true and false respectively. Premise | Conclusion | Inference | A | B | A => B | false | false | true | false | true | true | true | false | false | true | true | true | So the fact that an argument is valid doesn't necessarily mean that its conclusion holds -- it may have started from false premises. If an argument is valid, and in addition it started from true premises, then it is called a sound argument. A sound argument must arrive at a true conclusion. Here's an example of an argument which is valid, and which may or may not be sound: Premise: Every event has a cause Premise: The universe has a beginning Premise: All beginnings involve an event Inference: This implies that the beginning of the universe involved an event Inference: Therefore the beginning of the universe had a cause Conclusion: The universe had a cause The proposition in line 4 is inferred from lines 2 and 3. Line 1 is then used, with the proposition derived in line 4, to infer a new proposition in line 5. The result of the inference in line 5 is then re-stated (in slightly simplified form) as the conclusion. Spotting an argument is harder than spotting premises or a conclusion. Lots of people shower their writing with assertions, without ever producing anything you might reasonably call an argument. Sometimes arguments don't follow the pattern described above. For example, people may state their conclusions first, and then justify them afterwards. This is valid, but it can be a little confusing. To make the situation worse, some statements look like arguments but aren't. For example: "If the Bible is accurate, Jesus must either have been insane, an evil liar, or the Son of God." That's not an argument; it's a conditional statement. It doesn't state the premises necessary to support its conclusion, and even if you add those assertions it suffers from a number of other flaws which are described in more detail in the Atheist Arguments document. An argument is also not the same as an explanation. Suppose that you are trying to argue that Albert Einstein believed in God, and say: "Einstein made his famous statement 'God does not play dice' because of his belief in God." That may look like a relevant argument, but it's not; it's an explanation of Einstein's statement. To see this, remember that a statement of the form "X because Y" can be re-phrased as an equivalent statement, of the form "Y therefore X." Doing so gives us: "Einstein believed in God, therefore he made his famous statement 'God does not play dice'. Now it's clear that the statement, which looked like an argument, is actually assuming the result which it is supposed to be proving, in order to explain the Einstein quote. Furthermore, Einstein did not believe in a personal God concerned with human affairs -- again, see the Atheist Arguments document. We've outlined the structure of a sound deductive argument, from premises to conclusion. But ultimately, the conclusion of a valid logical argument is only as compelling as the premises you started from. Logic in itself doesn't solve the problem of verifying the basic assertions which support arguments; for that, we need some other tool. The dominant means of verifying basic assertions is scientific enquiry. However, the philosophy of science and the scientific method are huge topics which are quite beyond the scope of this document. For a more comprehensive introduction to logic, try Flew's "Thinking Straight", listed in the Atheist Media document. A much more detailed book is Copi's "Introduction to Logic." The Electronic Resources document also lists LOGIC-L, a LISTSERV mailing list devoted to discussing the teaching of elementary logic. There are a number of common pitfalls to avoid when constructing a deductive argument; they're known as fallacies. In everyday English, we refer to many kinds of mistaken beliefs as fallacies; but in logic, the term has a more specific meaning: a fallacy is a technical flaw which makes an argument unsound or invalid. (Note that you can criticize more than just the soundness of an argument. Arguments are almost always presented with some specific purpose in mind -- and the intent of the argument may also be worthy of criticism.) Arguments which contain fallacies are described as fallacious. They often appear valid and convincing; sometimes only close inspection reveals the logical flaw. Below is a list of some common fallacies, and also some rhetorical devices often used in debate. The list isn't intended to be exhaustive; the hope is that if you learn to recognize some of the more common fallacies, you'll be able to avoid being fooled by them. The Nizkor Project at <http://www.nizkor.org/> has another excellent list of logical fallacies. The reference works mentioned above also all contain fallacy lists. Sadly, many of the examples below have been taken directly from Usenet, though some have been rephrased for the sake of clarity. Accent is a form of fallacy through shifting meaning. In this case, the meaning is changed by altering which parts of a statement are emphasized. For example: "We should not speak ill of our friends" "We should not speak ill of our friends" Be particularly wary of this fallacy on the net, where it's easy to misread the emphasis of what's written. As mentioned earlier, there is a difference between argument and explanation. If we're interested in establishing A, and B is offered as evidence, the statement "A because B" is an argument. If we're trying to establish the truth of B, then "A because B" is not an argument, it's an explanation. The Ad Hoc fallacy is to give an after-the-fact explanation which doesn't apply to other situations. Often this ad hoc explanation will be dressed up to look like an argument. For example, if we assume that God treats all people equally, then the following is an ad hoc explanation: "I was healed from cancer." "Praise the Lord, then. He is your healer." "So, will He heal others who have cancer?" "Er... The ways of God are mysterious." This fallacy is an argument of the form "A implies B, B is true, therefore A is true." To understand why it is a fallacy, examine the truth table for implication given earlier. Here's an example: "If the universe had been created by a supernatural being, we would see order and organization everywhere. And we do see order, not randomness -- so it's clear that the universe had a creator." This is the converse of Denial of the Antecedent. Amphiboly occurs when the premises used in an argument are ambiguous because of careless or ungrammatical phrasing. For example: "Premise: Belief in God fills a much-needed gap." One of the simplest fallacies is to rely on anecdotal evidence. For example: "There's abundant proof that God exists and is still performing miracles today. Just last week I read about a girl who was dying of cancer. Her whole family went to church and prayed for her, and she was cured." It's quite valid to use personal experience to illustrate a point; but such anecdotes don't actually prove anything to anyone. Your friend may say he met Elvis in the supermarket, but those who haven't had the same experience will require more than your friend's anecdotal evidence to convince them. Anecdotal evidence can seem very compelling, especially if the audience wants to believe it. This is part of the explanation for urban legends; stories which are verifiably false have been known to circulate as anecdotes for years. This is the fallacy of asserting that something is right or good simply because it's old, or because "that's the way it's always been." The opposite of Argumentum ad Novitatem. "For thousands of years Christians have believed in Jesus Christ. Christianity must be true, to have persisted so long even in the face of persecution." An Appeal to Force happens when someone resorts to force (or the threat of force) to try and push others to accept a conclusion. This fallacy is often used by politicians, and can be summarized as "might makes right." The threat doesn't have to come directly from the person arguing. For example: "... Thus there is ample proof of the truth of the Bible. All those who refuse to accept that truth will burn in Hell." "... In any case, I know your phone number and I know where you live. Have I mentioned I am licensed to carry concealed weapons?" The fallacy of believing that money is a criterion of correctness; that those with more money are more likely to be right. The opposite of Argumentum ad Lazarum. Example: "Microsoft software is undoubtedly superior; why else would Bill Gates have got so rich?" Argumentum ad hominem literally means "argument directed at the man"; there are two varieties. The first is the abusive form. If you refuse to accept a statement, and justify your refusal by criticizing the person who made the statement, then you are guilty of abusive argumentum ad hominem. For example: "You claim that atheists can be moral -- yet I happen to know that you abandoned your wife and children." This is a fallacy because the truth of an assertion doesn't depend on the virtues of the person asserting it. A less blatant argumentum ad hominem is to reject a proposition based on the fact that it was also asserted by some other easily criticized person. For example: "Therefore we should close down the church? Hitler and Stalin would have agreed with you." A second form of argumentum ad hominem is to try and persuade someone to accept a statement you make, by referring to that person's particular circumstances. For example: "Therefore it is perfectly acceptable to kill animals for food. I hope you won't argue otherwise, given that you're quite happy to wear leather shoes." This is known as circumstantial argumentum ad hominem. The fallacy can also be used as an excuse to reject a particular conclusion. For example: "Of course you'd argue that positive discrimination is a bad thing. You're white." This particular form of Argumentum ad Hominem, when you allege that someone is rationalizing a conclusion for selfish reasons, is also known as "poisoning the well." It's not always invalid to refer to the circumstances of an individual who is making a claim. If someone is a known perjurer or liar, that fact will reduce their credibility as a witness. It won't, however, prove that their testimony is false in this case. It also won't alter the soundness of any logical arguments they may make. Argumentum ad ignorantiam means "argument from ignorance." The fallacy occurs when it's argued that something must be true, simply because it hasn't been proved false. Or, equivalently, when it is argued that something must be false because it hasn't been proved true. (Note that this isn't the same as assuming something is false until it has been proved true. In law, for example, you're generally assumed innocent until proven guilty.) Here are a couple of examples: "Of course the Bible is true. Nobody can prove otherwise." "Of course telepathy and other psychic phenomena do not exist. Nobody has shown any proof that they are real." In scientific investigation, if it is known that an event would produce certain evidence of its having occurred, the absence of such evidence can validly be used to infer that the event didn't occur. It does not prove it with certainty, however. "A flood as described in the Bible would require an enormous volume of water to be present on the earth. The earth doesn't have a tenth as much water, even if we count that which is frozen into ice at the poles. Therefore no such flood occurred." It is, of course, possible that some unknown process occurred to remove the water. Good science would then demand a plausible testable theory to explain how it vanished. Of course, the history of science is full of logically valid bad predictions. In 1893, the Royal Academy of Science were convinced by Sir Robert Ball that communication with the planet Mars was a physical impossibility, because it would require a flag as large as Ireland, which it would be impossible to wave. [Fortean Times Number 82.] See also Shifting the Burden of Proof. The fallacy of assuming that someone poor is sounder or more virtuous than someone who's wealthier. This fallacy is the opposite of the Argumentum ad Crumenam. For example: "Monks are more likely to possess insight into the meaning of life, as they have given up the distractions of wealth." This is the "fallacy fallacy" of arguing that a proposition is false because it has been presented as the conclusion of a fallacious argument. Remember always that fallacious arguments can arrive at true conclusions. "Take the fraction 16/64. Now, cancelling a six on top and a six on the bottom, we get that 16/64 = 1/4." "Wait a second! You can't just cancel the six!" "Oh, so you're telling us 16/64 is not equal to 1/4, are you?" This is the Appeal to Pity, also known as Special Pleading. The fallacy is committed when someone appeals to pity for the sake of getting a conclusion accepted. For example: "I did not murder my mother and father with an axe! Please don't find me guilty; I'm suffering enough through being an orphan." This is the incorrect belief that an assertion is more likely to be true, or is more likely to be accepted as true, the more often it is heard. So an Argumentum ad Nauseam is one that employs constant repetition in asserting something; saying the same thing over and over again until you're sick of hearing it. On Usenet, your argument is often less likely to be heard if you repeat it over and over again, as people will tend to put you in their kill files. This is the opposite of the Argumentum ad Antiquitatem; it's the fallacy of asserting that something is better or more correct simply because it is new, or newer than something else. "BeOS is a far better choice of operating system than OpenStep, as it has a much newer design." This fallacy is closely related to the argumentum ad populum. It consists of asserting that the more people who support or believe a proposition, the more likely it is that that proposition is correct. For example: "The vast majority of people in this country believe that capital punishment has a noticeable deterrent effect. To suggest that it doesn't in the face of so much evidence is ridiculous." "All I'm saying is that thousands of people believe in pyramid power, so there must be something to it." This is known as Appealing to the Gallery, or Appealing to the People. You commit this fallacy if you attempt to win acceptance of an assertion by appealing to a large group of people. This form of fallacy is often characterized by emotive language. For example: "Pornography must be banned. It is violence against women." "For thousands of years people have believed in Jesus and the Bible. This belief has had a great impact on their lives. What more evidence do you need that Jesus was the Son of God? Are you trying to tell those people that they are all mistaken fools?" The Appeal to Authority uses admiration of a famous person to try and win support for an assertion. For example: "Isaac Newton was a genius and he believed in God." This line of argument isn't always completely bogus when used in an inductive argument; for example, it may be relevant to refer to a widely-regarded authority in a particular field, if you're discussing that subject. For example, we can distinguish quite clearly between: "Hawking has concluded that black holes give off radiation" "Penrose has concluded that it is impossible to build an intelligent computer" Hawking is a physicist, and so we can reasonably expect his opinions on black hole radiation to be informed. Penrose is a mathematician, so it is questionable whether he is well-qualified to speak on the subject of machine intelligence. Often, people will argue from assumptions which they don't bother to state. The principle of Audiatur et Altera Pars is that all of the premises of an argument should be stated explicitly. It's not strictly a fallacy to fail to state all of your assumptions; however, it's often viewed with suspicion. Also referred to as the "black and white" fallacy and "false dichotomy", bifurcation occurs if someone presents a situation as having only two alternatives, where in fact other alternatives exist or can exist. For example: "Either man was created, as the Bible tells us, or he evolved from inanimate chemicals by pure random chance, as scientists tell us. The latter is incredibly unlikely, so..." This fallacy occurs if you assume as a premise the conclusion which you wish to reach. Often, the proposition is rephrased so that the fallacy appears to be a valid argument. For example: "Homosexuals must not be allowed to hold government office. Hence any government official who is revealed to be a homosexual will lose his job. Therefore homosexuals will do anything to hide their secret, and will be open to blackmail. Therefore homosexuals cannot be allowed to hold government office." Note that the argument is entirely circular; the premise is the same as the conclusion. An argument like the above has actually been cited as the reason for the British Secret Services' official ban on homosexual employees. Circular arguments are surprisingly common, unfortunately. If you've already reached a particular conclusion once, it's easy to accidentally make it an assertion when explaining your reasoning to someone else. This is the interrogative form of Begging the Question. One example is the classic loaded question: "Have you stopped beating your wife?" The question presupposes a definite answer to another question which has not even been asked. This trick is often used by lawyers in cross-examination, when they ask questions like: "Where did you hide the money you stole?" Similarly, politicians often ask loaded questions such as: "How long will this EU interference in our affairs be allowed to continue?" "Does the Chancellor plan two more years of ruinous privatization?" Another form of this fallacy is to ask for an explanation of something which is untrue or not yet established. The Fallacy of Composition is to conclude that a property shared by a number of individual items, is also shared by a collection of those items; or that a property of the parts of an object, must also be a property of the whole thing. Examples: "The bicycle is made entirely of low mass components, and is therefore very lightweight." "A car uses less petrochemicals and causes less pollution than a bus. Therefore cars are less environmentally damaging than buses." A related form of fallacy of composition is the "just" fallacy, or fallacy of mediocrity. This is the fallacy that assumes that any given member of a set must be limited to the attributes that are held in common with all the other members of the set. Example: "Humans are just animals, so we should not concern ourselves with justice; we should just obey the law of the jungle." Here the fallacy is to reason that because we are animals, we can have only properties which animals have; that nothing can distinguish us as a special case. This fallacy is the reverse of the Fallacy of Accident. It occurs when you form a general rule by examining only a few specific cases which aren't representative of all possible cases. For example: "Jim Bakker was an insincere Christian. Therefore all Christians are insincere." This fallacy is an argument of the form "If A then B, therefore if B then A." "If educational standards are lowered, the quality of argument seen on the Internet worsens. So if we see the level of debate on the net get worse over the next few years, we'll know that our educational standards are still falling." This fallacy is similar to the Affirmation of the Consequent, but phrased as a conditional statement. This fallacy is similar to post hoc ergo propter hoc. The fallacy is to assert that because two events occur together, they must be causally related. It's a fallacy because it ignores other factors that may be the cause(s) of the events. "Literacy rates have steadily declined since the advent of television. Clearly television viewing impedes learning." This fallacy is a special case of the more general non causa pro causa. This fallacy is an argument of the form "A implies B, A is false, therefore B is false." The truth table for implication makes it clear why this is a fallacy. Note that this fallacy is different from Non Causa Pro Causa. That has the form "A implies B, A is false, therefore B is false", where A does not in fact imply B at all. Here, the problem isn't that the implication is invalid; rather it's that the falseness of A doesn't allow us to deduce anything about B. "If the God of the Bible appeared to me, personally, that would certainly prove that Christianity was true. But God has never appeared to me, so the Bible must be a work of fiction." This is the converse of the fallacy of Affirmation of the Consequent. A sweeping generalization occurs when a general rule is applied to a particular situation, but the features of that particular situation mean the rule is inapplicable. It's the error made when you go from the general to the specific. For example: "Christians generally dislike atheists. You are a Christian, so you must dislike atheists." This fallacy is often committed by people who try to decide moral and legal questions by mechanically applying general rules. The fallacy of division is the opposite of the Fallacy of Composition. It consists of assuming that a property of some thing must apply to its parts; or that a property of a collection of items is shared by each item. "You are studying at a rich college. Therefore you must be rich." "Ants can destroy a tree. Therefore this ant can destroy a tree." Equivocation occurs when a key word is used with two or more different meanings in the same argument. For example: "What could be more affordable than free software? But to make sure that it remains free, that users can do what they like with it, we must place a license on it to make sure that will always be freely redistributable." One way to avoid this fallacy is to choose your terminology carefully before beginning the argument, and avoid words like "free" which have many meanings. The fallacy of the Extended Analogy often occurs when some suggested general rule is being argued over. The fallacy is to assume that mentioning two different situations, in an argument about a general rule, constitutes a claim that those situations are analogous to each other. Here's real example from an online debate about anti-cryptography legislation: "I believe it is always wrong to oppose the law by breaking it." "Such a position is odious: it implies that you would not have supported Martin Luther King." "Are you saying that cryptography legislation is as important as the struggle for Black liberation? How dare you!" The fallacy of Irrelevant Conclusion consists of claiming that an argument supports a particular conclusion when it is actually logically nothing to do with that conclusion. For example, a Christian may begin by saying that he will argue that the teachings of Christianity are undoubtedly true. If he then argues at length that Christianity is of great help to many people, no matter how well he argues he will not have shown that Christian teachings are true. Sadly, these kinds of irrelevant arguments are often successful, because they make people to view the supposed conclusion in a more favorable light. The Appeal to Nature is a common fallacy in political arguments. One version consists of drawing an analogy between a particular conclusion, and some aspect of the natural world -- and then stating that the conclusion is inevitable, because the natural world is similar: "The natural world is characterized by competition; animals struggle against each other for ownership of limited natural resources. Capitalism, the competitive struggle for ownership of capital, is simply an inevitable part of human nature. It's how the natural world works." Another form of appeal to nature is to argue that because human beings are products of the natural world, we must mimic behavior seen in the natural world, and that to do otherwise is 'unnatural': "Of course homosexuality is unnatural. When's the last time you saw two animals of the same sex mating?" Robert Anton Wilson deals with this form of fallacy at length in his book " Natural Law." A recent example of "Appeal to Nature" taken to extremes is The Unabomber Manifesto. Suppose I assert that no Scotsman puts sugar on his porridge. You counter this by pointing out that your friend Angus likes sugar with his porridge. I then say "Ah, yes, but no true Scotsman puts sugar on his porridge. This is an example of an ad hoc change being used to shore up an assertion, combined with an attempt to shift the meaning of the words used original assertion; you might call it a combination of fallacies. The fallacy of Non Causa Pro Causa occurs when something is identified as the cause of an event, but it has not actually been shown to be the cause. For example: "I took an aspirin and prayed to God, and my headache disappeared. So God cured me of the headache." This is known as a false cause fallacy. Two specific forms of non causa pro causa fallacy are the cum hoc ergo propter hoc and post hoc ergo propter hoc fallacies. A non sequitur is an argument where the conclusion is drawn from premises which aren't logically connected with it. For example: "Since Egyptians did so much excavation to construct the pyramids, they were well versed in paleontology." (Non sequiturs are an important ingredient in a lot of humor. They're still fallacies, though.) This fallacy occurs when the premises are at least as questionable as the conclusion reached. Typically the premises of the argument implicitly assume the result which the argument purports to prove, in a disguised form. For example: "The Bible is the word of God. The word of God cannot be doubted, and the Bible states that the Bible is true. Therefore the Bible must be true. Begging the question is similar to circulus in demonstrando, where the conclusion is exactly the same as the premise. This fallacy occurs when someone demands a simple (or simplistic) answer to a complex question. "Are higher taxes an impediment to business or not? Yes or no?" The fallacy of Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc occurs when something is assumed to be the cause of an event merely because it happened before that event. For example: "The Soviet Union collapsed after instituting state atheism. Therefore we must avoid atheism for the same reasons." This is another type of false cause fallacy. This fallacy is committed when someone introduces irrelevant material to the issue being discussed, so that everyone's attention is diverted away from the points made, towards a different conclusion. "You may claim that the death penalty is an ineffective deterrent against crime -- but what about the victims of crime? How do you think surviving family members feel when they see the man who murdered their son kept in prison at their expense? Is it right that they should pay for their son's murderer to be fed and housed?" Reification occurs when an abstract concept is treated as a concrete thing. "I noticed you described him as 'evil'. Where does this 'evil' exist within the brain? You can't show it to me, so I claim it doesn't exist, and no man is 'evil'." The burden of proof is always on the person asserting something. Shifting the burden of proof, a special case of Argumentum ad Ignorantiam, is the fallacy of putting the burden of proof on the person who denies or questions the assertion. The source of the fallacy is the assumption that something is true unless proven otherwise. For further discussion of this idea, see the "Introduction to Atheism" document. "OK, so if you don't think the grey aliens have gained control of the US government, can you prove it?" This argument states that should one event occur, so will other harmful events. There is no proof made that the harmful events are caused by the first event. For example: "If we legalize marijuana, then more people would start to take crack and heroin, and we'd have to legalize those too. Before long we'd have a nation full of drug-addicts on welfare. Therefore we cannot legalize marijuana." The straw man fallacy is when you misrepresent someone else's position so that it can be attacked more easily, knock down that misrepresented position, then conclude that the original position has been demolished. It's a fallacy because it fails to deal with the actual arguments that have been made. "To be an atheist, you have to believe with absolute certainty that there is no God. In order to convince yourself with absolute certainty, you must examine all the Universe and all the places where God could possibly be. Since you obviously haven't, your position is indefensible." The above straw man argument appears at about once a week on the net. If you can't see what's wrong with it, read the "Introduction to Atheism" document. This is the famous "you too" fallacy. It occurs if you argue that an action is acceptable because your opponent has performed it. For instance: "You're just being randomly abusive." "So? You've been abusive too." This is a personal attack, and is therefore a special case of Argumentum ad Hominem. These fallacies occur if you attempt to argue that things are in some way similar, but you don't actually specify in what way they are similar. Examples: "Isn't history based upon faith? If so, then isn't the Bible also a form of history?" "Islam is based on faith, Christianity is based on faith, so isn't Islam a form of Christianity?" "Cats are a form of animal based on carbon chemistry, dogs are a form of animal based on carbon chemistry, so aren't dogs a form of cat?" © Internet Infidels 1995-2007. All rights reserved.

http://web.archive.org/web/20070106063753/www.infidels.org/library/modern/mathew/logic.html

Religion

en

“One of the great liabilities of history is that all too many people fail to remain awake through great periods of social change” – Martin Luther King “We live in a moment of history where change is so speeded up that we begin to see the present only when it is already disappearing” – Ronald David Laing On Sunday, the statue of Edward Colston, the Deputy Governor of the Royal African Company, was toppled by Black Lives Matter protesters and thrown into the Bristol harbor. Barely 56 hours later, the 150-year-old statue of King Leopold II of Belgium, whose colonialism and slave regime in Congo that began in 1885 led to the deaths of millions, was removed from a public square in Antwerp and deposited at the Middleheim Museum following the splattering of the statues with red paint and by protesters. More than 65,000 people have signed a petition to remove all statues of King Leopold II across Belgium. The removal of the statue of King Leopold II took place two years after the United Nations called on the Belgian government to apologize for the crimes committed during its colonization and a year after Belgium apologized for the tremendous harm inflicted on the Central African nations during the 80 years of colonization. In London, the statue of Robert Milligan, the 18th-century slave trader, who owned two sugar plantations and 526 slaves in Jamaica, was removed from its plinth outside the museum of London Docklands. London’s Mayor Sadiq Khan also announced that more statues of imperialist figures would be removed from the streets of London. The statue of Cecil Rhodes, a Victorian imperialist in southern Africa whose name was endowed with the Oxford University Rhodes scholarship, may also be removed following the ‘Take it Down – Rhodes Must Fall’ protest. The University of Liverpool also announced that one of its halls of residence named after the former UK Prime Minister, William Gladstone, would be renamed due to his views of slavery and his family connections to slaveholding. The Plymouth City Council also announced that the public square named after Sir John Hawkins, the Elizabethan seafarer who is considered to be the first English slave trader that transported captured Africans to work on plantations in the America in the 16th century, would be renamed because of his role in slave trade. Edward Colston is gone. Robert Milligan is gone. King Leopold II is gone. Good. Now, let us revisit how we honor the legacies of the indigenous slaveowners. According to the British-Nigerian Historian, David Olusoga, the toppling of the statue of Edward Colston and other statues are not an attack on history, it is history. Edward Colston was known for his philanthropy and charitable contributions to the city of Bristol. Yet, the previously suppressed dark legacy of his active role in the Trans-Atlantic slave trade haunted him. The toppling of the statues and relics of colonialism is a domino effect of the global protests in the wake of George Floyd’s death and the call for the removal of Confederate monuments in the US seen by many people as symbols of oppression and racism. Like Edward Colston, the statues of John Castleman in Louisville and Charles Linn in Birmingham and others across the United States were torn from their plinths and disposed away from public display. The State of Virginia have also initiated the move to remove the huge statue of Confederate General Robert Lee in Richmond, the state capital. The seismic historical change taking place around the world might appear distance and far from Nigeria, however, it should serve as a wake-up call. What we are witnessing here are “history wars” – the political struggles in which versions of the past – the silenced history – that have long gone largely uncontested are exposed and challenged. This is ultimately a battle of ideas, and sooner or later, we will feel the contagious and domino effect here in Nigeria. It is time to revisit the legacies of the slaveowners and those who played active roles in the Trans-Atlantic and Trans-Saharan Slave Trade. How do we memorialize the legacies of indigenous Slaveowners? There is no better time to revisit how we honor the legacies of slaveowners like Madam Efunroye Tinubu, the wife of Oba Adele, and one of the ferocious slave dealers that operated the Lagos-Ibadan pipeline delivering slaves for Brazilian and Portuguese export. To demonstrate her commitment to slave trade, Madam Tinubu once boasted of drowning her slaves rather than selling them at a discount. Her statue is honored and preserved at the Tinubu Square in Lagos Island. She is not alone. Efunsetan Aniwura was probably the most ruthless of all the slave dealers in Southwest Nigeria. She was an extremely wicked slave dealer. This woman made it an abomination for her female slaves to get pregnant, and when they do, she openly beheaded them in cold blood at the Ibadan Town Square. How exactly is the crime of Edward Colston and Robert Milligan different from the legacies of Madam Tinubu and Efunsetan Aniwura? Why should Edward and Robert be dishonored abroad while we continue to honor Efunsetan and Madam Tinubu at home? People still honor and revere the legacies of Oba Akintoye, Kosoko, Ologun Kutere, Akinsemoyin and others who were the biggest slave traders in Lagos. How exactly are they different from Edward Colston and Robert Milligan? It is even on record that Oba Kosoko bought slaves who were previously sold and transported to Bahia because he needed their skills to build Brazilian type of houses and produce European items in Lagos. Oshodi Tapa, Dada Antonio, Ojo Akanbi and others who were former slaves and later became big time slave merchants built generational wealth from slave trade. Today, the legacies of these slaveowners are not only revered and whitewashed, but their children are still benefiting from the generational wealth their ancestors built from slavery. These are examples from the South. In Northern Nigeria, there are too many examples to cite. According to some estimates, by the late 19th century, slaves constituted about 50% of the population of the emirate in Adamawa. The Lamido of Adamawa received an estimate of 5,000 slaves in tribute annually, in addition to those captured during the expeditions conducted by his brothers. Beyond Adamawa, virtually all the emirates in Northern Nigeria were once bastions of slave dealers with Emirs who serially abused young girls and religiously justified it in the name of “concubinage”. The cruelty of slavery in northern Nigeria was documented in the book “The Diary of Hannan Yaji: Chronicle of A West African Muslim Ruler” edited by James Vaughan and Anthony Kirk-Greene. Sean Stilwell and Heidi Nast also wrote excellent books on the noxious enslavement and concubinage that took place across the emirates in northern Nigeria see “Paradoxes of Power: The Kano Mamluks and Male Royal Slavery in the Sokoto Caliphate 1804-1903” and “Concubines and Power: Five Hundred Years in a Northern Nigerian Palace”. This is not a regional issue. From the north to the south, there are people who are complicit of the same crimes perpetrated by Edward Colston and Robert Milligan but whose legacies are revered and honored. In fact, look at Port Harcourt city. The city was named after Lewis Vernon Harcourt, the British Secretary of State, who was also a sex maniac. Lewis Harcourt was a serial child abuser and he abused both young boys and girls. Today, the hub of the oil industry in Nigeria is named after him. Some of our streets are named after colonial officers and local slave warriors with very dark histories. The question here is, should our society continue to honor the legacies of slaveowners and those who played active roles in the Trans-Atlantic and Trans-Saharan Slave Trade? Should the society continue to name monuments, schools, and landmarks after them even though we are all aware of their dark legacies? Should we just forget and overlook? Or should we follow the Donald Duke approach and build a slave museum to document the dark histories? In her Wall Street Journal article “When the Slave Traders Were Africans”, Adaobi Tricia Nwaubani emphasized the need for Africans to reckon with the complicated legacy our ancestors played in the slave trade. This act of reckoning should usher a moment for posing questions of historical guilt and a culture of apology for the injustices perpetrated against fellow Africans whose ancestors were killed and whose lineages were disrupted by the business of slave trade. I hope that when this seismic historical change manifests itself in Nigeria, the descendants of slaveowners in Nigeria would be brave enough to act and speak like Robert Wright Lee (the descendant of Robert Lee): “We have a chance here today…to say this will indeed not be our final moment and our final stand. This statue of my ancestor is a symbol of oppression and I support its removal.” Mr Kassim is a PhD Candidate in Islam and Africana Studies at Rice University and a Visiting Doctoral Fellow at the Institute for the Study of Islamic Thought in Africa at Northwestern University. @scholarakassi1

https://dailynigerian.com/edward-colston-and-the-legacies-of-slaveowners-in-nigeria-by-abdulbasit-kassim/

Culture

en

VoIP Basics: Converting Voice to Digital Form Are you interested in Voice over IP? Would you like to know more about its background? This text begins a series that should shed some light on it. Let's start with the beginning. VoIP sends digitized voice across computer networks. So how do we convert voice to the digital form? When converting an analog signal (be it speech or another noise), you need to consider two important factors: sampling and quantization. Together, they determine the quality of the digitized sound. - Sampling is about the sampling rate — i.e. how many samples per second you use to encode the sound. - Quantization is about how many bits you use to represent each sample. The number of bits determines the number of different values you can represent with each sample. Figures 1 and 2 show the idea of sampling — Figure 1 is the original analog signal, while Figure 2 shows the digitized form as a sequence of discrete samples. As mentioned above, quantization is about how many bits you use to represent individual sound samples. In practice, we want to work with whole bytes, so let's consider 8 or 16 bits. With 8-bit samples, each sample can represent 256 different values, so we can work with whole numbers between -128 and +127. Because of the whole numbers, it is inevitable that we introduce some noise into the signal as we convert it to digital samples. For example, if the exact analog value is "7.44125", we will represent it as "7". As we do this with each sample in the sequence, we slightly distort the signal — inject noise, in other words. It turns out 8-bit samples do not result in a good quality. With only 256 sample values, the analog-to-digital conversion adds too much noise. The situation improves a lot if we switch to 16-bit samples as 16 bits give us 65536 different representations (from -32768 to +32767). 16-bit samples are what you will find on a CD and what VoIP codecs use as their input. Now that we have decided what sample size to use (16 bits), let's look at sampling rates. The table below shows three frequently used sampling rates: Type | Transmitted Bandwidth | Sampling Frequency | Telephone Speech | 300-3400 Hz | 8 kHz | Wide Band Speech | 50-7000 Hz | 16 kHz | CD quality audio | 20-20000 Hz | 44.1 kHz | With VoIP, you will most frequently encounter the sampling rate of 8 kilohertz. The frequency of 16 kHz can be used now and then in situations when a higher quality audio is required (with proportionally higher Internet bandwidth consumption). The choice of sampling frequencies for the individual types of audio is not random. There is a rule (based on the work of Nyquist and Shanon) that the sampling frequency needs to be equal or greater than two times the transmitted bandwidth. Figures 3 and 4 show why this is required. In Figure 3, the sinusoid represents the original analog sound. The large black dots are where we read our samples. Note that we take two samples in each period, i.e. the sampling rate is two times the frequency of the sound. This is the absolute minimum that will allow us to reconstruct a signal that is still comprehensible. It certainly won't be a hi-fi sound but it will have the correct frequency - see the thin black lines in the picture. The Figure 4 shows a situation where we take less than two samples per period. The thin black lines show what would happen after we feed the samples into a digital-to-analog converter — we would hear something different from the original, a sound with lower frequency. This problem is known as "aliasing" since the lower frequency appears to be an "alias" to the original correct one. In this piece, we discussed a conversion of voice to a digital format. We considered the influence of sampling frequency and of the sample's size. It's good to remember that VoIP most frequently works with the sampling frequency of 8 kilohertz and each sample is stored in 16 bits. Next section: Overview of Audio Codecs

http://toncar.cz/Tutorials/VoIP/VoIP_Basics_Converting_Voice_to_Digital.html

Programming

en

1Located at the confluence of the Niger River and the Tilemsi Valley below the Ahaggar Mountains via the Adrar of Iforas, Gao was one of the oldest and most important commercial centers in West Africa. Since the beginning of the first millennium bc, Gao was linked with North African coastal cities by the “route des chariots” that Henri Lhote (1958: 24-25) reconstituted from the rock paintings dispersed in the mountains of the central Sahara. - 1 In the “medieval” Arabic text between the 8th and the 16th centuries, Gao was called Kawkaw or Kūkū 2The strategic importance of Gao did not diminish during the historical period. Early Arabic texts concerning Bilād al-Sūdān never fail to mention it. The text of al-Khuwārizmī written before his death in 846-847, which is the oldest extant document referring to West Africa, cites Gao1 as one of the mains towns of West Africa, together with Ghāna and Zaghawa (Levtzion & Hopkins 1981: 8). According to al-Ya’qūbī who wrote in 872-873, Gao was “the greatest of the realms of the Sūdān, the most important and powerful. All the kingdoms obey its king. Al-Kawkaw is the name of the town” (ibid.: 21). 3We are informed also that Gao was, like the capital of ancient Ghāna, the twin cities composed of a royal residence and a commercial town inhabited by Muslim merchants. Based on the account of al-Warrāq who died in 973, Al-Bakrī gives us a decent report of these cities. This passage merits citation as it touches the heart of our article. - 2 Tādmakka which means “Mecca-like” is identified with the actual archeological site of Es-Souk locat (...) - 3 “Nile” in the “medieval” Arabic text concerning Bilād al-Sūdān refers to the Niger River. “Between Tādamakka2 and the town of Kawkaw is a distance of nine stages. The Arabs call the inhabitants of the latter the BZRKĀNYYN. This town consists of two towns, one being the residence of the king and the other inhabited by the Muslims. The king is called Qandā. […] They worship idols as do the other Sūdān. When their king sits down a drum is beaten, the Sudanese women dance with their thick hair flowing, and nobody in the town goes about his business until he has finished his repast, the remnants of which are thrown into the Nile3. […] When a king ascends the throne he is handed a signet ring, a sword, and a copy of the Koran which, as they assert, were sent to them by the Commander of the Faithful. Their king is a Muslim, for they entrust the kingship only to Muslims.”(Levtzion & Hopkins 1981: 87) 4This passage states that the king of Gao was a Sudanese Muslim, but that the people nevertheless maintained their old religious practices attached to the Niger River. Al-Bakrī also asserts that the royal residence of Gao is situated “on the opposite bank” of the “Nile” (ibid.: 85). The location of early Gao on the west bank of the “Nile” was also affirmed by al-Muhallabī in the late tenth century, cited by Yāqūt. According to him, the king of Gao had two towns, one called Sarnāh dedicated to markets and trading houses, and another for him and his trusted associates which was sited “to the west of the Nile” (ibid.: 174). - 4 Ibn Hawqal declares: “The route from Egypt to Ghāna went over them but the winds blew continually u (...) 5These descriptions are as important as they are the only available information on the early days of Gao. After this, unfortunately, Arabic writers lost interest in Gao and turned to Ghāna, where gold was so abundant that it was said that gold “grows as carrots do” (ibid.: 28). This change must have been the result of the westward shift of the main trade route for gold which linked Ghāna directly to Sijilmāsa, as described by the late tenth-century writer Ibn Hawqal who worked for the Fatimid caliphate that occupied the latter city4. After the writings of al-Bakrī in 1068, no valuable information was recorded on Gao until Ibn Baţţūţa visited it in the mid-fourteenth century. 6We thus lack sufficient documentation on Gao from the eleventh to the mid-fourteenth centuries. It is this scarcity of information that has provoked so many controversies on the early days of Gao. The location of the royal residence, its weight in the trans-Saharan trade, and the list of kings of the early Gao kingdom are among the subjects at issue. 7The identification of “Sarnāh” of al-Muhallabī with the actual archaeological site of Saney situated seven kilometers east of Gao is unanimously recognized (Fig. 1). Fig. 1. Gao, Gao Saney and Waji Gangaber - 5 Lange (1994: 284) cites a letter from Raymond Mauny who had visited Gao in the 1950’s to carry out (...) 8But this is not the case for the royal residence of the twin cities of Gao. Some say that it should have been located on the west bank of the Niger, following al-Bakrī and al-Muhallabī (Hunwick 1985: 5, 1994: 267). For others, “the west of Nile” of these writers should not be interpreted as the west bank of the Niger, but as the west bank of the Wadi Gangaber that flowed down in the past from the Tillemsi valley to separate Gao from Gao Saney (Lange 1991: 258, 1994: 284)5. - 6 Based on the mintage of the gold coins in North Africa which continued during the fourth and fifth (...) 9There are also diverse opinions on the beginning of the trans-Saharan trade in which Gao was involved (Fig. 2). Given the scarce information provided by the early Arab writers, some consider that the trans-Saharan trade cannot have intensified until the tenth century (Devisse 1972: 49-50). Others say that this view should be revised, to take account of the Ibādī documents that affirm the existence of communication between North Africa and Gao from the second half of the eighth century6 (Lewicki 1961; Hunwick 1985: 6, 1994: 257). Fig. 2. Gao in the historical map of North West Africa - 7 Historians have tried to clarify this point by comparing different kinds of historical documents. S (...) 10We are also faced with another polemic on the identification of the kings commemorated in the epitaphs of Gao Saney with the list of kings mentioned in the two Tarikhs of Timbuktu7. 11Why are there so many controversies about the early days of Gao? One of the reasons, as mentioned above, is the scarcity of information given by early Arabic writers. To this can be added two other reasons: the diversity of the historical documents on the early days of Gao, and the lack of extensive archaeological research in Gao and its surroundings. - 8 A complete list of these epitaphs was given for the first time by de Moraes Farias (2003) who trans (...) 12In fact, there exist three categories of historical records that provide information on the early history of Gao. The first is the writings by medieval Arabic authors, which modern historians generally consider to be primary sources. Nevertheless, these are only external and second hand documents, being written by authors who had never been to West Africa, with the exception of Ibn Battuta who visited the Mali Empire in the fourteenth century. The second is the two Tarikhs of Timbuktu, which were written by local authors and therefore provide good and approved documentation (es-Sa’di 1981; Kati 1981). Nevertheless, as they were written in the seventeenth century, they have the defect of not being contemporary with the early days of Gao. The third is a considerable number of epitaphs discovered in the region of Gao (at Gao, Gao Saney, Es-Souk and Bentya). These epitaphs have the high advantage of being contemporary and internal records, kept untouched since then8. Unfortunately, the information they yield is destitute of contextualization so that it needs to be related to other information given by other documents. The differences in emphasis of these historical records have made quite controversial the interpretations as for the early days of Gao. 13If the historical records cannot fulfill our requirement for historical reconstruction, archeological research would furnish a solid foundation for writing the history of Gao. In fact, number of research projects have been carried out since de Gironcourt (1920) visited the area at the beginning of the twentieth century to engage in archaeological works. In the 1950’s, Raymond Mauny (1951) excavated in the northern part of Gao to find, according him, a mosque constructed by Mansa Musa on his return from Mecca in 1325 or 1326. Recently, British archaeologist Timothy Insoll (1996, 1997, 2000) carried out two archaeological researches in Gao city and its surroundings in 1993 and in 1996. These excavations did discover some important materials that shed light on the economic life of early Gao. They did not, however, succeed in yielding a sound foundation for tracing the process of evolution of the Gao kingdom, as the research was limited and short-term. 14As for Gao Saney, the archaeological works of Colin Flight (1975, 1979) in the 1970’s was of great importance. Through his excavations in 1972, 1974, and 1978, he could identify the buildings made of fired-brick in two different places: one in the Muslim cemetery of Gao Saney and another in the southern fringe of the mount (Fig. 3). As for the dating, he considered these buildings to be “of about 1100” (Flight 1979: 36). Disturbances in the region, however, made him unable to extend his planned excavations at the principal archeological site of Gao Saney. Fig. 3. Plan of the site of Gao Saney 15To compensate these historical and archaeological deficiencies, we began to engage in archeological investigations in the region of Gao in 2001. In 2001-2002 season, we conducted two excavations on the tell of Gao Saney. From 2003-2004, we moved to Gao city (so-called Gao-Ancient) to obtain a comparative view. In Gao-Ancient, we found two large buildings constructed completely of stone in the area where, local people say, Kankan Musa had constructed his mosque on his return from Mecca (Fig. 4), as was mentioned in Tarikh al-Sūdān (es-Sa’di 1981: 14). Fig. 4. Plan of the site of Gao-Ancient (2005) 16These buildings are so immense that we have not yet finished exposing them (Fig. 4 & 10). The objective of the present article is therefore relatively limited. Its main purpose is not to provide a sufficient account on our field researchs, as we are preparing a book in which readers will find full data and a complete analysis of the materials found in our excavation. Our objective here is to offer sufficient data to give a new light on the formation of the early Gao kingdom and its implications for the trans-Saharan trade. 17Gao Saney is located seven kilometers east of Gao city, surrounded by the Wadi Gangaber downstream from the Tillemsi valley, which in the past must have flowed into the Niger River at Gao (Fig. 1). This site is very popular among historians of West Africa because of its royal cemetery, which contains notably some marble epitaphs. These epitaphs were discovered in the 1930’s and have since been the subject of much scientific work (Sauvaget 1950; Viré 1958; de Moraes Farias 1990, 2003). Close to this cemetery, there exists a tell 700 m long, 400 m wide, and 11 m high, totally covered with archeological remains such as ceramics, glass beads, and iron and copper fragments. These remains are associated with up to 2,000 extensive clandestine diggings to obtain glass beads. 18The devastation of the site made it difficult for us to find a place to excavate, when we targeted it in 2001-2002 season. Nevertheless, careful exploration of the surface of the tell enabled us to find two undisturbed areas, one on the top of the tell, and another about 100 m away on the northern flank, which slopes down one meter from the first site. As the workable space was limited, the excavation at the top (hereafter gs-3) measured two meters by three meters and that on the northern slope (hereafter gs-1) measured three meters by three meters (Fig. 3). We changed the level according to the natural layer of soil. After two months of work, we arrived at culturally sterile soil. The depth of gs-1 was 6.35 m at the fifteenth level, and that of gs-3 was 7.30 m at the seventeenth level. 19In terms of the stratigraphy of gs-1, the upper part down to 1.60 m seemed to have been used as a dump. There were a large quantity of remains such as shards of pottery, glass beads, and small clay crucibles, but no structural remains. The soil was a mixture of yellow sand and clay, containing much ash. This phase (phase 1) was followed by another (phase 2) that consisted of yellow sand and clay mix, 4.75 m in depth. Some rectangular banco bricks were found there, but no visible structures remained. 20In contrast, the gs-3 trench uncovered three layers of structural remains. After removing disturbed soil 0.35 m in depth (phase 1), we found the first structure made of rectangular banco bricks 0.6 m long and 0.3 m wide (Fig. 5). Fig. 5. Construction made of rectangular dried banco bricks - 9 The origin and the dissemination of the African rice (Oryza Glaberrima) were fully discussed by Rol (...) 21This structure would have been a solid one with walls 0.65 m thick. Beneath this structure, at a depth of 2.28 m, we found two convex thin banco walls of 1 m long, 0.5 m wide and 0.05 m thick. These structures were filled with incinerated Glaberrima rice of West African origin9, and would have been used as corn lofts. After this, appeared the remains of another structure with wall 0.4 m wide, made of rectangular banco bricks. The total depth of this phase containing three layers of structures (phase 2) was 2.60 m. Its soil was yellow sand and clay mix in distinguishable from that of phase 3 beneath. In the latter phase we found a large number of shards of pottery and beads, with no structural remains. - 10 Some “collapsed rectangular bricks” were found at Jenné-Jeno from the structure whose dating is 103 (...) 22The discovery of the structure made of rectangular dried mud bricks is interesting, as this building technique is unfamiliar in “medieval” West Africa. The houses of the archaeological site of Jenné-Jeno from the third century b.p. to the fourteenth century a.d. were generally made of cylindrical dried mud bricks10 (McIntosh & McIntosh 1980: 104-110; McIntosh 1995: 64-65). The people of Jenné still distinguish these two kinds of brick, calling rectangular mud bricks “tubabu ferey”, which means “white men’s bricks”, and cylindrical bricks “jeney ferey”, “Jenné’s bricks”. This suggests that the diffusion of the rectangular mud brick in the region of Jenné took place in the last decades of the nineteenth century. As the Gao Saney site is considered to date from the eighth to the tenth centuries, this use of rectangular mud brick is one of the earliest in West Africa (see footnote 16 of this article). 23The findings from Gao Saney are composed, in the first place, of more than two thousands shards of pottery of which we analyzed a quarter, that is, 611 shards. Of these, 26.2% were classified as cord and twine-decorated, 25.3% as painted, and 13.6% as undecorated, while 34.9% were not classifiable. The cord decorated pottery, which frequently contains sand grains, is generally bigger and more rustic than the painted pottery. Our previous surveys in the Niger Bend demonstrated that the most frequently encountered Iron Age pottery is monochromatic, painted in light reddish brown or reddish yellow. At Gao Saney, however, much of the pottery is multicolored and more beautifully decorated than was standard (Fig. 6). The variety of decorations and diversity of manufacturing techniques suggest that either this site was occupied by peoples of different origins or pottery was imported from various areas. In spite of this diversity, the types of pottery were not differentiated in accordance with the depth of their finding. This implies that this site was not occupied over the ages. Fig. 6. Some kinds of decoration of the pottery of Gao Saney - 11 This information was provided by Mutsuo Kawadoko, Director of the Middle East Cultural Center, Toky (...) 24Among 121 shards of pottery of distinguishable form, 79% are bottles, 11% lids or dishes, 5% pots or jars. The high percentage of bottles is the most remarkable particularity of the pottery found at Gao Saney, because the ratio of bottles that our previous surveys conducted in Mali revealed is less than 2%. Other earthenware utensils include two earthen lamps of the same form as that used in North Africa (Fig. 7)11, and 26 earthen crucibles that would have been used to mould copper, glass or gold. Fig. 7. Earthen lamp of Gao Saney in the same form as those of North Africa - 12 H. Lhote (1972: 436) describes these “trois petites barres de cuivre à section hémisphérique, longu (...) 25In terms of metal objects, 333 fragments of copper were found in gs-1 and 116 fragments in gs-3. Most of these objects can not be identified, with the exception of a few bracelets and earrings. Some fragments are considered to be portions of semicircular copper-alloy ingot identified by Timothy Insoll (1997: 21) as currency. As he notes, one earthen mould and three copper ingots found at Marendet in northern Niger by Henri Lhote (1972: 436) in the 1960s seem to have the same form and the same dimension as the copper ingots of Gao Saney12. The excavation conducted by Lhote could expose more than 30,000 crucibles, dating from the sixth to the tenth century a.d. (ibid.: 449-450, 453). This corresponds almost exactly to our dating of the tell of Gao Saney. So, it is very probable that copper was imported from Marendet, located 800 kilometers east of Gao, in the form of semicircular ingots that would have been circulated as currency and melted down at need to make copper products. 26Iron slag was found in every layer of our two excavations. It is therefore evident that iron was manufactured in large amounts at this site. The 195 iron items found include 24 fragments of swords or knives, more than 100 nails, and two sets of two big rings attached to each other. The latter can be considered to be portions of harness. 27The most important, and most impressive, finding from Gao Saney is the many different kinds of beads. Of 388 beads in total, there are 11 bone beads, 102 earthenware beads, 22 beads of precious stone such as carnelian and crystal, 243 glass beads. The glass varies in color from dark blue to bright blue, grayish-white, yellow, green and red in quantitative order. The glass and stone beads were undoubtedly imported from North Africa and elsewhere, whereas the earthen and bone beads would have been local. As some of the glass beads found are in the process of manufacture, the inhabitants of Gao Saney must have not only imported but also remade glass beads. - 13 These samples, numbers GS1-2 and GS3-1, are too early in relation to other samples. It is possible (...) - 14 The date proposed in this study is 1000±70 B.P. analyzed in the mid 1980’s (Raimbault & Sanogo 1991 (...) 28During our excavations, no drastic change was noticed regarding either the soil or the pottery according to the depth of the layers. This led us to believe that the occupation of this site must not have been long-standing. This idea was confirmed by the C14 analysis of seven pieces of charcoal sampled during our excavations (Fig. 8). Although the dating of two samples appears anomalous13, if these are discounted, the deepest layer indicates dates of 753±37 a.d. and 776±42 a.d. and the layer above 877±54 a.d. and 920±42 a.d. We can therefore date the occupation of this site from the early eighth century to the mid-tenth century. This dating is almost three centuries earlier than that of between 1042 and 1280 or 1299 deduced from the epitaphs of the cemetery of Gao Saney (Sauvaget 1950; de Moraes Farias 1990, 2003: xxxiv, 32). Our dating, however, corresponds approximately to another proposed in 1980’ by researchers of the Malian Institut des Sciences Humaines, which indicates the late tenth century14. We may therefore situate the occupation date of the tell of Gao Saney between the early eighth century and the late tenth century. Fig. 8. Radiocarbon ages of the site of Gao Saney 29The most outstanding feature of the Gao Saney tell is the overwhelming influence of North African civilization. In fact, our 15 m2 excavation produced 388 beads, including 243 glass beads, an exceptional number in terms of archeological surveys carried out in West Africa. The Jenné-Jeno excavations could find only several dozen of glass beads in total (McIntosh & McIntosh 1980: 164; McIntosh 1995: 250), and the Kumbi Saleh excavation of 130 m2 found 220 glass beads (Berthier 1997: 91). As it is generally accepted that glass was not manufactured in sub-Saharan Africa, this assemblage of glass beads places Gao Saney as one of the most important centers of trans-Saharan trade in West Africa from the eighth to the tenth centuries. - 15 T. Insoll and T. Shaw build up a hypothesis that the splendid findings of Igbo-Ukwu in the Southern (...) 30No less impressive are the existence of the 26 crucibles that would have been used to melt down of glass or gold, of the slag and iron goods found at every level of our excavations, of the more than 300 copper items, and of the very sophisticated pottery of different kinds. All these findings suggest that Gao Saney was not only a mercantile town but also a manufacturing one, as proposed by Insoll (1997: 23). If this reading is accepted, our findings will cast new light on industrial development in West Africa from the eighth to the tenth centuries15. - 16 It should be compared with the cases of Tegdaoust and Kumbi Saleh, which are located in the Sahara (...) - 17 The excavations at Tegdaoust discovered more than 100 spindle whorls, only in a layer dating its la (...) 31Moreover, the use of rectangular mud bricks is not only exceptional, but also the earliest in West Africa16. Also exceptional are earthen lamps of the same shape as those used in North Africa, sophisticated spindle whorls that are among the earliest in West Africa17, and the high and exceptional percentage of bottles among the pottery found at this site. All these peculiarities suggest that the main inhabitants of Gao Saney would have been merchant-manufacturers from North Africa who would have coexisted with the local population, as suggested by the divers forms and techniques of pottery. - 18 According to Michael Brett (1969: 357), “Saharan trade along three routes may be envisaged as large (...) - 19 In 1352, Ibn Battūta met “a company of white men who are Kharijites of the Ibādī sect called Saghan (...) 32According to Tadeusz Lewicki (1961, 1971), a specialist in Ibādī history, the first agents of the trans-Saharan trade were Ibādī merchants expelled from Iraq in the second century of Islamic expansion. The Ibādī sect, which claimed the equality of all Muslims, was welcomed by the Berber tribes who had been oppressed by the Arab-centered administration of the Umayyad dynasty. Supported by them, the Ibādites accumulated power on the northern fringe of the Sahara and established Rustam dynasty in Tāhart in 776. By the last decades of the eighth century, they must have opened a commercial route to Sudanese cities such as Ghāna and Gao (ibid.: 1961, 1971: 118)18. The relationship between Tāhart and Gao must have been very close, as is illustrated by an anecdote reported in an Ibādī document, which says that a son of the second imam of the Rustam dynasty, al-Wahhāb (784-823), tried to go to Gao (Levtzion & Hopkins 1981: 90). It will therefore not be too great a stretch of the imagination to conceive that the Ibādī merchants-manufacturers would settle in Gao Saney19 in the second half of the eighth century, as suggested already by John Hunwick (1985: 6). 33In 2003, we decided to turn to Gao city to expand our understanding through a comparison with our discovery at Gao Saney. The northern area of Gao city is called Gao-Ancient, and many archeological sites remain there, including the monument of Askia Muhammad built in the last decade of the fifteenth century. In this area there is an open space of about 40,000 m2 where, according to local tradition, the emperor of Ancient Mali, Mansa Musa, constructed a mosque on his return from Mecca in 1325 or 1926, as noted in Tarikh al-Sūdān (es-Sa’di 1981: 11). Some French colonial officers and Raymond Mauny (1951: 844) carried out archaeological investigations there in 1949 and 1950 to find “une mosquée à mirhab” constructed with dried mud bricks. As Mauny found nearby a tombstone dated to 1362, he concluded this structure to be the remains of the Mansa Musa’s mosque (Fig. 4). - 20 During his excavation in 1996, T. Insoll (2000: 4-8, 26-27) hit one end of the stone walls. Unfortu (...) 34Besides this mosque, Mauny noted some structural remains made of stone, one of which measured 30 m long and 1.2 m thick. Believing these stones to be the foundations of modern houses, Mauny affirmed that “Des sondages effectués à plusieurs points de cet important bâtiment m’ont donné des résultats négatifs: il ne s’agit pas de murs à proprement parler, mais de fondations” (ibid.: 845). We do not know if Mauny actually carried out excavations there to make this declaration. What we know is that this claim has gone unchallenged. In spite of their apparent importance, nobody has tried to find out what exactly these stones structures represent20. 35After having swept all the surface and exposed structures of this open space, we chose one area in which to dig. This area was defined by the ends of two parallel ranges of stones 2 m apart. We envisaged them to have formed the entrance of an ancient building, and decided to establish one unit of 5 m by 5 m to include all the visible stones. As the trench was large, we decided to change level every 20 cm. Several days’ work brought us discoveries that surpassed all our expectations (Fig. 9). Fig. 9. Entrance of the big building of Gao-Ancient 36The stone structures proved not to be building foundations, as proposed by Mauny, but the actual walls of a big building buried underground. The entrance was decorated with fine fired bricks. The thickness of the walls was consistently 1.2 m, made of a combination of flat schist slabs and round sand stones, reinforced by clay plaster. We dug down to the bottom of the walls at 1.2 m deep. During our excavation of this first unit, we realized that the building was much bigger than we had expected. We therefore decided to put the highest priority on obtaining an overall view of the building by opening other units in the direction of the stone-wall structures. - 21 A modern house now stands on top of the western wing of the building, making it impossible to enlar (...) 37Our excavations in this season took two and a half months to give us an approximate plan of the building (Fig. 10). The final excavated area of this season, 28 m wide and 20 m long, was unable to uncover the whole structure. The thickness of the wall is consistently 1.2 m, made of a combination of flat schist slabs and round sand stones. The distance between the walls is not large, which varies from 2.5 m to a maximum of 4 m, with no arches used in the building technique in West Africa. The eastern wing of the building is composed of four ranges of stone walls, so the building proves to be very immense21. Inside and outside the building were several walls and floors made of fired or dried mud bricks, which, owing to differences in depth, we interpreted as the remains of later housing that would have reused the abandoned stone walls. Fig. 10. Plan of the buildings of Gao-Ancient 2010, The central units (GKM1-GKM8) were excavated in the 2003-2004 season. - 22 Bentya is a small village located 140 km south of Gao, on the route to Niamey. Bentya is famous for (...) 38As for the two kinds of stones used construction, sand stones can be easily found on the river bend of the Niger River near Gao, but flat schist slabs are totally absent. When we visited Bentya-Kukiya22, 140 km away from Gao and considered as the first capital of the Gao kingdom according to the local tradition collected by Jean Rouch (1953: 156-165), we discovered some structural remains made of the same kind of stones. Gao being linked with Bentya by the Niger River, it is very probable that these stones were carried from there by boat. Did the rulers who had left Bentya, their old capital, to settle in Gao-Ancient tried to construct their new residence with the same materials? This seems very plausible, but will remain a hypothesis until an extensive survey will be carried out in the region of Gao including Bentya. In any case, an immense mobilization of labor would have been needed to transport a large amount of stones, as Gao is 140 km from Bentya and the building in Gao-Ancient is very immense. 39In relation to the scale of the construction, our findings during this season were relatively limited. More than 400 pottery shards were found, with decorations almost the same as those of Gao Saney, except for black or brown burnished wares of the finest quality. The most marked difference in the forms of pottery found was the scarcity of bottles in Gao Ancient in comparison with Gao Saney. Other findings included several dozen spindle whorls, a large quantity of iron products, some copper articles, and very few iron slag. The number of glass beads was relatively limited (493 items) for the site’s size, while a dozen large carnelian beads were found. In spite of these findings of great value, no dump and very few charcoals were remarked during our excavations. 40Excavations in Gao-Ancient have continued year in year out since 2003 with some interruptions. The eastern wing of the big building was finally uncovered to reveal four ranged walls 36 m long. These walls are 2.5 m apart, with the right wing measuring 12.5 m from front to back. If the left wing has the same length as the right wing, the total length of this building will be 73 m. In terms of the height of the building, actual houses constructed with dried mud brick walls 0.4 m thick are generally 3 m high. So if we treble this figure in accordance with the triple thickness of the wall, the building would stand over 10 m high. The immensity of the building and the mobilization of massive labor force to construct it made us to think of the citadel or royal residence mentioned by al-Muhallabī and al-Bakrī of the tenth and the eleventh centuries (Levtzion & Hopkins 1981: 87, 174). 41On the north boundary was found another building containing some rooms. This building, or rather residence, is smaller than the other. Its main room is 11 m long and 5.5 m wide, with walls 0.5 m thick made with flat schist slabs (Fig. 10). Inside the room are seen two ranges of columns made of smaller schist slabs (Fig. 11). Fig. 11. Interior of the small building of Gao-Ancient 42Two layers of white and red plaster are painted inside the walls, meaning that this room must have been very beautifully decorated. This residence contains two other rooms, one of which is a bathroom equipped with a drain pipe under a corner of the floor made of pebbles (Fig. 12). Fig. 12. Bathroom of the small building of Gao Saney 43How were these two buildings constructed? The walls of the bigger building are found to be set on a foundation made of banco, 0.3 m thick and tightly beaten. The foundation of the other building is not so thick or tight. The fact that the wall of the small residence is deeper than that of the bigger one by 20 cm gives rise to two possible interpretations: either both buildings were constructed at the same time, or the smaller building was built first, followed by the other after an interval of several years or decades. In any case, the buildings are situated so close to each other that the bigger building must have been built while the preceding residence was occupied. - 23 Sample number GMK4-6 was taken from the excavation of the bigger building, and sample number GMK11- (...) - 24 T. Insoll (1995: 327) found 53 hippopotamus ivories in a layer called the “fifth period” (1.60 m in (...) 44For dating, seven charcoal samples were taken from the two buildings (Fig. 13). The charcoals of sample number gmk4-6 and gmk11-7 are taken from the deepest layer over the floor23, and those of gmk4-5 and gmk11-6 from the next deepest layer. Their dates indicate that the two buildings were constructed in the first quarter of the tenth century (between 908±50 a.d. and 938±40 a.d.) and abandoned in the last decade of the same century (between 978±50 a.d. and 1018±40 a.d.)24. The other charcoal samples, numbers gmk11-4, gmk20-3, and gmk29-3, are taken from the layer at almost the same depth as the annexed floors made of fired or dried mud bricks. We interpret these floors as the reuse of the abandoned stone walls, meaning that the posterior constructions equipped with these floors were built in the last half of the eleventh century or the first half of the twelfth century24. Fig. 13. Radiocarbon ages of the site of Gao-Ancient - 25 During his excavation in Gap-Ancient in 1996, Insoll hit a corner of these stone walls. Unfortunate (...) 45This dating of the stone buildings of Gao-Ancient merits comparison with that of Gao Saney. In fact, the construction of Gao’s main buildings coincides with the later period of occupation of the tell of Gao Saney from the eighth to the tenth centuries. It is therefore clear that the buildings of Gao-Ancient and those of Gao Saney coexisted during the tenth century. This agrees exactly with the writings of al-Muhallabī and al-Bakrī of the second half of the tenth century25, which affirm that the capital of the Gao kingdom was a twin cities, one called “Sarnāh” and dedicated to the markets and trading houses, and the other, the residence of the king located “to the west of the Nile” (Levtzion & Hopkins 1981: 84, 174). The collation of the results of our excavations carried out in Gao-Ancien and Gao Saney offers evidence for the assertion that “Sarnāh” is the actual site of Saney and that both parts of the twin cities of the Gao kingdom were located on the east side of Niger. The “Nile” of these writings should not be interpreted as Niger River, but as Waji Gangaber which separates Gao to its west from Saney to its east (Fig. 1), as was interpreted by Dierk Lange (1991: 258, 1994: 284). - 26 Al-Bakrī finished a part of his book concerning the Bilād al-Sūdān in 1068, but he exploited the wr (...) - 27 Among the glassware, two kinds of coloring are recognizable: greenish and colorless. Chemical analy (...) - 28 The number of fragments of glassware and luster pottery found in Gao-Ancient is far greater than th (...) 46Both quantitatively and qualitatively, our findings in Gao-Ancient are more important than those of Gao Saney. Most of the valuable goods were found in the main room of the smaller residence, including a round brass trim, an iron sword inlaid with some brass asterisks, a bracelet made of several hundreds of brass small rings, and a probable small jewel box decorated with a brass ornament. There are also 40 fragments of luster pottery imported from North Africa and from China, some of which were typical pottery of Cairouan under the early Fatimid dynasty 416 fragments of glassware, including several dozen of small bottles that would contain perfume or balm, and one cupping glass for drawing blood (Fig. 14)26. These findings are important as nothing similar has been found in West Africa, even in large trading cities such as Tegdaoust and Kumbi Saleh27. Moreover, two small shreds of gold weighing 2.50 g and 2.25 g are found in the same room, indicating that the export of gold was practiced in Gao28. Fig. 14. Glassware imported from North Africa or Middle East 47As for the pottery, some differences are remarked between Gao Saney and Gao-Ancient. The most remarkable difference is that a hundred pieces of black or blown burnished pottery of the finest quality are found in Gao-Ancient while the high percentage of bottles remarked in Gao Saney is not reproduced here. Other earthenware items include 46 spindle whorls of the same material and geometric decoration as the black burnished wares, whose provenance we cannot yet identify. The absence of bottles and earthen lamps that are the most characteristic feature of the pottery of Gao Saney and can be considered as the indicator of the existence of the North African people gives an idea that the inhabitants of Gao-Ancient differed from those of Gao Saney. In contrast, the diversity of decoration of the pottery found at Gao-Ancient suggests that Gao was a center for the exchange of the local pottery fabricated in different localities. - 29 Gold has not been commonly found by the archeological surveys realized in the Gao region. Only one (...) 48The findings from Gao-Ancient are more important than those of any other archeological site in West Africa other than Igbo-Ukwu (Shaw 1970)29. The richness of the site is shown in the number of findings in each category: The total number of beads is 9,743, including two bone beads, 34 metal beads, 114 earthenware beads, 150 precious stone beads (agate, carnelian, crystal, etc.), and 9,411 glass beads. There are also 2,098 pieces of iron, 1,889 pieces of copper, 416 fragments of glassware, and 41 fragments of luster pottery imported from North Africa, the Middle East, or China, but few iron slag. The ratio of the number of findings from the small building to those from the larger one is roughly 4:1. This ratio is even higher for precious items such as copper articles, glassware and luster pottery. 49The tenth-century main buildings made of stone on a scale never before seen in the West African savannah, the centralized power required to mobilize massive labor for the transportation of schist slabs, and the intensive transport by camels of precious and very fragile goods such as small glass bottles, all lead us to deduce that the small building of Gao-Ancient was a royal residence protected by a kind of large stone-built citadel. This interpretation seems more probable given the fact that no dump and a very limited quantity of iron slag were found here. It demonstrates that this area was not occupied by the common people, but reserved for the nobility who did not need to work or cook. 50Our excavations at the archaeological sites of Gao-Ancient and Gao Saney have produced many discoveries more important and more controversial than we had ever expected. Some of them, notably the new dating of the two sites and the position of the royal residence of the early Gao kingdom, diverge from commonly accepted views. Yet, if our interpretations are accepted, they will surely deepen and widen our understanding of the process of the formation of the early Gao kingdom. Which kind of new light can our discoveries cast on the history of Gao and of West Africa? Four points are to be noted. - 30 T. Insoll and T. Shaw (1997) tried to compare the findings from Gao and Gao Saney with those from I (...) 51Firstly, our discovery of the royal palace of the tenth century, if our interpretation is accepted, is the first discovery of a “medieval” royal palace in West Africa. Since the beginning of the twentieth century, when West African historiography began (Shaw 1905; Delafosse 1912), many efforts have been made to find the capitals of ancient Ghāna, Mali, and Gao kingdoms, without any success30. The twin cities of Gao composed of the royal residence and the Muslim commercial town, were mentioned by Arabic writers of the tenth and eleventh centuries such as al-Muhallabī and al-Bakrī. But the absence of any archeological proof until now has meant that these writings have caused controversy among modern scholars rather than shared understanding. 52Our discovery has shown the very existence of the twin cities of Gao in the tenth century, both located on the east bank of the Niger River. Furthermore, the scale of the buildings made of stone and the richness of the imported and locally manufactured items which exceed generally accepted concepts in “medieval” West African history suggest that the inhabitants of Gao-Ancient would be the holders of the centralized power. And their power must have been consolidated by the coexistence of the flourishing commercial and manufacturing center of Gao Saney where the merchants-manufacturers from North Africa would cohabit with the local population. - 31 For excavations of ancient Ghāna, see Thomassey and Mauny (1950), Berthier (1997). For ancient Mali (...) 53Secondly, the new dating of Gao-Ancient and Gao Saney confirmed by our excavations will require a revision of the early history of the trans-Saharan trade. The epitaphs found at the cemetery of Gao Saney dating from 1042 to 1280-1299 have made scholars consider that the tell contiguous with it was contemporaneous, despite the lack of any archeological investigation there. This presumed idea must be revised in the light of the results of our excavations, which situate the occupation of the tell from the eighth to the tenth centuries a.d.31 Our excavations suggest also a high probability for the existence of a colony of North African merchants and manufacturers in this place. - 32 This does not exclude the possibility that Gao Saney was inhabited earlier or later than this perio (...) 54A large quantity of glass beads, copper ingots, iron goods and iron slag, and miscellaneous earthenware including crucibles, spindle whorls and earthen lamps, all demonstrate the intensity of the trans-Saharan traffics and manufacturing activities in Gao Saney. If this place was inhabited by the merchant-manufacturers of North African origin as early as the eighth century, as we believe, the trans-Saharan trade must have existed in considerable intensity in this century32. To identify the main items exported from Gao is beyond the scope of this article. But gold and hippopotamus ivories shipped by the Sorko, a riverine branch of the Songhay, would have constituted an important part of the products exported to North Africa. Situated at the confluence of the Niger River and Tillemsi Valley and in the contact zone between the Sahara and the savannah, Gao must have been a privileged target for both foreign merchants and the local populations who wanted to engage themselves in the world-wide economy via North Africa. 55Thirdly, the confirmation that the occupation of Gao Saney preceded the construction of the main buildings of Gao-Ancient by two centuries will shed new light on the process of formation of the twin cities of Gao. The oral tradition of the Sorko collected by Jean Rouch (1953: 156-165) in the 1950s affirms that their forebears originated far to the south, in the W region on the frontier between modern Benin and Nigeria (Fig. 2). 56Their mythic ancestor, Faran Maka Bote, ascended the Niger River to settle in Kukiya-Bentya where he found the residents dominated by a demon in the form of a gigantesque fish. It was after Faran Maka Bote, or Za-al-Ayaman after Tarikh al-Sūdān (es-Sa’di 1981: 6), had killed this demon with a kind of harpoon that he was welcomed by the local population and became king there (Rouch 1953: 168; es-Sa’di 1981: 8; Kati 1981: 326). Thus, the first kingdom of Gao would have been founded in Kukiya-Bentya, which must have expanded its power through a monopoly of the fluvial activities of the Niger River. This legend may have reflected the historical evidence that the first kingdom of Gao emerged from the combination of the local agricultural population and the immigrant riverine people who monopolized the fishing, hunting of aquatic animals, and fluvial traffic of the Niger Bend and beyond. - 36 The fact that the epitaphs of Es-Souk precede those of Gao Saney suggests that this custom was intr (...) - 34 Because of the existence of the epitaphs in Bentya necropolis from 1272 to 1489 which coincide appr (...) 57We have no historical record of when this event happened. Yet, it is very probable that the later development of the small kingdom of Kukiya-Bentya was due to the intensification of the commercial and manufacturing activities of Gao Saney that had flourished since the eighth century. On the other hand, the consolidation of power of the small kingdom in Kukiya-Bentya would be felt to be beneficial to enlarge their settlement in Gao Saney by the foreign merchant-manufacturers who had decided to live there33. If this interpretation is accepted, it implies that the first twin cities of Gao consisted of Kukiya-Bentya and Gao Saney since the eighth century. Some decades or centuries later, the ruler of Kukiya-Bentya would decide to construct his new residence in Gao in the early tenth century at the latest, to engage his kingdom more deeply in the trans-Saharan trade and to acquire more of its benefits from it34. 58Fourthly, if the peak of the early Gao kingdom was achieved by the Songhay people during the tenth century when they constructed big buildings at Gao-Ancient, a question must be posed regarding its continuity: Is it the Songhay who held the hegemony of Gao since then? To answer this question, we must examine carefully the changes of the religious lives and of the material culture, observed in Gao-Ancient and Gao Saney. As shown above, the main buildings of tenth-century Gao-Ancient were made of stone, while the structures of the next layer above dating of the eleventh and twelfth centuries were equipped with floors made of fired mud bricks. This technique was unfamiliar in the Gao region, with the exception of the “caveaux” of the cemetery of Gao Saney and the “structure Q” in the southern fringe of the tell of Gao Saney, which were considered to be “about 1100” (Flight 1975, 1979: 36) (Fig. 3). What does this affinity between the later construction at Gao-Ancient and the “structures” at Gao Saney mean? 59This change of the building techniques should be related to another one realized in the religious lives: appearance of the epitaph in the Gao Region. In spite of the overwhelming influence of the Muslim civilization, the first epitaph appeared in 1013/1014 at Es-Souk and in 1042 at Gao Saney (de Moraes Farias 2003: xxxiii-xxxiv). The absence of epitaph before these dates would be due to the repulsion toward its construction by the Ibādites who monopolized the trans-Saharan traffics before the tenth century. Since the second half of the tenth century, nevertheless, the influence of the Sunnī and Shī’ī Muslims who were not against epitaph construction gradually got to predominate in this region (ibid.: cxlv-cxlvii). In fact, the Almoravids who were the advocates of Sunnī extended their power, after having conquered Sijilmāsa in 1054, to the north to occupy Almeria in 1091, as well as to the south to take Ghāna in 1076, and Tādmakka in 1083. 60Some studies propose that the marble epitaphs of Gao Saney, made in and transported from Almeria on the southern coast of Spain, were closely related to the Almoravid domination in the Gao region (Hunwick 1980: 420-423). So the marble epitaphs of Gao Saney, which were introduced for the first time in West Africa around 1100 to commemorate deceased kings and queens, represented exactly the two extremities of the Almoravid dynasty. As A. D. H. Bivar (1968: 7) has suggested, this new ruler of Gao who introduced the Spanish marble epitaphs would not be “one of the Almoravid princes but a federated or vassal local ruler”. He or she must have felt a great need for it, because his/her emerging authority would not have been recognized easily by the local population (ibid.: Hunwick 1980: 429-30). - 35 This settlement process was described for the first time by Hunwick (1985: 5-7). Tarikh al-Sūdān co (...) 61If the new ruling class of Gao, of presumed Sanhāja origin35, introduced marble epitaphs from Spain, it is very probable that to consolidate their authority they also introduced other items more visible and more overwhelming: structure made by a new building technique, fired mud bricks. So, the new rulers established their royal houses in Gao-Ancient and Gao Saney by using a new building technique, while standing the epitaphs in the cemetery of Gao Saney between 1042 and 1280-1299. As a consequence, the ancient Songhay rulers of Gao-Ancient would be obliged to go down the Niger River far south. This new dynasty of provably Sanhāja origin, succumbing to the domination of Mali Empire in the Gao region during the mid-thirteenth and the fourteenth centuries, would retreat to Bentya where they constructed the epitaphs between 1272 and 1489 (de Moraes Farias 2003: liv). From far south the descendants or the compatriots of the ancient Songhay rulers were obliged to wait several centuries before they regained Gao with the assumption to the throne of Sonni Ali-Ber. 63Our excavations in Gao-Ancient and Gao Saney could furnish rich and solid materials that will deepen and widen an understanding not only of West African archaeology but also of the history of West Africa. 64The most urgent necessity imposed on us is to carry out further excavations in order to expose the rest of the buildings still covered under-ground at the site of Gao-Ancient. Our hope is to continue this task. Nevertheless, we have to recognize that this is not an easy task, as our excavation of about 1600 m2 at Gao-Ancient only represent ten percent of the possible site which may occupy about half of the open space of 40,000 m2, called site of Mansa Mūsa’s mosque.

https://journals.openedition.org/etudesafricaines/17167

Politics

en

When Jesus was on the cross, both the apostle John and Mary the mother of Jesus stood nearby. In John 19:26–27 we read, “When Jesus saw his mother there, and the disciple whom he loved standing nearby, he said to her, ‘Woman, here is your son,’ and to the disciple, ‘Here is your mother.’ From that time on, this disciple took her into his home.” The clear understanding of the passage is that Jesus commanded John to care for Mary after His death. Mary was most certainly a widow at this point in her life and also an older woman. Though she had other sons, Jesus chose John to provide care for Mary after His death. Why? Jesus’ brothers did not become believers until after His resurrection (John 7:5). Further, Jesus’ brothers were not present at His crucifixion. Jesus was entrusting Mary to John, who was a believer and was present, rather than entrusting her to His brothers, who were not believers and who were not even present at His crucifixion. As the oldest son in His family, Jesus had a cultural obligation to care for His mother, and He passed that obligation on to one of His closest friends. John would have certainly obeyed this command. Mary was most likely one of the women in the upper room and was present when the church was established in Jerusalem (Acts 1:12–14). She probably continued to stay with John in Jerusalem until her death. It is only later in John’s life that his writings and church history reveal John left Jerusalem and ministered in other areas. This is also confirmed by Acts 8:1 that reads, “On that day a great persecution broke out against the church in Jerusalem, and all except the apostles were scattered throughout Judea and Samaria.” John was still in the city at this time (perhaps one or two years after the resurrection) and was still there three years after the conversion of Paul (Galatians 2:9). There is no contextual proof within Scripture itself that would point to Jesus broadening Mary’s role as “mother” of all Christians. In fact, Catholic teaching can only point to early church leaders as proof that Jesus meant to establish Mary’s “motherhood” to all believers in Christ or that Mary was a cooperative participant in salvation. John took Mary into his home to care for her. The Bible does not say “from that time on Mary became the mother of all believers.” The beauty of John 19:26–27 is reflected in the care Jesus had for His mother, as well as the care John provided for her. Scripture clearly teaches the importance of caring for widows and the elderly, something Jesus personally applied during His final hours of His earthly ministry. James, the half-brother of Jesus, would later call such care for widows “pure religion.” “Religion that God our Father accepts as pure and faultless is this: to look after orphans and widows in their distress and to keep oneself from being polluted by the world” (James 1:27).

https://www.gotquestions.org/Jesus-Mary-John.html

Religion

en

Covid mRNA vaccine- Does it affect sperm quality? Understanding mRNA COVID-19 Vaccines According to Centers For Disease Control And Prevention, Messenger RNA vaccines—also called mRNA vaccines—are some of the first COVID-19 vaccines authorized for use in the United States. mRNA vaccines are a new type of vaccine to protect against infectious diseases. - mRNA vaccines teach our cells how to make a protein—or even just a piece of a protein—that triggers an immune response inside our bodies. - The benefit of mRNA vaccines, like all vaccines, is those vaccinated gain protection without ever having to risk the serious consequences of getting sick with COVID-19. - COVID-19 vaccines are not interchangeable. If you received a Pfizer-BioNTech or Moderna COVID-19 vaccine, you should get the same product for your second shot. - mRNA vaccines do not give someone covid 19. It does not use the live virus that causes COVID-19. - mRNA does not affect or interact with our DNA in any way. That is, it never enters the nucleus of the cell, which is where our DNA (genetic material) is kept. - The cell breaks down and gets rid of the mRNA soon after it is finished using the instructions. - mRNA vaccines are safe and effective. Learn more about getting your vaccine. A normal sperm count ranges from 15 million sperm to more than 200 million sperm per milliliter (mL) of semen. Anything less than 15 million sperm per milliliter, or 39 million sperm per ejaculate, is considered low. A low sperm count is often referred to as oligospermia. This makes it difficult for the man to impregnate a female naturally. When this occurs, you will need a sperm booster like SpermBoost dietary supplement. SpermBoost is a formulation of traditional herbs with empirical evidence for centuries but now scientifically proven. The formulation is known to improve several parameters of sperm count, sperm viability and motility by 300%; these herbs also reduce morphological damage. Benefits of taking Spermboost - It increases the motility of your sperm - Helps boost your sperm production - Makes you fertile if you have a low sperm count. - Reduces morphological damage – making your sperm maintain their shape - And many more… Testimonials On Spermboost I was diagnosed with low motility, the doctors gave us several very expensive options on how to help us conceive. I couldn’t go through that route because of the expenses involved. So I did what I always do! Find a low cost solution. I did online research to find natural products that boost sperm. I saw so many options but my mind was fixed on this, i guess the reviews helped too. I was diligent in my usage and i was patient, Now what I need everyone who has watery semen, low sperm count or low motility to know is that technically it takes some days for healthy sperm to be created. So it won’t happen overnight but at the end, it worked! To buy SpermBoost, CLICK HERE. You can determine your sperm count through a semen analysis. You can get the analysis done at your doctor’s office, a fertility clinic, or with an at-home test. A semen analysis tests for the following: - number of sperm (volume) - shape of sperm or “sperm morphology” - movement of sperm, or “sperm motility” Sperm Parameters Before and After COVID-19 mRNA Vaccination Covid mRNA Vaccine- does it affect sperm quality? According to this study, “Two mRNA vaccines, BNT162b2 (Pfizer-BioNTech) and mRNA-1273 (Moderna), received Emergency Use Authorization from the US Food and Drug Administration, Despite high efficacy and few adverse events found in clinical trials, only 56% of individuals in the US reported wanting to receive the vaccine. One of the reasons for vaccine hesitancy is the potential negative effect on fertility. We assessed sperm parameters before and after mRNA vaccine administration” The result of the study of sperm parameters before and after 2 doses of a COVID-19 mRNA vaccine: “ there were no significant decreases in any sperm parameter among this small cohort of healthy men. Because the vaccines contain mRNA and not the live virus, it is unlikely that the vaccine would affect sperm parameters. While these results showed statistically significant increases in all sperm parameters, the magnitude of change is within normal individual variation and may be influenced by regression to the mean. Additionally, the increase may be due to the increased abstinence time before the second sample. Men with oligospermia did not experience further decline” Covid mRNA Vaccine- Does It Affect Sperm Quality? Experts Answer The Society for Male Reproduction and Urology (SMRU) and the Society for the Study of Male Reproduction (SSMR), two major male fertility medical organizations, are both recommending that the COVID-19 vaccine should be offered to men desiring fertility when they meet the criteria for vaccination. Similarly, ASRM has issued guidance that patients who are trying to conceive or going through fertility treatments should be encouraged to receive the vaccine. Data demonstrates that, for couples undergoing IVF, getting vaccinated will not impact their chances of success. A study (still in pre-print) of 47 couples undergoing IVF found that the number of eggs retrieved, fertilization rate, embryo quality, and pregnancy rates were no different in pre- and post-vaccination cycles. The mRNA vaccines do not appear to affect sperm count or motility, so vaccination should not impact the outcomes of fertility treatment. However, if you and your partner are undergoing fertility treatment, you may want to talk to your doctor about timing, so that the potential impact — however small — of fever post-vaccination won’t affect your cycle. Can A Female Get Pregnant After Covid mRNA Vaccine? Many females have become pregnant after receiving a COVID-19 vaccine, including some who got vaccinated during COVID-19 vaccine clinical trials. In addition, a recent report using the v-safe safety monitoring system data showed that 4,800 people had a positive pregnancy test after receiving a first dose of an mRNA COVID-19 vaccine (i.e., Pfizer-BioNTech or Moderna). Another report using data from 8 U.S. healthcare systems documented more than 1,000 people who completed COVID-19 vaccination (with any COVID-19 vaccine) before becoming pregnant. Infertility is a condition that affects approximately 1 out of every 6 couples. Female infertility factors contribute to approximately 50% of all infertility cases. Infertility in females can be cured through the use of OVUL8PLUS. It contains just the right formulation of herbal extracts to support your body’s natural hormone levels and also improve egg health. - BENEFITS OF TAKING OVUL8PLUS - regulates menstrual cycle - treats hormonal imbalance - corrects polycystic ovary syndrome(PCOS) - restores and normalize ovulation(anovulation) - enhanced fertility - eliminates the effects of anti-sperm antibodies - relieves menopausal symptoms Reviews On Ovul8Plus ‘This product solved my anovulation. I noticed that I ovulated when i used it according to the prescription and i conceived on the third month’ Tiffany ‘I did not experience any side effects but when I was sick a couple of months after taking the product, the doctor said it was because I was pregnant’ Itunu To buy Ovul8plus, CLICK HERE Covid mRNA Vaccine- Does it Cause Erectile Dysfunction? COVID-19 may cause Erectile Dysfunction, you may be worried about the vaccines causing ED. Currently, the clinical trial data from the Moderna, Pfizer-BioNTech, and Johnson & Johnson vaccines show that the vaccines may cause pain or swelling where you received the vaccine and side effects like nausea, vomiting, headache, chills, or fever. But, none of the manufacturers listed any issues related to sexual health or Erectile Dysfunction in their reports. Erectile dysfunction might be brought about by numerous elements — a health condition, emotional or relationship issues, prescription, smoking, medications, or liquor — erectile dysfunction treatment is possible with the use of this supplement Randyfoods Randyfoods is a dietary supplement that makes you get more powerful erections – Develop ‘rock hard’ erections, each and every time no matter your age! Cure and prevent impotence – Temporary impotence will be a thing of the past! With Randyfoods, You will be able to naturally - Get More Powerful erections – Develop ‘rock hard’ erections, each and every time no matter your age! - Cure and prevent impotence – Temporary impotence will be a thing of the past! - Have more sperm volume with better quality – If you have not noticed, according to women, a man’s sperm volume reflects his sexual abilities. If it is low, then he is a dud; if it is high, then he is a stud. This sick trend is taking a whole on all women, so men we just have to impress in that department. - End premature ejaculation – Have sex for as long as you want, and satisfy her fully! - Ejaculate further – Fire off like a cannon! - Increased sexual stamina – Go for longer, stronger and YOU decide when you ejaculate - Have explosive sex AND Increase your confidence – Pleasure your partner beyond her wildest dreams and willingly, she will address you ‘Sir’. 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I should quickly state here for people to know that money alone doesn’t make women happy. My wife was not happy and also frustrated and at a time moved to another room. Whenever I thought I had used something to help me and go to her, I always felt disappointed because it’s either it will be very difficult to raise erection or just ejaculated within seconds after insertion. I simply lost hope. Then I stumbled upon this randy foods on google. Gave it a trial and then tried myself with an old friend. I was happy with my performance. The relationship with my wife has greatly improved. I have finished my dosage but I still keep a pack at home. Just in case.” To buy Randyfoods, CLICK HERE Covid mRNA Vaccine- Does It Affect Female Libido? There has not been any research that covid mRNA vaccine affects female libido Low Libido is a widespread but hidden problem women experience. Studies have identified a variety of sexual problems including Vagina dryness, Painful penetration, Pain during sexual intercourse, lack of orgasm, Vagina tightness, Vagina looseness, Bleeding or irritation after sex, and Loss of sexual desire. This supplement, Passionplus cures low libido in female PassionPlus is a female natural aphrodisiac made by a female for females. it increases the female intimacy energy and libido through the incorporation of aphrodisiac herbs that increase the blood supply to the labia which in turn increase sensation and orgasm. - it improves mood and desire - it increases natural lubrication - it enhances libido and feeling of intimacy - it increases sexual pleasure - it reduces problem during menopause - it gives you stamina - it gives intense and pleasurable orgasm TO BUY PASSIONPLUS, CLICK HERE Covid mRNA Vaccine- Does It Affect Sperm Quality? The mRNA vaccines do not appear to affect sperm count or motility, so vaccination should not impact the outcomes of fertility treatment. Pingback: Effect Of Semen On Patients Who Have Recovered From Covid-19 -

https://thenaturehill.com/covid-mrna-vaccine-does-it-affect-sperm-quality/

Romance

en

The Lord’s day (as distinguished from the day of the Lord) is Sunday. The term Lord’s day is used only once in Scripture. Revelation 1:10 says, “I was in the Spirit on the Lord’s day, and I heard behind me a loud voice like a trumpet.” Since the apostle John does not elaborate on the meaning of “Lord’s day,” we can assume that his target audience, first-century Christians, were already familiar with the expression. Some have assumed that the Lord’s day is the New Testament equivalent of the Sabbath. The Sabbath day was instituted by God for the nation of Israel to commemorate His deliverance of them from Egypt (Deuteronomy 5:15). Sabbath began Friday at sunset and ended Saturday at sunset and was to be a day of complete rest from all labor, symbolic of the Creator’s resting on the seventh day (Genesis 2:2–3; Exodus 20:11; 23:12). The Sabbath was a special sign to the Israelites that they had been set apart as followers of the most High God. Their keeping of the Sabbath would help distinguish them from the nations around them. However, nowhere in Scripture is the Sabbath ever referred to as the Lord’s day. The term Sabbath was still in use within the Jewish community in New Testament times and is referred to as such by Jesus and the apostles (Matthew 12:5; John 7:23; Colossians 2:16). Sunday was the day that Jesus Christ rose from the dead, an act that forever separated Christianity from any other religion (John 20:1). Since that time, believers have gathered on the first day of the week to celebrate His victory over sin and death (Acts 20:7; 1 Corinthians 16:2). Even though the Sabbath day was designated by God as a holy day, Jesus demonstrated that He was Lord over the Sabbath (Matthew 12:8). Jesus stated that He had come not to abolish but to fulfill the whole Law. Rule-keeping could not justify anyone; only through Jesus could sinful humanity be declared righteous (Romans 3:28). Paul echoes this truth in Colossians 2:16–17 when he writes, “Therefore do not let anyone judge you by what you eat or drink, or with regard to a religious festival, a New Moon celebration or a Sabbath day. These are a shadow of the things that were to come; the reality, however, is found in Christ.” The Lord’s day is typically thought of as Sunday, but it is not a direct counterpart to the Jewish Sabbath—in other words, Sunday is not the “Christian Sabbath.” Although we should set aside a day for rest and honoring the Lord who died and rose for us, we are not under the Law (Romans 6:14–15). As born-again followers of Jesus, we are free to worship Him on any day that our conscience determines. Romans 14 gives clear explanation of how Christians are to navigate those subtle gray areas of discipleship. Verses 4 and 5 say, “One person considers one day more sacred than another; another considers every day alike. Each of them should be fully convinced in their own mind. Whoever regards one day as special does so to the Lord. Whoever eats meat does so to the Lord, for they give thanks to God; and whoever abstains does so to the Lord and gives thanks to God.” Some Messianic Jews want to continue regarding the Sabbath day as holy because of their Jewish heritage. Some Gentile Christians join their Jewish brothers and sisters in keeping the Sabbath as a way to honor God. Worshiping God on the Sabbath is acceptable—again, the day of the week is not the most important issue—but the heart motivation behind that choice is crucial. If legalism or law-keeping motivates the choice to observe the Sabbath, then that choice is not made from a right heart condition (Galatians 5:4). When our hearts are pure before the Lord, we are free to worship Him on Saturday (the Sabbath) or Sunday (the Lord’s day). God is equally pleased with both. Jesus warned against legalism when He quoted Isaiah the prophet: “These people honor me with their lips, but their hearts are far from me. They worship me in vain; their teachings are merely human rules” (Matthew 15:8–9; cf. Isaiah 29:13). God is not interested in our keeping of rituals, rules, or requirements. He wants hearts that are on fire with His love and grace on the Sabbath, on the Lord’s day, and on every other day (Hebrews 12:28–29; Psalm 51:15–17).

https://www.gotquestions.org/Lords-day.html

Religion

en

By James Bishop| Was Jesus’ tomb really found empty, or is this just a myth? The empty tomb is absolutely central to the Christian faith because the entire truth of Christianity rests upon Jesus having been raised from the dead. This makes inquiry into this historical question all the more important. As it turns out, the empty tomb is widely considered to be an established fact of the ancient world. Not all scholars agree as to what caused the tomb to become empty, but as far as the tomb itself actually being left without the body of Jesus, this is pretty well-established even among critical scholars. According to a comprehensive survey of New Testament scholars, it is large consensus (roughly 75%) that Jesus’ tomb somehow became empty (1). A study by New Testament scholar Gary Habermas published in the peer-reviewed Journal for the Study of the Historical Jesus found that: approximately 75% favor one or more of these arguments for the empty tomb, while approximately 25% think that one or more arguments oppose it. Thus, while far from being unanimously held by critical scholars, it may surprise some that those who embrace the empty tomb as a historical fact still comprise a fairly strong majority. Just because most scholars believe this is true does not make it true, but the reason why so many believe the tomb as found empty is because of historical evidence (which we are about to look at). The point being, one needs to explain how Jesus’ tomb became empty, and then why the disciples, and the skeptics James and the enemy Paul, claimed that Jesus had appeared to them in his resurrected body. Paul informs us in his early creed that Jesus also appeared to 500 others. This is a belief that several early followers were martyred for and never, as far as our historical data tells us, recanted their faith that Jesus’ had in fact appeared to them. Whatever the case, they certainly believed it. The Austrian scholar Jacob Kremer informs us that “By far most exegetes hold firmly to the reliability of the biblical statements concerning the empty tomb” (2). Likewise, scholar Van Daalen argues that: “It is extremely difficult to object to the empty tomb on historical grounds; those who deny it do so on the basis of theological or philosophical assumptions” (3). Exegete, apologist, and professional philosopher William Craig concludes that there is “powerful evidence that the tomb of Jesus was actually found empty on Sunday morning by a small group of his women followers. As a plain historical fact this seems to be amply attested” (4) The empty tomb is attested in early, independent sources All our canonical gospels (Mark 16, Matthew 28, Luke 24, John 20) mention the empty tomb, Paul implies it in an early creed (1 Cor. 15:1-11), and it is further implied by Peter’s sermon in Acts. There are as many as three, or even four independent traditions within the Gospels that attest to the empty tomb. This certainly heightens the probability of the tomb being found empty. Scholar Gary Habermas captures this well saying that Jesus’ “empty tomb is reported in at least three, if not four, of these Gospel sources. This helps to understand why these items are taken so seriously by contemporary critical scholars” (5). One tradition can be found within Mark, known as the pre-Markan Passion Narrative, “The idea of a pre-Markan passion narrative continues to seem probable to a majority of scholars” (6). According to William Craig this source is likely dependent on eyewitness testimony, “The burial account is part of Mark’s source material for the story of Jesus’ Passion. This is a very early source which is probably based on eyewitness testimony and dates to within several years of Jesus’ crucifixion.” (7). It likewise attests to the empty tomb, “Mark’s Passion source didn’t end with Jesus’ burial, but with the story of the empty tomb, which is tied to the burial account verbally and grammatically.” Arguments for the tomb being found empty 1. Women witnesses It’s quite remarkable that the authors of the Gospels penned that women were the ones to first discover and report the empty tomb. At that time and in that culture, the testimony of women was not seen to be as credible as the testimony of men. If they were making this up and wanted people to believe it, they wouldn’t have cited Jesus’ women followers as being the ones to discover the empty tomb. “In fact, the Jewish historian Josephus says that women weren’t even permitted to serve as witnesses in a Jewish court of law. Now in light of this fact, how remarkable it is that it is women who are the discoverers of Jesus’ empty tomb” (8). As scholar Gary Habermas says: “By far the most popular argument favoring the Gospel testimony on this subject is that, in all four texts, women are listed as the initial witnesses. Contrary to often repeated statements, First Century Jewish women were able to testify in some legal matters. But given the general reluctance in the Mediterranean world at that time to accept female testimony in crucial matters, most of those scholars who comment on the subject hold that the Gospels probably would not have dubbed them as the chief witnesses unless they actually did attest to this event.” In other words, if the authors were simply making up fictional tales then they would have almost certainly put men as the discovers of the empty tomb. This persuasively suggests that the authors are exercising fidelity when it comes to their report of history. 2. Enemy attestation Secondly, there is enemy attestation. Evidence found in Matthew 28:11-15 and reports by Justin Martyr and Tertullian tells us that the Jewish leaders tried to explain that the tomb was empty because Jesus’ disciples stole his body. This suggests that the Jewish authorities acknowledged the fact that Jesus’ body was no longer in the tomb. They didn’t object to the tomb being empty, they tried to explain this fact away, which suggests to us it really was empty. Historian Paul Maier explains that this early Jewish anti-Christian polemic is: “positive evidence from a hostile source. In essence, if a source admits a fact that is decidedly not in its favor, the fact is genuine” (9). 3. The empty tomb account lacks embellishment Thirdly, in its primitive form the empty tomb narrative is theologically unadorned. This means that the story lacks later theological motifs that a late legend might be expected to contain. This suggests that the empty tomb account is early and more probably than not factual. According to William Craig the empty tomb is credible as “it was not an apologetic device of early Christians…”. There is no significant theological or religious embellishment, no signs of legendary development, and no exaggerations. What we see is a couple women followers discovering the empty tomb and being told by someone (who the perceived to be an angel) that Jesus is no longer there. This kind of simplicity, given how crucial the empty tomb is to Christian doctrine, is evidence of this being a historical fact as opposed to a mythologized tale. 4. Christianity would be debunked if someone had reported the tomb still contained the body of Jesus Fourthly, one of the most powerful arguments that favours Jesus’ empty tomb is the location and events surrounding it. Our gospels all agree that Jesus was buried in a tomb that was located in Jerusalem. Jerusalem is the place that most scholars agree was where early Christian preaching first took place, and thus subsequently led to the birth of the church. However, any Christian preaching at this very early time would run into a bit of an issue if Jesus’ tomb was not empty. If Jesus’ body was still in the tomb then Christianity would have buckled before it could have even got going. The easiest way to disprove the early Christian message of a resurrected saviour would be to go to the tomb where Jesus was laid, and expose it. Jerusalem would have been the last place that Christianity would have taken off if Jesus was still in his grave. Paul Althaus comments that the resurrection proclamation: “could not have been maintained in Jerusalem for a single day, for a single hour, if the emptiness of the tomb had not been established as a fact for all concerned” (10). Through a historical analysis of weighing the evidence and arguments, one is on good grounds in accepting the historicity of Jesus’ empty tomb. The empty tomb fits naturally with the earliest accounts we have available, seems to be more plausible than not given the surrounding circumstances, and is further supplemented by early and independent attestation in historical sources. So here is someone who claimed to be the Son of God, was seen working miracles, healing the sick, raising the dead, who prophesied his own death and resurrection, was crucified, and then after three days his tomb as found empty. What is the best explanation for the historical fact of the empty tomb of Jesus? The best explanation comes from the testimonies of the eyewitnesses themselves. That Jesus of Nazareth had risen from the dead, leaving an empty tomb behind. Habermas, G. The Minimal Facts Approach to the Resurrection of Jesus: The Role of Methodology as a Crucial Component in Establishing Historicity. Kremer, J. 1977. Die Osterevangelien—Geschichten um Geschichte. p. 49-50. Van Daalen quoted by William Lane Craig in Jesus’ Crucifixion. Craig, W. The Historicity of the Empty Tomb of Jesus. Habermas, G. 2005. Recent Perspectives on the Reliability of the Gospels. Early Christian Writings. The Passion Narrative. See Craig. W. Independent Sources for Jesus’ Burial and Empty Tomb. & Craig, W. The Historicity of the Empty Tomb of Jesus. Craig, W. The Historicity of the Empty Tomb of Jesus. Paul Maier quoted by Christopher Persaud in: CONTENDING FOR THE FAITH: 22 Methodical Arguments for Biblical Truth. p. 467 Althaus, P. quoted by Dale Allison in: Resurrecting Jesus: The Earliest Christian Tradition and Its Interpreters. 2005. p. 317.

http://reasonsforjesus.com/the-empty-tomb-is-a-historical-fact-most-scholars-agree/

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Ecclesiastes 9:5 reads, “For the living know that they will die, / but the dead know nothing; / they have no further reward, / and even their name is forgotten.” This verse is sometimes used as a proof text for annihilationism, but that concept is not what is being communicated here. The “dead know nothing,” but in what way? It is clear from other places in the Bible that this verse cannot mean the dead have absolutely no knowledge. For example, Matthew 25:46 speaks of everlasting consciousness: “Then they will go away to eternal punishment, but the righteous to eternal life.” Every person will spend eternity with God in heaven or apart from Him in hell. Each person will have feelings, thoughts, and abilities that exist in eternity. In fact, Luke 16:19–31 offers an example of human capabilities in the afterlife. Lazarus is in paradise in eternal joy, while the rich man is in torment in hell (called “Hades”). The rich man has feelings, can talk, and has the ability to remember, think, and reason. The key to understanding the statement “the dead know nothing” is found in the theme of the book of Ecclesiastes. Ecclesiastes is written specifically from an earthly perspective. The key phrase, repeated throughout the book, is under the sun, used about thirty times. Solomon is commenting on an earth-bound life, “under the sun,” without God. His conclusion, also repeated throughout the book, is that everything from that perspective is “vanity” or emptiness (Ecclesiastes 1:2). When a person dies “under the sun,” the earthly perspective, without God, is that it’s over. He is no longer under the sun. There is no more knowledge to give or be given, just a grave to mark his remains. Those who have died have “no further reward” in this life; they no longer have the ability to enjoy life like those who are living. Eventually, “even their name is forgotten” (Ecclesiastes 9:5). Ecclesiastes 9:5 displays a chiastic structure (ABBA format) like this: A “For the living know that they will die, B but the dead know nothing; B they have no further reward, A and even their name is forgotten.” Lines 1 and 4 are parallel thoughts in the sense that the living know death is coming while those who remain after a person dies quickly forget those who have died. The second and third lines lay down associated ideas in parallel: the dead know nothing, and the dead can no longer enjoy or be rewarded for their activities in this life. The saying “the dead know nothing” seems to be a negative sentiment, but it is not without a positive message. Solomon encourages his readers to live life to its fullest, knowing life is short. In the end, the fullest life is one that honors God and keeps His ways (Ecclesiastes 12:13–14).

http://www.gotquestions.org/dead-know-nothing.html

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You may call them simply doctors. But most doctors have extra expertise in one type of medicine or another. In fact, there are several hundred medical specialties and subspecialties. Here are the most common types of doctors you'll likely see. They treat immune system disorders such as asthma, eczema, food allergies, insect sting allergies, and some autoimmune diseases. These doctors give you drugs to numb your pain or to put you under during surgery, childbirth, or other procedures. They monitor your vital signs while you’re under anesthesia. They’re experts on the heart and blood vessels. You might see them for heart failure, a heart attack, high blood pressure, or an irregular heartbeat. Colon and Rectal Surgeons You would see these doctors for problems with your small intestine, colon, and bottom. They can treat colon cancer, hemorrhoids, and inflammatory bowel disease. Critical Care Medicine Specialists They care for people who are critically ill or injured, often heading intensive care units in hospitals. You might see them if your heart or other organs are failing or if you’ve been in an accident. Have problems with your skin, hair, nails? Do you have moles, scars, acne, or skin allergies? Dermatologists can help. These are experts on hormones and metabolism. They can treat conditions like diabetes, thyroid problems, infertility, and calcium and bone disorders. Emergency Medicine Specialists These doctors make life-or-death decisions for sick and injured people, usually in an emergency room. Their job is to save lives and to avoid or lower the chances of disability. They care for the whole family, including children, adults, and the elderly. They do routine checkups and screening tests, give you flu and immunization shots, and manage diabetes and other ongoing medical conditions. They’re specialists in digestive organs, including the stomach, bowels, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder. You might see them for abdominal pain, ulcers, diarrhea, jaundice, or cancers in your digestive organs. They also do a colonoscopy and other tests for colon cancer. Geriatric Medicine Specialists These doctors care for the elderly. They can treat people in their homes, doctors' offices, nursing homes, assisted-living centers, and hospitals. These are specialists in diseases of the blood, spleen, and lymph glands, like sickle cell disease, anemia, hemophilia, and leukemia. Hospice and Palliative Medicine Specialists They work with people who are nearing death. They’re experts in pain management. They work with a team of other doctors to keep up your quality of life. Infectious Disease Specialists They diagnose and treat infections in any part of your body, like fevers, Lyme disease, pneumonia, tuberculosis, and HIV and AIDS. Some of them specialize in preventive medicine or travel medicine. These primary-care doctors treat both common and complex illnesses, usually only in adults. You’ll likely visit them or your family doctor first for any condition. Internists often have advanced training in a host of subspecialties, like heart disease, cancer, or adolescent or sleep medicine. With additional training (called a fellowship), internists can specialize in cardiology, gastroenterology, endocrinology, nephrology, pulmonology, and other medical sub-specialties. They diagnose and treat hereditary disorders passed down from parents to children. These doctors may also offer genetic counseling and screening tests. They treat kidney diseases as well as high blood pressure and fluid and mineral imbalances linked to kidney disease. These are specialists in the nervous system, which includes the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. They treat strokes, brain and spinal tumors, epilepsy, Parkinson's disease, and Alzheimer's disease. Obstetricians and Gynecologists Often called OB/GYNs, these doctors focus on women's health, including pregnancy and childbirth. They do Pap smears, pelvic exams, and pregnancy checkups. OB/GYNs are trained in both areas. But some of them may focus on women's reproductive health (gynecologists), and others specialize in caring for pregnant women (obstetricians). These internists are cancer specialists. They do chemotherapy treatments and often work with radiation oncologists and surgeons to care for someone with cancer. You call them eye doctors. They can prescribe glasses or contact lenses and diagnose and treat diseases like glaucoma. Unlike optometrists, they’re medical doctors who can treat every kind of eye condition as well as operate on the eyes. Doctors of osteopathic medicine (DO) are fully licensed medical doctors just like MDs. Their training stresses a “whole body” approach. Osteopaths use the latest medical technology but also the body’s natural ability to heal itself. They treat diseases in the ears, nose, throat, sinuses, head, neck, and respiratory system. They also can do reconstructive and plastic surgery on your head and neck. These lab doctors identify the causes of diseases by examining body tissues and fluids under microscopes. They care for children from birth to young adulthood. Some pediatricians specialize in pre-teens and teens, child abuse, or children's developmental issues. These specialists in physical medicine and rehabilitation treat neck or back pain and sports or spinal cord injuries as well as other disabilities caused by accidents or diseases. You might call them cosmetic surgeons. They rebuild or repair your skin, face, hands, breasts, or body. That can happen after an injury or disease or for cosmetic reasons. They care for problems in your ankles and feet. That can include injuries from accidents or sports or from ongoing health conditions like diabetes. Some podiatrists have advanced training in other subspecialties of the foot. Preventive Medicine Specialists They focus on keeping you well. They may work in public health or at hospitals. Some focus on treating people with addictions, illnesses from exposure to drugs, chemicals, and poisons, and other areas. These doctors work with people with mental, emotional, or addictive disorders. They can diagnose and treat depression, schizophrenia, substance abuse, anxiety disorders, and sexual and gender identity issues. Some psychiatrists focus on children, adolescents, or the elderly. You would see these specialists for problems like lung cancer, pneumonia, asthma, emphysema, and trouble sleeping caused by breathing issues. They use X-rays, ultrasound, and other imaging tests to diagnose diseases. They can also specialize in radiation oncology to treat conditions like cancer. They specialize in arthritis and other diseases in your joints, muscles, bones, and tendons. You might see them for your osteoporosis (weak bones), back pain, gout, tendinitis from sports or repetitive injuries, and fibromyalgia. Sleep Medicine Specialists They find and treat causes behind your poor sleep. They may have sleep labs or give you take-home tests to chart your sleep-wake patterns. Sports Medicine Specialists These doctors diagnose, treat, and prevent injuries related to sports and exercise. These doctors can operate on all parts of your body. They can take out tumors, appendices, or gallbladders and repair hernias. Many surgeons have subspecialties, like cancer, hand, or vascular surgery. These are surgeons who care for men and women for problems in the urinary tract, like a leaky bladder. They also treat male infertility and do prostate exams.

https://www.webmd.com/health-insurance/insurance-doctor-types#1

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The Ogboni Society, deeply rooted in the rich cultural heritage of Nigeria, holds a significant place in the country’s history and tradition. This secretive and influential organization has played a pivotal role in the socio-political and religious fabric of Nigerian society for centuries. In this article, we delve into the captivating world of the Ogboni Society, exploring its historical origins, intricate structure, captivating rituals, and ceremonies, as well as shedding light on the implications of membership and the consequences faced by those who choose not to join. By unraveling the mysteries surrounding the Ogboni Society, we aim to gain a deeper understanding of its cultural significance and its enduring presence in contemporary Nigeria. 1. Introduction to the Ogboni Society in Nigeria 1.1 What is the Ogboni Society? The Ogboni Society in Nigeria is a unique and influential secret organization that has been a part of Nigerian society for centuries. It combines elements of religious, social, and political institutions, making it a fascinating and complex entity. 1.2 Importance and Influence of the Ogboni Society The Ogboni Society holds significant importance and wields considerable influence in Nigerian culture. It serves as a guardian of traditional values, maintaining harmony within communities and ensuring justice. The society also helps in decision-making processes and plays a crucial role in mediating conflicts. Its members are highly respected and held in high regard within their communities. 2. Historical Origins and Evolution of the Ogboni Society 2.1 Ancient Origins of the Ogboni Society The origins of the Ogboni Society can be traced back to ancient Yoruba civilization in what is now Nigeria. It was initially established as a religious and spiritual organization, dedicated to the worship of ancestral spirits and the preservation of traditional African beliefs. Over time, it evolved to encompass social and political functions as well. 2.2 Influence of Traditional African Religions Traditional African religions, with their emphasis on ancestral worship and communal harmony, played a significant role in shaping the Ogboni Society. It incorporated these religious beliefs and rituals, allowing it to maintain a strong connection to the spiritual and cultural heritage of Nigeria. 2.3 Adaptation and Survival through the Colonial Era During the colonial era, the Ogboni Society faced numerous challenges, as Western influences sought to undermine traditional African practices. However, society adapted and survived by finding ways to coexist with foreign powers. It continued to be a unifying force and a source of strength for Nigerian communities, even in the face of colonialism. 3. Structure and Hierarchy within the Ogboni Society 3.1 Roles of the Oluwo and Olori At the top of the Ogboni Society’s hierarchy are the Oluwo and Olori, who hold leadership positions and oversee the society’s activities. They are responsible for upholding its traditions, resolving disputes, and ensuring the well-being of its members. 3.2 Divisions within the Ogboni Society The Ogboni Society consists of different divisions, each with its responsibilities and areas of expertise. These divisions span various aspects of society, including religion, politics, and governance. Together, they form a cohesive structure that enables the society to function efficiently. 3.3 Decision-Making and Governance The Ogboni Society plays a crucial role in decision-making and governance within Nigerian communities. Its members are often consulted in matters of importance, such as disputes, succession, and community development. Their wisdom and impartiality are highly valued, and their decisions are respected and upheld by the community. 4. Rituals and Ceremonies of the Ogboni Society 4.1 Ancestral Worship and Offerings Ancestral worship holds a central place in the rituals and ceremonies of the Ogboni Society. Offerings and sacrifices are made to honor and appease the spirits of ancestors, seeking their guidance and protection. These rituals serve as a way to maintain a connection with the past and ensure the well-being of the community. 4.2 Secretive Initiations and Sacred Spaces The initiation process into the Ogboni Society is secretive and highly regarded. It involves sacred rituals and ceremonies held in designated sacred spaces. These sacred spaces are considered to be a bridge between the physical realm and the spiritual realm, creating a sense of reverence and awe. 4.3 Symbolism and Significance of Ritual Practices Ritual practices within the Ogboni Society are rich with symbolism and hold deep significance. Each gesture, item, and action carries a meaning that reflects the society’s values and beliefs. These rituals serve as a way to reinforce traditions, maintain harmony, and preserve the spiritual and cultural heritage of Nigeria.5. Membership and Initiation Process 5.1 Eligibility and Selection of Potential Members You might be wondering, who gets to be a part of the intriguing Ogboni society? Well, membership is not open to just anyone. The selection process is quite rigorous and secretive. Potential members are carefully chosen based on their reputation, character, and social standing within the community. Only those who are deemed worthy and possess the necessary qualities are considered for initiation into society. 5.2 The Initiation Rites and Training Becoming a member of the Ogboni society is no walk in the park! Once selected, individuals go through a series of initiation rites and training that can last several weeks. These rituals are held in sacred locations that are often shrouded in mystery and secrecy. During this period, initiates receive teachings on the society’s customs, history, and spiritual practices. It’s like going to a very exclusive, otherworldly university! 5.3 Commitments and Responsibilities of Membership Joining the Ogboni society comes with responsibilities that extend beyond the secret initiation ceremonies. Members are expected to uphold high moral standards, promote peace and justice within their community, and act as leaders and role models. They are also entrusted with the duty of preserving ancient traditions and providing guidance to their fellow members. Being a part of the Ogboni society means carrying the weight of tradition on your shoulders. 6. Benefits and Responsibilities of Joining the Ogboni Society 6.1 Social and Professional Networking One of the perks of joining the Ogboni Society is the opportunity for social and professional networking. As a member, you gain access to a tight-knit community of influential individuals who can offer support and assistance in various areas of life. Need a job? Looking for business partners? The Ogboni society might just be the perfect place to meet the right connections. 6.2 Access to Spiritual Guidance and Protection In addition to the earthly benefits, being a member of the Ogboni society provides access to spiritual guidance and protection. The society’s rituals and ceremonies are believed to connect members with powerful spiritual forces that can offer guidance in times of need. Whether it’s seeking advice for personal matters or protection against evil spirits, the Ogboni society is there to lend a helping hand. 6.3 Contributing to Community Development Another important aspect of being an Ogboni society member is the responsibility to contribute to community development. Members are expected to use their influence and resources to bring about positive change in their communities. This can include funding education initiatives, supporting healthcare programs, or initiating projects that promote social welfare. Being a part of the Ogboni society means actively working towards making a difference in the lives of others. 7. Consequences of Refusing to Join the Ogboni Society 7.1 Social and Economic Implications Choosing not to join the Ogboni society can have social and economic implications. Since membership can open doors to various opportunities and networks, refusing to join might mean missing out on potential advantages in both personal and professional life. It’s like saying “no” to a VIP pass to the coolest party in town – you might still have fun, but you won’t have the same access and connections. 7.2 Cultural and Traditional Ramifications Beyond the practical consequences, there are cultural and traditional ramifications to consider. The Ogboni society holds deep-rooted importance in Nigerian culture and its customs have been passed down through generations. Refusing to join the society might be seen as a rejection of these traditions, potentially straining relationships with family and community members who hold the society in high regard. 7.3 Potential Exclusion and Stigmatization Lastly, refusing to join the Ogboni society could result in potential exclusion and stigmatization within the community. Being outside of this ancient and respected institution might lead to being seen as an outsider or lacking in certain virtues valued by society. It’s like deciding not to sit at the cool kids’ table in the cafeteria – you might find yourself eating lunch alone. 8. Contemporary Significance and Future Outlook of the Ogboni Society 8.1 Relevance in Modern Nigerian Society The Ogboni society continues to hold significance in modern Nigerian society. While some aspects of society have adapted to the changing times, its core principles remain relevant. The society serves as a bridge between tradition and progress, preserving cultural heritage while also addressing contemporary challenges. The Ogboni society’s future looks promising, as its teachings and values continue to resonate with individuals seeking a connection to their roots. And there you have it! A glimpse into the fascinating world of the Ogboni society, from membership and initiation to the consequences of refusal. Whether you choose to join or not, it’s clear that this ancient institution carries a rich history and offers unique opportunities for those willing to embrace its traditions. In conclusion, the Ogboni Society stands as a testament to Nigeria’s diverse cultural tapestry and the enduring traditions that have shaped its society. From its intriguing history and intricate structure to its sacred rituals and ceremonies, the Ogboni Society continues to be a source of fascination and reverence. For those who choose to join, the benefits of membership are plentiful, offering social connections, spiritual guidance, and opportunities for community development. However, the consequences of refusing to join cannot be overlooked, as they may entail social and cultural exclusion. As Nigeria moves forward, the Ogboni Society remains a symbol of resilience, tradition, and the ongoing quest for cultural preservation. 1. Is the Ogboni Society open to anyone? The Ogboni Society has certain eligibility criteria for membership, including being of a specific age range and having a good reputation within the community. It is not an open society, and individuals are usually selected or nominated by current members. 2. Are the rituals and ceremonies of the Ogboni Society secretive? Yes, the rituals and ceremonies of the Ogboni Society are shrouded in secrecy. They are conducted within the confines of sacred spaces and are only attended by members. The details of these rituals are not widely disclosed to outsiders. 3. Are there any negative consequences to refusing to join the Ogboni Society? Refusing to join the Ogboni Society may have social and cultural implications. It could result in exclusion from certain community activities or events and might lead to a perceived lack of trust or respect from other community members. However, the severity of consequences may vary depending on the specific societal context. 4. Does the Ogboni Society have any influence on modern Nigerian society? While the influence of the Ogboni Society has evolved, it still retains significance in modern Nigerian society. It continues to provide a platform for networking, community development, and spiritual guidance. However, the extent of its influence may vary across different regions and communities within Nigeria.

https://blackheartbrotherhood.family.blog/2023/12/07/nigeria-ogboni-society-including-its-history-structure-rituals-and-ceremonies-information-on-membership-and-the-consequences-of-refusing-to-join/

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Lions have manes, and aren't striped. Tigers are striped. Tigers is more agile, powerful, muscular, and longer than a lion. Tigers have a wider skull and longer teeth than lion, so they have more bite force. Tigers have heavier and more muscular legs and larger paws to attack enemies and prey. AnswerThere are many people knowing worldwide that tiger is bigger. However, Frank Mendel, a famous cat expert, says the lion is longer. Reports do not support the notion that tigers are larger. The largest cat ever founded was a male American lion. American lions died about 10000 years ago, but archaeologists had rebuilt the skeleton of American lion, and by their surprise, American lion was bigger than any modern cat. It is true that modern tigers are biggest cats but possibly the biggest cat was American lion. Cave lions, however, were the size of a liger. some archaeologists, say that this lion or lioness could take on 700 kg bison by itself.Since tigers are the biggest cat today, there could be skeletons of tigers, that are bigger than the skeleton of the American lion that they haven't found yet. AnswerTigers are the ones with stripes, and lions are the big furry ones like on The Lion King. Tigers are the biggest cats, and the lion is the second biggest. AnswerThey are kinda the same, because they are big cats.Tigers have longer, stockier bodies. Lions stand a bit taller at the shoulder. Tigers have more powerful legs, and are more agile. Lions roar louder, and live in groups. A lion is longer, and taller, not by much, and it is also faster and lighter then a tiger. Tigers have stripes while lions do not. Tigers are solitary, while lions live within a pride. Male lions have a mane, unlike male tigers. The difference between lion and tiger is that lion is social African cat. The tiger is solitary Asian cat. Lions live on the open plains while tigers live in dense jungles. Siberian tigers are bigger. Tigers are orange with black stripes while lions are golden-sandy coloured with faint rosettes on their legs. A male lion has a large mane, engulfing its neck and chest. A lion's mane can say a lot about the lion. The darker the mane, the healthier the lion. The differences are as follows, Tigers have stripes, while lions are a tawny buff color. Male lions have a mane, while tigers have a ruff of fur around the face. Tigers are longer, more muscular, and are usually heavier than lions. Lions stand a little taller at the shoulder. Tigers legs are heavier, and they are more agile than lions. Tigers are without a doubt more aggressive than lions, and in hybrids between the two the tiger gene is dominant. Lions live in groups called prides, but the tiger is for the most part a solitary hunter. Tigers are different from lion in the following ways-

http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_is_the_difference_between_a_tiger_and_a_lion

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Best Coronavirus Prevention is to stay aware of the latest information on the COVID-19 outbreak, available on media through your national and local public health authority. Most people who become infected experience mild illness and recover, but it can be more severe for others. Take care of your health and protect others by doing and knowing the following: - Shortness of breath The best prevention for viruses, such as influenza, the common cold or COVID-19 is to: - If you think you have been exposed to COVID-19, call your health care provider. If you do not have a health care provider, call the nearest hospital. - Wash your hands often with soap and warm water for 20 seconds. If not available, use hand sanitizer. - Avoid touching your eyes, nose, or mouth with unwashed hands. - Cover your mouth and nose with a tissue or upper sleeve when coughing or sneezing. - Avoid contact with people who are sick. - If you are sick, stay home, and avoid contact with others. - Stay at least 6 feet away from others when in a public setting Other preventive measure are: Best Coronavirus Prevention Wash your hands frequently Regularly and thoroughly clean your hands with an alcohol-based hand rub or wash them with soap and water. Why? Washing your hands with soap and water or using alcohol-based hand rub kills viruses that may be on your hands. Maintain social distancing Maintain at least 1 metre (3 feet) distance between yourself and anyone who is coughing or sneezing. Why? When someone coughs or sneezes they spray small liquid droplets from their nose or mouth which may contain virus. If you are too close, you can breathe in the droplets, including the COVID-19 virus if the person coughing has the disease. Avoid touching eyes, nose and mouth Why? Hands touch many surfaces and can pick up viruses. Once contaminated, hands can transfer the virus to your eyes, nose or mouth. From there, the virus can enter your body and can make you sick. Practice respiratory hygiene Make sure you, and the people around you, follow good respiratory hygiene. This means covering your mouth and nose with your bent elbow or tissue when you cough or sneeze. Then dispose of the used tissue immediately. Why? Droplets spread virus. By following good respiratory hygiene you protect the people around you from viruses such as cold, flu and COVID-19. If you have fever, cough and difficulty breathing, seek medical care early Stay home if you feel unwell. If you have a fever, cough and difficulty breathing, seek medical attention and call in advance. Follow the directions of your local health authority. Why? National and local authorities will have the most up to date information on the situation in your area. Calling in advance will allow your health care provider to quickly direct you to the right health facility. This will also protect you and help prevent spread of viruses and other infections.

https://www.schooldrillers.com/best-coronavirus-prevention/

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Until this week, the deadly Ebola virus that has claimed nearly 900 lives had seemed an ocean away. Now amid recent scares of infected Americans and patients possibly flying from Africa onto U.S. soil, its fear is closer than many expected. Fortunately contracting the deadly virus, said to have a fatality rate of up to 90%, is not only preventable but health officials say has a relatively small threat to Americans at home. Here are some fast facts on what you need to know about Ebola: HOW DO YOU GET IT? Human-to-human transmission, primarily through direct or indirect contact with bodily fluids such as blood, saliva, urine, feces, or semen Contact with contaminated objects such as needles and/or soiled bedding or clothing It’s not airborne like the flu WHAT ARE THE SYMPTOMS? Sudden onset of fever, weakness, muscle pain, headache, sore throat Vomiting, diarrhea, rash, impaired kidney and liver function, some cases internal and external bleeding HOW LONG BEFORE SYMPTOMS SHOW? Anywhere from 2 to 21 days, though 8 to 10 days is most common WHAT DISEASES SHOULD BE RULED OUT FIRST? Malaria, typhoid fever, shigellosis, cholera, leptospirosis, plague, rickettsiosis, relapsing fever, meningitis, hepatitis and other viral haemorrhagic fevers HOW CAN YOU PROTECT YOURSELF? Avoid direct contact with bodily fluids, someone suffering from Ebola or already deceased from it Wash your hands with soap and water or an alcohol-based hand sanitizer when in risk of such contact Wear gloves, a mask, and a long-protective gown if coming within a meter of an infected patient Anyone suspected of contracting the virus should be isolated and public health professionals notified HOW IS IT TREATED? Balancing the patient’s fluids and electrolytes Maintaining their oxygen status and blood pressure Treating them for any complicating infections There is no licensed vaccine available though several are being tested WHERE ARE THE OUTBREAKS? Primarily in remote villages in Central and West Africa, near tropical rainforests In Liberia, Guinea and Sierra Leone there have been 1,440 suspect and confirmed cases and 826 deaths as of July 30 HOW ARE U.S. OFFICIALS HANDLING THE VIRUS’ POSSIBLE TRANSMISSION FROM OVERSEAS? Border patrol agents at John F. Kennedy International Airport in New York and Dulles Airport in Washington have been instructed to question incoming travelers about possible exposure to the virus and look for its symptoms

http://m.nydailynews.com/life-style/health/ebola-symptoms-article-1.1891679

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Electronic books, called e-books, are becoming more and more commonplace these days. Some readers, like the first generation Kindle and Nook devices, offer a basic digital version of a print book. Children scroll through the pages to read, and the experience is somewhat similar to reading a traditional book. Newer, full-color, touchscreen devices such as iPads and the Nook Color have expanded what is possible to include e-books with many more features. These “enhanced” e-books offer a different reading experience. Often bought as apps through iTunes, these e-books provide lots of choice. A user can choose have the whole book read to them, or can choose to read the book themselves. E-book enhancements consist of a range of things, but often include listening to music that complements the story, playing story-related games, completing coloring pages, and more. Most children find interactive e-books fun and engaging. But do they help develop important early literacy skills such as letter names and letter sounds or more complex skills such as comprehension? - Recognize the novelty factor. The first few times your child is interacting with a new e-book, allow time for exploration of the features. Once your child has spent some time exploring, set out to read or listen to the story without too many non-story related interruptions. - Enjoy the features, but don’t forget to focus on the story. See if you can help your child find a balance between having fun with the games and sticker books and really enjoying and understanding the story. As with all books, engage your reader in conversations about the story. “What do you think will happen next? What is your favorite part of the story?” - Stay present with your child and the book experience. It’s tempting to let the device do the work — read the story, play a game and interact with your child. But there’s no substitute for quality parent-child conversation. Keep talking, commenting on interesting words and ideas, and sharing your love of literacy with your child.

https://meziesblog.com/how-to-read-e-books-with-children/

Education

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Motor oil represents the lifeblood of an engine. It helps lubricate vital engine parts, which helps reduce heat buildup in the engine because of the reduction in friction between parts. Some vehicles have an oil cooler or other engine systems designed to help further reduce heat. Motor oil also helps clean deposits and other contaminants from engine parts. Changing the motor oil in a vehicle according to the maintenance schedule greatly reduces wear and tear on the engine, as oil tends to lose its viscosity over time, reducing its overall effectiveness as a lubricant. Different engines require different amounts of oil. How engine size affects the amount of oil used Most engines require anywhere between 5 to 8 quarts of oil, depending on the engine size. The smaller the engine, the less oil required to fill the volume of the engine. A 4-cylinder engine usually requires around 5 quarts of oil. A 6-cylinder engine uses roughly 6 quarts. An 8-cylinder engine uses anywhere between 5 to 8 quarts, depending on the size of the engine. This amount also varies depending on whether you have the mechanic replace the oil filter when performing an oil change. Some resources available to help vehicle owners find the oil capacity of an engine include the owner’s manual, where it is usually listed under the lubrication system in the vehicle specifications section. Another area to check includes the manufacturer’s website. Once on the Website, look for a section of the site specifically for vehicle owners, usually found at the bottom of the page. Vehicle owners can also search other online resources, such as Fluid Capacity, which lists the oil and fluid capacities of a number of different makes and models of cars and trucks. Choosing the right type of motor oil When choosing oil for your vehicle, keep a few things in mind. The first is the viscosity level of the oil — represented by a number followed by W and then followed by another number. The first number represents the flow of the oil at 0 degrees Fahrenheit, the W stands for winter, and the last two numbers after the W stand for the viscosity level of the oil when measured at 212 degrees Fahrenheit. The lower the number before the W, the easier the engine turns over in cold weather. Read the vehicle owner’s manual to find the best range of viscosity levels of oil to use. Vehicle owners also need to choose between using a synthetic or conventional motor oil in the vehicle. Conventional oils work fine when owners get their oil changed frequently. Synthetic oils have some benefits, like containing special additives designed to help remove deposits, allowing the oil to flow better at lower temperatures and maintain viscosity at higher temperatures. Another option for vehicle owners includes using a high-mileage oil for vehicles with over 75,000 miles on the odometer. High-mileage oils contain conditioners to help expand the internal engine seals and increase the flexibility of such seals. Symptoms that an engine needs an oil change Make sure to look out for the following symptoms, which could indicate it’s time for an oil change: When the oil light comes on, it indicates that the oil level is too low. Either ask a mechanic to change the oil or add enough oil to bring it up to full. A low reading on the oil pressure gauge, for vehicles equipped with one, usually indicates a low oil level. Have a mechanic fill the oil to the correct level or change the oil if necessary. As the oil level gets low, an engine begins to run roughly. This is especially true of the lifters, which start sticking as deposits build up. Ask a mechanic to change the oil, which should help remove these deposits and alleviate the problem. Oil is vital to your engine’s reliable and efficient operation. Always follow the manufacturer’s recommendation on oil change intervals, and contact a certified mobile technician from a relaible mechanic to perform an oil change at your home or office. AutoReportNG is your one-stop place for quality news on roads, cars, and anything pertaining to mobility. We keep track of all current news in road, rails, and aviation. We are known to true, factual and investigative news. FAQ und Support-Chat helfen euch ebenso weiter wie die einfache Menüführung. casino spielen Auch das Feuer speiender berg (umgangssprachlich) Las vegas Bonus Guthaben unterliegt natürlich solchen Konditionen. https://vulkan-vegas.de Der Bonusbetrag ergibt sich” “mit jeder zeit aus deinem Gesamtwert der Einzahlungen kklk Tages geteilt durch Fünf. vom vulkan So sind sowohl Freispiele als auch kleinere Bonusguthaben für pass away nächste Einzahlung möglich. vulkan vegas You must be logged in to post a comment Login

http://www.autoreportng.com/2017/03/how-to-check-how-much-oil-your-car-takes.html

Car Talk

en

2. The Parisian mosque that saved Jews During the holocaust, France was home to thousands of Jews and Muslims from North Africa. Both spoke Arabic, had similar traditions, similar dietary restrictions, their males were circumcised, spoke a similar language, prayed in a similar fashion, had the same names and even looked alike. Against this backdrop, stood the Grand Mosque of Paris, a tiled, walled fortress the size of a city block which served as a place to pray, but also as a place of sanctuary where visitors could eat, relax and bathe during the Vichy occupation of France. As the two people were so similar French Algerian partisans were able to provide assistance to Jewish families, by hiding them in the mosque, while Si Kaddour Benghabrit (the mosque’s imam and founder) issued them with Muslim certificates of identity. With these papers between 500 and 1,600 Jews were able to escape Nazi France and seek refuge in nations where they wouldn’t face certain death.

http://www.judaism-islam.com/four-mosques-with-jewish-stories/2/

Religion

en

What Is behind the Recent Rise in Global Food Prices? When the Covid-19 pandemic struck early in 2020, fear began to mount around global food supply chains. Supermarket shortages in the United States—driven by panic buying and the retooling of supply chains from institutions and restaurants to retail vendors—prompted early fears of food price spikes domestically, while virus containment measures and uncertainty regarding global commodity trade sparked concern globally. Parallels were quickly drawn to the 2007–08 global food price crisis, as some countries began putting in place export restrictions to protect food supplies for their own populations in the face of the pandemic. In 2007–08, major climate-related crop losses in breadbaskets combined with skyrocketing oil prices and a global recession to produce record-high food prices, compounded by a domino of export restrictions. This came at the expense of nations relying on food imports, resulting in widespread social unrest. But despite those fears (and, indeed, some early protectionist behavior), global agricultural trade did not grind to a halt during the Covid-19 pandemic, and the prices of staple foods like maize, wheat, and rice remained stable across most global markets. Food prices even fell slightly early in the pandemic, and export restrictions peaked at about 22 nations, representing less than 5 percent of global grain trade—a fraction of the disruption experienced more than a decade before. Today, there is no food shortage taking place at the global level. In fact, international organizations are predicting record grain harvests for 2021. In that way, this moment is not reminiscent of 2007–08. Yet slowly, for the past 12 months, food prices have begun to climb. The UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Food Price Index—a measuring stick for the price of commonly traded global foods—rose nearly 5 percent between April and May, reaching levels almost 40 percent higher than this time last year. This represented the single largest month-to-month and year-to-year increase in a decade. So, what is driving the current rise in food prices, and how does it affect the world’s most vulnerable people? Lingering Covid-19 Supply Chain Shocks Lingering effects of Covid-19 supply chain disruptions continue to plague the global food system. While these supply chain issues never managed to stop food trade outright, backups and slow-downs at border crossings due to increased pandemic-related restrictions still occur. Relatedly, freight costs are on the rise as the wait for carriers and shipping containers continues to grow in many shipping corridors. It's not that there is a global shortage of these things, it’s that many are in the wrong place, being stored in importing country ports after Covid-19 forced many ships to dock. As the location of ships and containers goes through the painful (and slow) process of realigning with supply and demand, the cost of moving grain between major markets has more than doubled from pre-pandemic levels. Some are referring to the simultaneous rise in food and freight costs as a “ double whammy ” for food import-dependent nations. Countries in North Africa and the Middle East import more than 90 percent of their food, while sub-Saharan Africa boasts a nearly $45 billion annual food import bill. The global recession caused by the pandemic disproportionately affected developing nations relying on extractive resources like oil and gas or tourism to power their economies. Poor macroeconomic conditions affected GDP in many developing nations and led to the depreciation of local currencies and higher food import prices. Developing nations, then, are suffering from a triple whammy: higher commodity prices, increased freight costs and wait times, and reduced purchasing power. Even as stress on freight and shipping has increased, some major economies are beginning to roar back to life as the pandemic fades. Supercharged demand (for meat, especially, and the grain required to produce it) from major food-importing nations have put upward pressure on prices of animal feed grains like corn and soybeans. China, for example, is recovering from an outbreak of African swine fever that killed much of its hog herd last year and drove pork prices upward. Meanwhile, as drivers return to the roads in the United States and Europe, the demand for biofuels is picking up swiftly as the global transport economy begins to restart. Low stocks of palm oil, a source of biodiesel, due to poor weather conditions and Covid-19–related production changes have contributed especially to this uptick. Market indications of steady demand across each of these food, feed, and fuel sectors signal to traders that further price increases may be in store and have led to recent speculative buying, pushing prices higher. Weather-Related Supply Shocks These economic dynamics are playing out amid an intensifying climate crisis. There are some fears of yield and production losses due to drought in major breadbaskets. Brazil has recently cut its corn crop projection by almost 10 percent in the midst of the worst drought in nearly a century, which is showing no signs of abatement. In the United States, meanwhile, North and South Dakota are generally experiencing unseasonably high temperatures and a lack of rain as their cropping season begins. In its July monthly crop report, the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) estimates that wheat production will fall by 40 percent this year in the Northern Plains and Pacific Northwest. The harvest of durum wheat (typically used in pasta) in the United States is likely to fall from 69 million bushels last year to 37 million this year. This comes after Texas was rocked by the winter storm that affected both food crops and livestock. One insurer there believes that $600 million worth of food was wiped out, with the storm destroying leafy greens, onions, and citrus fruit including lemons, limes, and grapefruit. Food prices for U.S. consumers, as measured by the Consumer Price Index, have yet to return to pre-pandemic levels, lingering at levels almost 2.5 percent higher than this time last year, and buoyed especially by increased meat prices. In fact, anticipating even higher food prices, the United States’ largest wholesaler for some 3,000 grocery stores, Associated Wholesale Grocers, recently purchased 15 to 20 percent more inventory, hedging against future prices increases. The market is in speculation mode, with farm futures climbing as observers note grain production could be just one major event away from skyrocketing prices. Global Is Not Local The FAO Food Price Index should be viewed for what it is: an assessment of global trade prices. These global trends hide local market conditions, as most of the food produced on the planet is not traded internationally. What the FAO index captures—global trade—gives us a general signal of trends, though it is easily manipulated by large commodity buyers like China. Local food systems can be sheltered from these trends, for better or worse. Only 20 percent of food supply chains in Africa and South Asia operate like they do in the United States, with commercial farmers providing food through sophisticated channels destined for modern supermarkets. Instead, food is largely provided by small-scale farmers moving food through informal markets, relying on a complex network of small businesses. Earlier in the Covid-19 pandemic, as global food prices were falling on trading markets, some places experienced tremendous price hikes because of local supply chain breaks, lockdowns, and quarantine measures that affected the informal sector—sellers, traders, shop owners, and the like. In the UN World Food Programme’s local market assessments, the prices of food increased by more than 10 percent in 15 developing countries in the first quarter of 2020. Local food supply chains, then, will either magnify these global price increases or insulate local communities from them. For most food import-dependent countries, it will be the former. A Global Stability Crisis In 1857, the German statistician Ernst Engel made a simple but powerful observation: people who are poor spend a greater share of their income on food. This observation, known as Engel’s law, means even modest price increases today are unwelcome given the impact that Covid-19 has on household incomes especially across the developing world. In 2020, the global economy contracted by approximately 5 percent, resulting in the shedding of the equivalent of 500 million full-time jobs, many of them in the informal economy in developing countries. Income and livelihood losses have come to define the Covid-19 era. A major story of Covid-19 has been the large number of people in urban areas that have been suddenly thrust into hunger because of the pandemic, largely because of job losses in the informal sector and across sectors like tourism, transport, and hospitality. Traditionally, hunger has been considered a rural phenomenon; but this crisis has been one of food access, with peoples’ inability to afford food at markets driving the increased food insecurity more than availability or supply issues. This is a major risk: these urban low- and middle-income populations are among the populations most likely to engage in riots and demonstrations related to food price rises. It was these groups that took to the streets in more than 40 countries in 2007–08 and led to the toppling of at least two governments. Covid-19, then, has produced a tinder box of potential instability that could be ignited by this recent food price spike. In fact, there have been early indications of unrest stemming from the spike in food prices. In February, for example, seven regions in Sudan declared a state of emergency following hunger-related riots. Meanwhile, farmer groups in Argentina have been protesting a meat export ban aimed at curbing rapid domestic inflation. And in Cuba, widespread protests have emerged amid food and medicine shortages. An Unprecedented Crisis Lingering supply chain challenges, increased demand from major markets, and weather-related production losses in breadbasket regions could spell disaster for vulnerable populations around the planet. While the last food price crisis was driven by supply shocks alone, this present crisis is one of both supply and demand. A toxic blend of conflict, climate change, and Covid-19 has caused the number of people facing chronic hunger to increase by as much as 161 million in the last year, and as many as 2.37 billion people—one in every three on the planet— did not have access to adequate food in 2020. With nearly 41 million people at risk of slipping into famine—and at least 600,000 already experiencing those conditions—the next year could prove to be a dangerous tipping point for global prosperity and stability. Chase Sova is a non-resident senior associate with the Global Food Security Program at the Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS) in Washington, D.C. He is also senior director of Public Policy and Thought Leadership at World Food Program USA (WFP USA). Christian Man is the Policy Action Lead for the Just Rural Transition and an adjunct fellow (non-resident) with the CSIS Global Food Security Program. Commentary is produced by the Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS), a private, tax-exempt institution focusing on international public policy issues. Its research is nonpartisan and nonproprietary. CSIS does not take specific policy positions. Accordingly, all views, positions, and conclusions expressed in this publication should be understood to be solely those of the author(s). © 2021 by the Center for Strategic and International Studies. All rights reserved.

https://www.csis.org/analysis/what-behind-recent-rise-global-food-prices

Politics

en

Babies born in spring are slightly more likely to develop anorexia nervosa, while those born in the autumn have a lower risk, say researchers. A report published in the British Journal of Psychiatry, external suggests temperature, sunlight, infection or the mother's diet could be responsible. Other academics said the effect was small and the disorder had many causes. The researchers analysed data from four previous studies including 1,293 people with anorexia. The researchers found an "excess of anorexia nervosa births" between March and June - for every seven anorexia cases expected, there were in fact eight. There were also fewer than expected cases in September and October. Dr Lahiru Handunnetthi, one of the report's authors, at the Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics, said: "A number of previous studies have found that mental illnesses such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder and major depression are more common among those born in the spring - so this finding in anorexia is perhaps not surprising. "However, our study only provides evidence of an association. Now we need more research to identify which factors are putting people at particular risk." The report suggests seasonal changes in temperature, sunlight exposure and vitamin D levels, maternal nutrition and infections as "strong candidate factors". Dr Terence Dovey, from the Centre for Research into Eating Disorders, at Loughborough University, said: "Anorexia is a very complex multifaceted disorder," adding that the study looked at just one aspect. "Should we concentrate screening methods to those born in the winter months? No, we should not. It leaves too much error of margin and the potential significant difference is only small."

http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-13208401

Health

en

Beginner's Guide to Python New to programming? Python is free and easy to learn if you know where to start! This guide will help you to get started quickly. New to Python? Read BeginnersGuide/Overview for a short explanation of what Python is. Next, install the Python 3 interpreter on your computer. This is the program that reads Python programs and carries out their instructions; you need it before you can do any Python programming. Mac and Linux distributions may include an outdated version of Python (Python 2), but you should install an updated one (Python 3). See BeginnersGuide/Download for instructions to download the correct version of Python. There are also Python interpreter and IDE bundles available, such as Thonny. Other options can be found at IntegratedDevelopmentEnvironments. At some stage, you'll want to edit and save your program code. Take a look at HowToEditPythonCode for some advice and recommendations. Next, read a tutorial and try some simple experiments with your new Python interpreter. If you have never programmed before, see BeginnersGuide/NonProgrammers for a list of suitable tutorials. If you have previous programming experience, consult BeginnersGuide/Programmers, which lists more advanced tutorials. If English isn't your first language, you might be more comfortable with a tutorial that's been translated into your language. Consult python.org's list of Non-English resources. Most tutorials assume you know how to run a program on your computer. If you are using Windows and need help with this, see How do I Run a Program Under Windows. Here are some sites that focus on beginners and offer in-browser coding: Beginners Python tutorial at Python Land (free) Coding Bootcamps (non-free) Dataquest for Python for data science. (free) HackInScience free and open source platform. High School Technology Services for general Python (non-free) Print a cheat sheet of the most important Python features and post it to your office wall until you know the basics well. Once you have read a tutorial, you can browse through Python's online documentation. It includes a tutorial that might come in handy, a Library Reference that lists all of the modules that come standard with Python, and the Language Reference for a complete (if rather dry) explanation of Python's syntax. When you are ready to write your first program, you will need a text editor or an IDE. If you don't want to use Thonny or something more advanced, then you can use IDLE, which is bundled with Python and supports extensions. This Python wiki also contains a page about Python One-Liners -- an obscure but interesting subculture in Python. Need help with any of this? Read BeginnersGuide/Help for mailing lists and newsgroups. An interactive and free way to learn Python is to ask ChatGPT or another generative AI model for help. The Python code quality generated by AI agents has become pretty good. State-of-the-art AI models work especially well for small projects or code understanding questions. Most Python books will include an introduction to the language; see IntroductoryBooks for suggested titles. Consult BeginnersGuide/Examples for small programs and little snippets of code that can help you learn. Or, if you prefer to learn Python through listening to a lecture, you can attend a training course or even hire a trainer to come to your company. Consult the PythonEvents page to see if any training courses are scheduled in your area and the PythonTraining page for a list of trainers. Teachers can join the EDU-SIG, a mailing list for discussion of Python's use in teaching at any level ranging from K-12 up to university. Complete list of Beginner's Guide pages - BeginnersGuide/Programmers (Cpp2Python.pdf) Quiz and Exercises Finxter - How good are your Python skills? Test and Training with a Daily Python Puzzle CheckIO - Online learning, testing and improving your python skills After Hours Programming - Python Quiz Pythonspot - Python Quiz Python Challenge - A Python Quiz App on Android Platform Python Based AI and Prompt Engineering AI Engineering Academy - Become a Certified AI Engineer with OpenAI API, HuggingFace, and Llama Generative AI Tutorial - Generative AI Tutorial GitHub Prompt Engineering Guide - List of helpful resources Google Gemini (Python) - Python Library to access Google's Gemini Model Looking for a particular Python module or application? The first place to look is the Python Package Index. - If you can't find anything relevant in the Package Index, try searching python.org - you can find anything mentioned on the Python site, in the FAQs, or in the newsgroup. More info: where to search. You may also try our external guest project, pydoc.net, for advanced package and module search. Next, try Google or another search engine of your choice. Searching for "python" and some relevant keywords will usually find something helpful. - Finally, you can try posting a query to the comp.lang.python Usenet group. Python-Related Cheat Sheets Machine Learning: Collection of 15 Machine Learning Cheat Sheets Want to contribute? Python is a product of the Python Software Foundation, a non-profit organization that holds the copyright. Donations to the PSF are tax-deductible in the USA, and you can donate via credit card or PayPal. To report a bug in the Python core, use the Python Bug Tracker. To contribute a bug fix or other patch to the Python core, read the Python Developer's Guide for more information about Python's development process. To contribute to the official Python documentation, join the Documentation SIG, write to [email protected] , or use the Issue Tracker to contribute a documentation patch. To announce your module or application to the Python community, use comp.lang.python.announce. See the guide to Python mailing lists for more information. To propose changes to the Python core, post your thoughts to comp.lang.python. If you have an implementation, follow the Python Patch Guidelines. If you have a question are not sure where to report it, check out the WhereDoIReportThis? page.

http://wiki.python.org/moin/BeginnersGuide

Programming

en

What is bentonite clay? Bentonite, also called montmorillonite clay, is a hydrous clay mineral mainly composed of montmorillonite. Hygroscopic and viscous properties make bentonite clay a valuable binder, sealant, absorbent and lubricant in numerous industries and applications. You can find it in foundry sand, iron ore pellets, drilling mud, cat litter, fertilizer, cosmetics, and more. For this reason, bentonite has earned the nickname "Clay of a Thousand Uses." There are two types of bentonite clay according to the mineral mostly present in it: calcium bentonite and sodium bentonite. While both types can be sourced naturally, it is also possible to convert calcium bentonite to sodium bentonite if desired. Bentonite processing process Bentonite clay production process features ore mining, sodium activation (if required), drying, milling, classifying, pelleting, etc. Grinding and drying are key steps. Bentonite mining process Bentonite is surfaced mined through a process called back-casting where reclamation is performed by filling the mining pits with soils from subsequent pits while the mine is in production. Bentonite crushing process Bentonite clay has a Mohs hardness of 1-2 and a natural moisture content of about 30%. For crushing wet and sticky bentonite clay, Ftmmachinery recommends a roll crusher. Why Choose a Roll Crusher? - The roll crusher has specially designed toothed rollers that can tear large pieces of bentonite clay into small pieces, effectively reducing the size of bentonite. - It has extremely high output. When crushing bentonite, the output can be increased by 30-40%. And more energy saving in the crushing process. - The particle size of bentonite fragments can be changed by adjusting the wedge or gasket adjustment device between the two rollers. Ftmmachinery roll crusher for sale: $3,500/ Set (the lowest price) Bentonite drying process Bentonite clay, as mined, typically contains between 25-35% moisture and requires drying to 5% to 12%. This is often accomplished through the use of a rotary drum dryer. Learn more about bentonite drying machine - Ftmmachinery rotary dryer adopts indirect drying method, the hot flue gas and wet bentonite raw materials are separated from each other, keeping the properties of bentonite clay unchanged. - Because there is no contact between the hot flue gas and the wet bentonite ore, the exhaust flue gas can be recycled. This reduces coal consumption, thereby lowering production costs. - The drying machine not only shortens the drying time but also increases the processing capacity to ensure continuous production. - Intelligent control can automatically adjust the operating parameters to ensure that the moisture content of the dried material is stable. Due to the hygroscopic nature of bentonite, its drying process must be performed under controlled temperature so as not to damage its molecular structure. As a matter of fact, at temperature values above 500 °C, crystallisation water is irreversibly removed from bentonite, which loses all its properties and is turned into grog (aggregates). Ftmmachinery rotary dryer for sale: $1,000/ Set (the lowest price) Bentonite grinding process Grinding process is to produce grade wise powder form from activated bentonite or natural bentonite. Raymond mill is a popular bentonite grinding equipment. Learn more about bentonite Raymond mill - The particle size of bentonite powder can be adjusted within 80-425 mesh to ensure that the finished bentonite powder can serve different industries. - Raymond mill uses hot air to transport materials, which has a drying effect. The moisture content of bentonite powder can be controlled by adjusting the air inlet temperature. - The bentonite raw material stays in the mill for only 2-3 minutes, which can quickly measure and correct the chemical composition and fineness of the finished powder to ensure the quality of the finished product. - Raymond Mill's grinding system integrates crushing, drying, grinding, and classifying, with a simple system and compact layout. Ftmmachinery Raymond mill for sale: $3,219 / set (the lowest price) Bentonite pelleting process Producers are also frequently looking to agglomerate bentonite for its end use. For example, if you are a suppiler of bentonite cat litter and bentonite compound fertilizer, you need a disc granulator to get bentonite granules. Learn more about bentonite disc granulator - The particle size of bentonite granules can be adjusted by the amount of material mixed, the rotating speed of the main shaft, the inclination angle of the disc, etc. - It adopts advanced desilting technology, no large bentonite clusters will appear, and the bentonite granules are uniform in size. - The bottom of the disc is reinforced with multiple radiant steel plates, which is durable and not easily deformed. - Ftmmachinery can provide disc granulators with diameters from 2.2m to 3.6m and production capacities from 4t/h to 24t/h to suit bentonite granulation plants of different scales. Ftmmachinery disc granulator for sale: $1,000 / set (the lowest price) Ftmmachinery-bentonite processing equipment supplier Ftmmachinery has extensive experience in designing and manufacturing bentonite processing equipment for crushing, grinding, drying and pelleting. We can provide sturdy machines and suitable production lines according to customers' production requirements, such as final product, output, infeed and outfeed size. Ftmmachinery bentonite cat litter production line Step 1: Dry the calcium-based bentonite raw ore in the sun, and control the moisture content to 22%. Step 2: Crush the calcium-based bentonite ore to a particle size of 25mm with a roller crusher. Step 3: Stir the sodium modifier and bentonite evenly to modify it into sodium-based bentonite. Step 4: Grind the sodium bentonite to 200 mesh with a Raymond mill. Step 5: Mix 200-mesh bentonite powder, corn starch, zeolite and other main raw materials in a certain proportion and pour the mixture into a disc granulator to make bentonite granules. Step 6: Dry, classify, and cool bentonite granules to obtain finished bentonite cat litter. Cases of bentonite grinding plant A bentonite grinding plant in Russia | | Grinding mill: | 2 sets of 4R3216 | Power: | 397Kw | Energy consumption: | 58-63 Kw/T | Material: | Bentonite clay | Fineness: | 325 mesh D95 | Application | Drilling mud agent | Output: | 11-13T/H | A bentonite grinding plant in Greece | | Grinding mill: | 1 set of 5R4119 | Power: | 157.5Kw | Energy consumption: | 30-40Kw/ton | Material: | Sodium activated bentonite | Fineness: | 200 mesh D95 | Application | Iron ore pellets | Output: | 5-6T/H | 4 main uses of bentonite clay Bentonite clay in the foundry industry Bentonite clay is a high-quality foundry sand binder. Bentonite binders are cost-effective, environmental solutions since the majority of the sand and binder can be reused in a cyclical system. Bentonite clay in iron ore pelletizing Bentonite clay is used as a binder for the formation of iron ore pellets. Pellets are balls produced from iron ore or concentrates and are used as feed material for iron making Bentonite adds significant value to the pelletizing process and the quality of the final product. Bentonite clay in drilling mud Bentonite clay is used in drilling and tunneling fluids to lubricate and cool cutting tools, remove cuttings and help prevent blowouts. Bentonite cat litter Bentonite clay is ideal for use in cat litter due to its unique water-absorbing, swelling, and odor-controlling properties. Bentonite clay needs to go through processes such as crushing, drying, grinding, and granulation to realize its thousand uses. Different end uses have slightly different processing procedures and require different equipment. Welcome to consult Ftmmachinery engineers to customize the bentonite clay processing process and equipment for you.

https://www.ftmmachinery.com/blog/bentonite-processing-process-and-equipment.html

Business

en

1. Introduction: The phenomenon of rich individuals prioritizing external philanthropy over assisting their relatives In our society, it is not uncommon to observe wealthy individuals directing their resources and efforts towards helping those outside of their immediate families, rather than assisting their relatives. This prevalent trend raises intriguing questions about the motivations and decision-making processes behind such behavior. This article aims to explore the reasons why rich people often prefer external philanthropy over helping their relatives. By delving into the psychology, societal pressures, economic considerations, and other factors that contribute to this phenomenon, we can gain a deeper understanding of the complexities surrounding this common occurrence in our society. 1.1 The prevalence of rich individuals favoring external philanthropy It’s a curious trend that many wealthy individuals seem to prioritize helping those outside of their immediate family over assisting their relatives. While this phenomenon may not apply to every rich person, it is certainly prevalent in our society. 1.2 Examining the societal impact of this phenomenon The choice to prioritize external philanthropy over assisting relatives can have a profound impact on both individuals and society as a whole. It raises questions about the values and priorities of the affluent, as well as the potential consequences this has on family dynamics and societal expectations. 2. The psychology behind philanthropic behavior in affluent individuals 2.1 Understanding the motivation for philanthropy in wealthy individuals What drives wealthy individuals to engage in philanthropy? It goes beyond mere altruism. Understanding their motivation is key to comprehending why they may choose to help outside their immediate family. Factors such as a desire for social impact, a sense of purpose, and the fulfillment derived from making a difference all play a role. 2.2 Exploring the Psychological Factors Influencing Philanthropic Choices In addition to motivation, various psychological factors can influence the philanthropic choices of affluent individuals. These may include a need for validation or recognition, a desire to leave a lasting legacy or even guilt associated with wealth. Exploring these factors sheds light on the complex decision-making processes of the rich. 3. Societal pressures and expectations influencing the preference for external philanthropy 3.1 Analyzing societal norms and expectations of affluent individuals Society often places high expectations on wealthy individuals to use their resources for the betterment of society. These expectations can create pressure to prioritize external philanthropy as a means of meeting societal demands, regardless of familial ties. Examining these norms and expectations provides insight into the external pressures faced by the rich. 3.2 The influence of social status and reputation on philanthropic decisions Maintaining a positive social status and reputation is important to many affluent individuals. Engaging in external philanthropy offers an opportunity to enhance their public image and be seen as generous and socially responsible. Navigating the delicate balance between personal and public perception can influence the preference for philanthropic acts beyond one’s relatives. 4. Economic considerations and tax benefits driving philanthropic choices 4.1 Evaluating the financial advantages of external philanthropy While philanthropy is driven by compassion and a desire to make a difference, economic considerations also play a role. External philanthropy can provide wealthy individuals with tax benefits, which can significantly impact their overall financial situation. Evaluating these advantages helps to understand the economic factors behind their preference for helping outside their immediate family. 4.2 Understanding the impact of tax incentives on wealthy individuals’ choices Tax incentives and deductions for charitable donations can influence the philanthropic choices of the affluent. By redirecting their resources towards external philanthropy, they can receive tax benefits that may not be available when assisting their relatives. Recognizing the impact of tax incentives provides further insight into the decision-making process of the rich. 5. The role of legacy and reputation in shaping philanthropic decisions When it comes to philanthropy, rich people often have a desire to leave a lasting impact and create a positive legacy. They want to be remembered for their contributions and the difference they made in the world. By focusing their help outside of their immediate family, they can make a broader impact and leave a legacy that extends beyond their kin. 5.1 Exploring the desire for a lasting impact and legacy Rich individuals understand that their resources can be a powerful tool for creating change. By directing their philanthropy towards causes that align with their values, they can make a lasting impact on society. While helping their relatives may provide immediate gratification, it may not have the same long-lasting effect that contributing to larger-scale initiatives can achieve. 5.2 How reputation and public perception impact philanthropic choices The public perception of wealthy individuals and their philanthropic efforts plays a significant role in shaping their decisions. Many rich people are aware of the scrutiny and skepticism that can surround their actions, and they strive to maintain a positive reputation. By supporting external initiatives, they can demonstrate their commitment to social issues and gain public recognition. This can enhance their reputation as philanthropists and have a ripple effect, inspiring others to contribute as well. 6. The impact of personalized philanthropy on family dynamics and relationships While rich people may prioritize external philanthropy, it’s important to acknowledge the potential strain it can put on familial relationships. 6.1 Examining the potential strain on familial relationships Assisting relatives financially can sometimes create tension and expectations within the family. It can lead to a sense of entitlement or dependency, which may strain relationships and hinder personal growth. By focusing on external philanthropic endeavors, rich individuals can maintain healthier boundaries and promote self-sufficiency among their relatives. 6.2 Balancing the needs of family members with external philanthropic endeavors Finding a balance between supporting family members and engaging in external philanthropy is crucial. Rich individuals may choose to create trust funds or establish foundations that benefit both their immediate family and wider society. This approach allows for support within the family while still enabling them to make a difference on a larger scale. 7. Navigating the delicate balance between assisting relatives and external philanthropy Achieving a balance between helping relatives and contributing to external causes can be challenging but not impossible. 7.1 Strategies for finding a middle ground One strategy is to involve family members in the decision-making process for philanthropic initiatives. This way, they can contribute their perspectives and interests, ensuring a sense of inclusion. Another approach is to set clearly defined boundaries and expectations for financial assistance within the family, providing support while encouraging independence and personal growth. 7.2 Cultivating a holistic approach to philanthropy Ultimately, rich individuals can strive to cultivate a holistic approach to philanthropy that encompasses both family support and external initiatives. By diversifying their contributions, they can have a positive impact on multiple fronts, aligning their values with the needs of their relatives and society at large. 8. Conclusion: Understanding and reconciling the prevalent trend of rich people favoring external help over familial assistance In conclusion, the preference of wealthy individuals for external philanthropy over assisting their relatives is a multifaceted phenomenon shaped by various factors. Psychological motivations, societal expectations, economic considerations, and the desire for legacy and reputation all play a role in driving this trend. While it is essential to recognize the potential impact on family dynamics, navigating a delicate balance between familial assistance and external philanthropy is crucial. By comprehending and reconciling the complexities surrounding this trend, we can foster a more comprehensive approach to philanthropy that takes into account both the needs of our families and the broader communities we seek to uplift. While it may be common in our society for rich people to prioritize external philanthropy, it is important to understand that their choices are often driven by a desire for lasting impact, reputation management, and maintaining healthy family dynamics. By finding a balance between assisting relatives and contributing to wider causes, they can create a positive legacy while nurturing their relationships and making a difference in the world. 1. Why do rich people prefer helping outside their families rather than their relatives? Rich individuals may prioritize external philanthropy over assisting their relatives for various reasons. These may include the desire to make a broader impact, societal pressures and expectations, economic considerations, and tax benefits, as well as the desire for legacy and reputation. Understanding these factors helps shed light on their preferences. 2. Does this trend strain family relationships? The preference for external philanthropy over familial assistance can potentially strain family relationships. Balancing the needs and expectations of family members with external philanthropic endeavors requires careful navigation. Open communication, finding a middle ground, and cultivating a holistic approach to philanthropy can help mitigate any potential strain on family dynamics. 3. Are there any advantages to directing resources toward external philanthropy? Yes, there can be advantages to directing resources towards external philanthropy. Economic considerations, such as tax benefits and financial advantages, may influence wealthy individuals’ choices. Additionally, personalized philanthropy can have a lasting impact on communities and society, allowing individuals to leave a legacy and shape their reputation positively. 4. Is it possible to strike a balance between helping relatives and external philanthropy? While it can be challenging, it is possible to strike a balance between helping relatives and engaging in external philanthropy. Strategies such as setting clear boundaries, involving family members in philanthropic decisions, and prioritizing the overall well-being of both family and community can help achieve a more harmonious and comprehensive approach to philanthropy. If you find this article post useful for you, Please comment, subscribe, like, and share with your family and friends on social media, and don’t hesitate to ask for any topic you are looking for free. You can join our Whatsapp group for free: https://chat.whatsapp.com/Jkg4vAzCO4i6OP7P8veE9g Join our Whatsapp channel for free: https://whatsapp.com/channel/0029VaA2cWF0bIdwaQWVCe1t Join our telegram channel for free: https://t.me/occultbrotherhood4money

https://blackheartbrotherhood.family.blog/2023/12/28/why-do-rich-people-prefer-helping-outside-to-helping-their-relatives-its-common-in-our-society/

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Are you confused about the difference between USB 2.0 vs 3.0? Know which is suited for your needs by learning all about the differences of each here. This guide will explain the difference between USB 2.0 and 3.0. Before developers even invented USBs, computers had already utilized parallel and serial ports to transfer data. Printers, joysticks, mice, and keyboards all use individual ports. On top of that, custom drivers and an expansion card were required to connect a device to a computer. Other types of ports couldn’t even run simultaneously. When developers created USB ports, they designed the port to handle up to 127 devices while providing compatibility. Developers created USBs in the ’90s to define communication protocols, including connectors and cables, between various electronic devices (scanners, printers, and others) and computers. These soon became the standard for connecting electronics and gadgetsto computers. Gadgets like smartphones, tablets, and video game consoles can connect to computers through USB ports, which allow communication and charging. In November 2008, developers released USB 3.0, eight years after developers released USB 2.0. In 2014, they released USB 3.1. Now onto the difference. We’ve highlighted the key differences between USB 2.0 and USB 3.0 below. Keep reading USB 2.0 can provide up to 500 mA current, whereas USB 3.0 is capable of providing up to 900 mA current. Also, USB 3.0 can deliver more USB power when the need arises and conserve power when the USB flash drive is connected but not being used. The USB ports for USB 2.0 and USB 3.0 also differ visually. USB 2.0 has a black “block” inside the USB port, while USB 3.0 has a blue “block” inside the USB port. The more recent USB 3.1 port also differs visually in that the “block” inside the USB 3.1 port is red. USB 2.0 transfer speed is 480 megabits per second (Mbps), while USB 3.0 transfer speed is 4,800 Mbps. This means USB 3.0 is approximately ten times faster than USB 2.0. USB 3.1 has also been released and has a data transfer rate of 10,000 Mbps. This is twice as fast as USB 3.0 and twenty times as fast as USB 2.0. USB 3.0 ports are completely backward compatible. Therefore, the drive will work normally when a USB 2.0 drive or earlier versions are connected to a USB 3.0 port. However, it is important to note that a USB 3.0 drive is also compatible with a USB 2.0 port. But, a USB 3.0 drive will exhibit the same transfer rate as a USB 2.0 drive when connected to a USB 2.0 port. In other words, a USB 3.0 drive must be connected with a USB 3.0 port to achieve the high data transfer rates USB 3.0 is known for. USB 2.0 offers a one-way communication path. This means the data are both sent and received over the same pathway. Thus, USB 2.0 can only send or receive data at a given time but not do both. On the other hand, USB 3.0 uses two separate unidirectional data paths, each with a dedicated function: one for sending data and the other for receiving data. This means that USB 3.0 can simultaneously send and receive data. USB 2.0 has four connector wires, while USB 3.0 has a total of 9. The presence of these five additional wires increases the bandwidth of USB 3.0 by permitting two-way communications simultaneously. The superior performance of USB 2.0 vs 3.0 has caused an increase in popularity for the USB 3.0 USB drives. In terms of price, USB 2.0 vs 3.0 differs significantly. You can buy an affordable USB 2.0 on the market, such as an 8-gigabyte (GB) USB 2.0 flash drive for less than $10. With USB 3.0, it will be more expensive, especially those that offer the fastest transfer speeds. It can reach up to $40 if you opt for those that offer said speeds. You might want to consider how you’ll use the drive. If you’ll be using it frequently and transferring huge files, USB 3.0 might be a better choice since its superior speeds can cut down transfer time. We should note that price will always be less of an issue when buying from Everything But Stromboli. Regardless of brand, we bring wholesale prices every day, especially when you buy in bulk. You can shop our selection of 2.0 and 3.0 USBs here! - The newest version of USBs is the 3.1, which provides several major improvements compared to the USB 3.0. - USB 3.1 can power any device. - Its data transfer speed can reach up to 10 gigabits per second The USB 3.1 is usually associated with the USB-C connector because it’s the connector type that can support the features of the USB 3.1 standard. It can support up to an impressive 10,000 cycles of usage. USB 3.1 Gen 1 is similar to USB 3.0, and in fact, the existing USB 3.0 connectors have been named USB Gen 1. However, the transfer speeds remained the same even with the name change. USB 3.1 Gen 1 has a power capacity of up to 900 mA at 5V and speeds of up to 625 megabytes or 5 Gbps. The USB 3.1 Gen 1 connector also looks like the USB 2.0 A connector with a blue interior. Gen 1 has more than one connector type with the slim micro-B and bulky type B, also known as the “printer.” However, these types of connectors cannot support the full power of Gen 2. Developers launched the USB 3.1 Gen 2 in July 2013. Unlike Gen 1, which had only gone through a name change, several upgrades were made on the USB 3.1 Gen 2. It has the same transfer rate as Gen 1, which is 5 Gbps, but its maximum speed can reach 10 Gbps. However, only the USB Type-C connector can keep up with the bandwidth and full power of Gen 2. Aside from that, its cable length is only limited. Devices and cables that support Gen 2 aren’t that common yet. The USB Type-C connector is just a connector, not a USB standard, to clarify some confusion. While its construction enables some of Gen 2’s features, the connector doesn’t determine the USB standard’s power transfer and speed. The devices at both ends of the cable determine the power and speed capacity. The problem is buying the USB standard and connector is that most people confuse USB 3.1 with Type-C. If you purchase cables with Type-C connectors on both ends, they can support Gen 2’s features. USB Type-C surpasses the older versions of connectors, which helps create a universal connector type and drops the mini and macro versions. With a transfer power of up to 5,000 mA at 20 V, you can secure a strong connection with this connector.

https://www.novabach.com/what-is-the-difference-between-the-usb-2-0-and-3-0/

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Black Kings (and Queens) Ruled Parts of Europe For Almost 700 Years History confirms that the Moors ruled in Europe -- primarily Spain and Portugal -- for almost 700 years. They were known for their influence in European culture, but not many people know that the Moors were actually Europeans of African descent. Moors were usually depicted as being "mostly black or very swarthy, and hence the word is often used for negro," according to the Oxford English Dictionary. Several written works at the time also confirm that. The 16th century English playwrights William Shakespeare used the word Moor as a synonym for African and Christopher Marlowe used Moor and African interchangeably. Author and historian Chancellor Williams said "the original Moors, like the original Egyptians, were black Africans." An Arab chronicler also described Moorish Emperor Yusuf ben-Tachfin as "a brown man with wooly hair." In European Art, Moors are also often shown with African features: pitch black, frizzled hair, flat and wide face, flat-nosed, and thick lips. The Drake Jewel, a rare documented piece of jewel from the 16th century, seemed to show a profile of a Black king dominating the profile of a white woman. Moreover, Moors were known to have contributed in areas of mathematics, astronomy, art, cuisine, medicine, and agriculture that helped develop Europe and bring them from the Dark Ages into the Renaissance. Generations of Spanish rulers have allegedly tried to abolish this era from the historical record. But recent archaeology determined that Moors indeed ruled in Al-Andalus for more than 700 years -- from 711 A.D. to 1492.

https://www.blackhistory.com/2019/08/moors-black-kings-queens-ruled-europe-almost-700-years.html#:~:text=African%20Americans..-

Culture

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Migraine Disease From a Different Perspective According to diagnostic criteria established by the International Headache Society, to be diagnosed with migraine disease, patients must have had at least 5 headache attacks that lasted 4–72 hours and the attacks must have had at least 2 of the following characteristics: - Unilateral location - Pulsating quality - Moderate or severe pain intensity - Aggravation by or causing avoidance of routine physical activity In addition, during the headache the patient must have had at least 1 of the following: - Nausea and/or vomiting - Photophobia and phonophobia We think it is imperative to view migraine as a full-body disorder. While this is the typical classification for migraine disease, we at AMD recognize that migraine is a complex neurological disease with symptoms well beyond a headache. Migraine can impact the entire nervous system. This means people may experience symptoms in various parts of their body. One may think these widespread symptoms are not related but in fact, migraine could be the underlying cause. Here are some common migraine symptoms that aren't often associated with migraine: - Difficulty finding words - Ear and sinus pressure - Sleeping poorly - Feeling anxious We choose to highlight the spectrum of migraine manifestations. Click here for a full list of possible migraine symptoms. Migraine attacks can progress through several phases, each with characteristic symptoms, varying in severity and duration. While this graph shows it as 4 distinct phases, the symptoms actually overlap significantly. Not all individuals experience all 4 phases and each person’s attack can vary from one to the next. A unique aspect of a migraine attack is the prodrome and postdrome phases. While a person may not be having a headache in this phase, that may not be feeling or functioning well for hours or days. Many migraine patients describe their prodrome as the onset of yawning or the feelings of depression, slow thinking or fatigue. A fifth phase that occurs between cycles is called the interictal phase. It can be an unpredictable length of time and therefore some people struggle with the anxiety of not knowing when to expect their next attack. Migraine With Aura Two main types of migraine have been recognized: migraine with and without aura. An aura is a temporary sensory disturbance before or during the headache. Common auras are the illusion of changes in vision, an unpleasant phantom smell or confused thinking. While patients often describe an aura where they feel a numbness that starts in an extremity and moves centrally, visual auras are FAR the most common. The “classic” visual aura is a scintillating scotoma - that is, a small central area of temporary blindness followed by brightly colored, shimmering light. It is helpful to remember that an aura does not have to occur with every headache and about 5% of those with aura never have a headache. The most common of these painless migraine events is an ophthalmic, or ocular migraine. People often mistake this for a transient ischemic attack (TIA) or stroke. Episodic vs. Chronic Migraine Episodic Migraine is characterized by those with migraine who have 0 to 14 headache days per month, while Chronic Migraine is characterized by 15 or more headache days per month and 8 or more days must have "migraine-like features." Established Migraine Types This condition may soon be recognized as the most common cause of dizziness. It is distinctive for its wide range of symptoms (imbalance, spinning, ear pressure, and tinnitus), variable duration (seconds to days) and other non-headache symptoms, such as difficulty seeing, intolerance for bright lights and noises, neck pain and spasms, confusion, spatial disorientation and increased anxiety. It mimics the two other common balance disorders, benign positional vertigo and Meniere’s disease. The most recent version of the International Classification of Headache Disorders recognizes vestibular migraine as a subtype of migraine. An ocular migraine is an episode, usually in one eye, where any of a number of visual distortions can occur for up to about one hour. Thought to be caused mainly by tightening or swelling of the blood vessels in the optic nerve at the back of the eye, there may be other factors at play as well. Often an attack begins with a blind spot in the central area of vision which can start small and get larger. This is often followed by an aura stage with other visual distortions such as what looks like a spot of light moving about in your peripheral and central vision, or a kaleidoscope view. An ocular migraine attack can occur with or without an accompanying headache. Hemiplegic migraine (HM) is a rare type of migraine where an individual experiences motor weakness on one side of the body, usually accompanied by or followed by a headache. The weakness is a form of aura and is associated with at least one other aura symptom such as visual changes. The weakness is not always on the same side as the head pain and it can vary from mild to severe. HM may affect only part of the body, such as just the hand or both the hand and arm, or just the face. Weakness of the entire side of the body can occur. Severe attacks of HM can occur that may progress to seizure, decreased consciousness, or coma. Most individuals who experience HM also experience migraine attacks with typical aura (without weakness). Abnormal variations in three genes have been identified as causes of familial hemiplegic migraine. Variations in the CACNA1A gene cause familial HM type 1. Variations in the ATP1A2 gene cause familial HM type 2. Variations in the SCN1A gene cause familial HM type 3. Migraine With Brainstem Aura Migraine with brainstem aura is a classification that used to be known as basilar migraine. There is some controversy surrounding this diagnosis and publications vary in regard to its prevalence and its cause/origin. This type of migraine occurs when aura symptoms are of the type thought to originate from the brainstem, but there is no motor weakness associated with the aura. According to ICHD-3, the diagnostic criteria for MBA is migraine with aura including at least two of the following symptoms: slurred or slow speech (dysarthria), vertigo, ringing in the ears (tinnitus), partial hearing loss (hypoacusis), double vision (diplopia), impaired coordination (ataxia), or decreased level of consciousness. Migraine Without Head Pain (Silent Migraine) Those with migraine without head pain experience phases of a migraine, including the aura phase, but do not experience head pain. People with migraine without head pain may experience nausea, visual disturbances, runny nose, dizziness, weakness, brain fog, and others. Abdominal migraine is characterized by recurrent episodes of moderate to severe belly pain with nausea, with or without vomiting, in children. Often there is no associated headache. It lasts from 2 hours to 3 days, without symptoms between episodes. Status Migrainosus, also known as intractable migraine, is a migraine that lasts longer than 72 hours. The symptoms are more severe than a typical migraine and abortive medications are usually ineffective. This condition is very difficult to treat and inpatient hospitalization may be necessary for pain management and for the prevention of dehydration due to nausea/vomiting. Status Migrainosus generally occurs due to ineffective treatment, an adaptation to medication or when abortive medications are taken too late in the migraine cycle. A study found that greater than 80% of patients presenting with sinusitis met the criteria for migraine disease. It is hypothesized that the activation of the trigeminal-autonomic reflex causes sinus-like symptoms: mid-facial pain, stuffy nose, nasal drainage and loss of smell. The combination of sinus-like symptoms along with the ICHD-3 diagnostic criteria of migraine indicates a likely diagnosis of sinus migraine. It is important that all healthcare providers screen for migraine prior to diagnosing a patient with sinusitis. Sinus pathologies are usually ruled out prior to diagnosis of sinus migraine. The misdiagnosis of these similar conditions can lead to antibiotic misuse as well as unnecessary surgical intervention. Take the Quiz and See if You May Have Migraine A detailed look at the current understanding of migraine pathophysiology, including an explanation of new theories in the impact of sex hormones, why migraine mimics sinusitis, the evolution of migraine into a chronic disease and more.

https://www.migrainedisorders.org/migraine-disorders/?gclid=EAIaIQobChMIlqyizpWigAMVWsHVCh2xkQN7EAAYASAAEgJSo_D_BwE

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Diabetes management: How lifestyle, daily routine affect blood sugar Diabetes management takes awareness. Know what makes your blood sugar level rise and fall — and how to control these day-to-day factors. By Mayo Clinic Staff When you have diabetes, it's important to keep your blood sugar levels within the range recommended by your healthcare professional. But many things can make your blood sugar levels change, sometimes quickly. Find out some of the factors that can affect blood sugar. Then learn what you can do to manage them. Healthy eating is important for everyone. But when you have diabetes, you need to know how foods affect your blood sugar levels. It's not only the type of food you eat. It's also how much you eat and the types of food you combine in meals and snacks. What to do: Learn about planning balanced meals. A healthy-eating plan includes knowing what to eat and how much to eat. Two common ways to plan meals are carbohydrate counting and the plate method. Ask your healthcare professional or a registered dietitian if either type of meal planning is right for you. Understand carbohydrate counting. Counting carbs involves keeping track of how many grams of carbohydrates you eat and drink during the day. If you take diabetes medicine called insulin at mealtimes, it's important to know the amount of carbohydrates in foods and drinks. That way, you can take the right dose of insulin. Among all foods, carbs often have the biggest impact on blood sugar levels. That's because the body breaks them down into sugar, which raises blood sugar levels. Some carbs are better for you than others. For example, fruits, vegetables and whole grains are full of nutrients. They have fiber that helps keep blood sugar levels more stable too. Eat fewer refined, highly processed carbs. These include white bread, white rice, sugary cereal, cakes, cookies, candy and chips. Get to know the plate method. This type of meal planning is simpler than counting carbs. The plate method helps you eat a healthy balance of foods and control portion sizes. Use a 9-inch plate. Fill half of the plate with nonstarchy vegetables. Examples include lettuce, cucumbers, broccoli, tomatoes and green beans. Divide the other half of the plate into two smaller, equal sections. You might hear these smaller sections called quarters. In one quarter of the plate, place a lean protein. Examples include fish, beans, eggs, and lean meat and poultry. On the other quarter, place healthy carbohydrates such as fruits and whole grains. Be mindful of portion sizes. Learn what portion size is right for each type of food. Everyday objects can help you remember. For example, one serving of meat or poultry is about the size of a deck of cards. A serving of cheese is about the size of six grapes. And a serving of cooked pasta or rice is about the size of a fist. You also can use measuring cups or a scale to help make sure you get the right portion sizes. Balance your meals and medicines. If you take diabetes medicine, it's important to balance what you eat and drink with your medicine. Too little food in proportion to your diabetes medicine — especially insulin — can lead to dangerously low blood sugar. This is called hypoglycemia. Too much food may cause your blood sugar level to climb too high. This is called hyperglycemia. Talk to your diabetes health care team about how to best coordinate meal and medicine schedules. Limit sugary drinks. Sugar-sweetened drinks tend to be high in calories and low in nutrition. They also cause blood sugar to rise quickly. So it's best to limit these types of drinks if you have diabetes. The exception is if you have a low blood sugar level. Sugary drinks can be used to quickly raise blood sugar that is too low. These drinks include regular soda, juice and sports drinks. Exercise is another important part of managing diabetes. When you move and get active, your muscles use blood sugar for energy. Regular physical activity also helps your body use insulin better. These factors work together to lower your blood sugar level. The more strenuous your workout, the longer the effect lasts. But even light activities can improve your blood sugar level. Light activities include housework, gardening and walking. What to do: Talk to your healthcare professional about an exercise plan. Ask your healthcare professional what type of exercise is right for you. In general, most adults should get at least 150 minutes a week of moderate aerobic activity. That includes activities that get the heart pumping, such as walking, biking and swimming. Aim for about 30 minutes of moderate aerobic activity a day on most days of the week. Most adults also should aim to do strength-building exercise 2 to 3 times a week. If you haven't been active for a long time, your healthcare professional may want to check your overall health first. Then the right balance of aerobic and muscle-strengthening exercise can be recommended. Keep an exercise schedule. Ask your healthcare professional about the best time of day for you to exercise. That way, your workout routine is aligned with your meal and medicine schedules. Know your numbers. Talk with your healthcare professional about what blood sugar levels are right for you before you start exercise. Check your blood sugar level. Also talk with your healthcare professional about your blood sugar testing needs. If you don't take insulin or other diabetes medicines, you likely won't need to check your blood sugar before or during exercise. But if you take insulin or other diabetes medicines, testing is important. Check your blood sugar before, during and after exercise. Many diabetes medicines lower blood sugar. So does exercise, and its effects can last up to a day later. The risk of low blood sugar is greater if the activity is new to you. The risk also is greater if you start to exercise at a more intense level. Be aware of symptoms of low blood sugar. These include feeling shaky, weak, tired, hungry, lightheaded, irritable, anxious or confused. See if you need a snack. Have a small snack before you exercise if you use insulin and your blood sugar level is low. A blood sugar level below 90 milligrams per deciliter (mg/dL), which is 5.0 millimoles per liter (mmol/L), is too low. The snack you have before exercise should contain about 15 to 30 grams of carbs. Or you could take 10 to 20 grams of glucose products. This helps prevent a low blood sugar level. If your blood sugar is 90 to 124 mg/dL (5.0 to 6.9 mmol/L), have 10 grams of glucose before you exercise. Stay hydrated. Drink plenty of water or other fluids while exercising. Dehydration can affect blood sugar levels. Be prepared. Always have a small snack, glucose tablets or glucose gel with you during exercise. You'll need a quick way to boost your blood sugar if it drops too low. Carry medical identification too. In case of an emergency, medical identification can show others that you have diabetes. It also can show whether you take diabetes medicine such as insulin. Medical IDs come in forms such as cards, bracelets and necklaces. Adjust your diabetes treatment plan as needed. If you take insulin, you may need to lower your insulin dose before you exercise. You also may need to watch your blood sugar level closely for several hours after intense activity. That's because low blood sugar can happen later on. Your healthcare professional can advise you how to correctly make changes to your medicine. You also may need to adjust your treatment if you've increased how often or how hard you exercise. Insulin and other diabetes medicines are designed to lower blood sugar levels when diet and exercise alone don't help enough. How well these medicines work depends on the timing and size of the dose. Medicines you take for conditions other than diabetes also can affect your blood sugar levels. What to do: Store insulin properly. Insulin that is not stored properly or is past its expiration date may not work. Keep insulin away from extreme heat or cold. Don't store it in the freezer or in direct sunlight. Tell your healthcare professional about any medicine problems. If your diabetes medicines cause your blood sugar level to drop too low, the dosage or timing may need to be changed. Your healthcare professional also might adjust your medicine if your blood sugar stays too high. Be cautious with new medicines. Talk with your healthcare team or pharmacist before you try new medicines. That includes medicines sold without a prescription and those prescribed for other medical conditions. Ask how the new medicine might affect your blood sugar levels and any diabetes medicines you take. Sometimes a different medicine may be used to prevent dangerous side effects. Or a different medicine might be used to prevent your current medicine from mixing poorly with a new one. With diabetes, it's important to be prepared for times of illness. When you're sick, your body makes stress-related hormones that help fight the illness. But those hormones also can raise your blood sugar. Changes in your appetite and usual activity also may affect your blood sugar level. What to do: Plan ahead. Work with your healthcare team to make a plan for sick days. Include instructions on what medicines to take and how to adjust your medicines if needed. Also note how often to measure your blood sugar. Ask your healthcare professional if you need to measure levels of acids in the urine called ketones. Your plan also should include what foods and drinks to have, and what cold or flu medicines you can take. Know when to call your healthcare professional too. For example, it's important to call if you run a fever over 101 degrees Fahrenheit (38.3 degrees Celsius) for 24 hours. Keep taking your diabetes medicine. But call your healthcare professional if you can't eat because of an upset stomach or vomiting. In these situations, you may need to change your insulin dose. If you take rapid-acting or short-acting insulin or other diabetes medicine, you may need to lower the dose or stop taking it for a time. These medicines need to be carefully balanced with food to prevent low blood sugar. But if you use long-acting insulin, do not stop taking it. During times of illness, it's also important to check your blood sugar often. Stick to your diabetes meal plan if you can. Eating as usual helps you control your blood sugar. Keep a supply of foods that are easy on your stomach. These include gelatin, crackers, soups, instant pudding and applesauce. Drink lots of water or other fluids that don't add calories, such as tea, to make sure you stay hydrated. If you take insulin, you may need to sip sugary drinks such as juice or sports drinks. These drinks can help keep your blood sugar from dropping too low. It's risky for some people with diabetes to drink alcohol. Alcohol can lead to low blood sugar shortly after you drink it and for hours afterward. The liver usually releases stored sugar to offset falling blood sugar levels. But if your liver is processing alcohol, it may not give your blood sugar the needed boost. What to do: Get your healthcare professional's OK to drink alcohol. With diabetes, drinking too much alcohol sometimes can lead to health conditions such as nerve damage. But if your diabetes is under control and your healthcare professional agrees, an occasional alcoholic drink is fine. Women should have no more than one drink a day. Men should have no more than two drinks a day. One drink equals a 12-ounce beer, 5 ounces of wine or 1.5 ounces of distilled spirits. Don't drink alcohol on an empty stomach. If you take insulin or other diabetes medicines, eat before you drink alcohol. This helps prevent low blood sugar. Or drink alcohol with a meal. Choose your drinks carefully. Light beer and dry wines have fewer calories and carbohydrates than do other alcoholic drinks. If you prefer mixed drinks, sugar-free mixers won't raise your blood sugar. Some examples of sugar-free mixers are diet soda, diet tonic, club soda and seltzer. Add up calories from alcohol. If you count calories, include the calories from any alcohol you drink in your daily count. Ask your healthcare professional or a registered dietitian how to make calories and carbohydrates from alcoholic drinks part of your diet plan. Check your blood sugar level before bed. Alcohol can lower blood sugar levels long after you've had your last drink. So check your blood sugar level before you go to sleep. If your blood sugar isn't between 100 mg/dL and 140 mg/dL (5.6 mm/L and 7.8 mmol/L), have a snack before bed. The snack can counter a drop in your blood sugar. Periods and menopause Periods and menopause both have important effects for people with diabetes. Changes in hormone levels the week before and during periods can lead to swings in blood sugar levels. What to do: Look for patterns. Keep careful track of your blood sugar readings from month to month. You may be able to predict blood sugar changes related to your menstrual cycle. Adjust your diabetes treatment plan as needed. Your healthcare professional may recommend changes in your meal plan, activity level or diabetes medicines. These changes can make up for blood sugar swings. Check blood sugar more often. If you're likely nearing menopause or if you're in menopause, talk with your healthcare professional. Ask whether you need to check your blood sugar more often. Also, be aware that menopause and low blood sugar have some symptoms in common, such as sweating and mood changes. So whenever you can, check your blood sugar before you treat your symptoms. That way you can confirm whether your blood sugar is low. Most types of birth control are safe to use when you have diabetes. But combination birth control pills may raise blood sugar levels in some people. It's very important to take charge of stress when you have diabetes. The hormones your body makes in response to prolonged stress may cause your blood sugar to rise. It also may be harder to closely follow your usual routine to manage diabetes if you're under a lot of extra pressure. What to do: Take control. Once you know how stress affects your blood sugar level, make healthy changes. Learn relaxation techniques, rank tasks in order of importance and set limits. Whenever you can, stay away from things that cause stress for you. Exercise often to help relieve stress and lower your blood sugar. Get help. Learn new ways to manage stress. You may find that working with a psychologist or clinical social worker can help. These professionals can help you notice stressors, solve stressful problems and learn coping skills. The more you know about factors that have an effect on your blood sugar level, the better you can prepare to manage diabetes. If you have trouble keeping your blood sugar in your target range, ask your diabetes healthcare team for help. Jan. 06, 2024 See more In-depth

http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/diabetes/in-depth/diabetes-management/art-20047963

Health

en

Babies are a bundle of joy. However, they aren’t just cute and adorable. Their impressive set of skills and the amazing facts about them will surprise you. Did you know that every 3 seconds a baby is born and that a new born baby has just about one cup of blood in his body? Amazed? Here are some interesting facts about babies that you probably didn’t know: Because nerve cells in his retina and brain that control vision are not fully developed. In addition to their tongue, new born babies have taste buds on the roof, back, and sides of their mouth. During pregnancy, the fetus can send stem cells from its own body to its mother to repair the mother’s damaged organ. In a day, a baby’s brain can use up to 50% glucose in its body. This explains why they need so much sleep. Yeah, it’s true. Their eyes are that big! Though babies are born with working tear ducts and glands, initially they produce tears only to lubricate and protect the eye. However, these glands develop with time and start producing enough teardrops (when the baby is between 1 and 3 months old). As the baby grows, some of the bones, such as those in the skull, fuse together. This is why adults have only 206 bones in their bodies. However, the respiratory rate for a healthy adult at rest is 12–20 breaths per minute. Their vision only allows them to see people and objects at their clearest when they are within 8 to 12 inches away. Up until 7 months old, a baby can breathe and swallow at the same time. The delay may be related to the development of kidneys, which start to process sodium at about that age. At birth, babies do not have kneecaps but they do have a structure of cartilage that resembles kneecaps. They usually don’t develop them fully until after six months. Yes! Their grasp is so strong that it may be able to support their own body weight. It is because of the reflex called the palmar grasp. Babies are born with natural swimming abilities and can also hold their breath. However, these abilities quickly disappear. Babies grow at an incredible rate during their first year. By the end of one year, a baby is likely to be triple his birth weight, and about one and a half times as tall as he was when he was born. Girl babies may experience menstrual cycle which may last for about one week. However, some of them may experience the bleeding for a day or two while others don’t experience it at all. Yes, baby boys have swollen scrotums and they get erections not only after they are born but even while they are still in the womb. Newborn babies of both sexes can occasionally produce milk. This milk is called neonatal milk. This is fairly common in infants, and is harmless. In medical-speak, it is known as nocturnal lagophthalmos. Hard to believe, isn’t it? Illustration Courtesy: Suvojyoti Ray

https://www.scoopwhoop.com/Interesting-To-Weird-Facts-About-Babies/#.r9q8mv9eu?_e_pi_=7%2CPAGE_ID10%2C6161967375http://www.viralnova.com/baby-facts/cc:

Family

en

Eating too much butter side effects In the field of nutrition, there has long been debate about butter. Some argue that it increases cholesterol levels and clogs your arteries, while others assert that it can be a savory and nutritive addition to your diet. However, a lot of investigation on the potential negative effects of butter on health has been done recently. This article examines the health benefits and drawbacks of butter in more detail. What defines butter? A dairy product called butter is created by churning milk, which separates the liquid, or buttermilk, from the solid fats. While butter can also be produced using the milk of sheep, goats, and even buffalo, this article touches on cow's milk-based butter. Butter comes in a variety of forms, including salted, unsalted, grass-fed, and clarified butter, each of which has unique properties based on the ingredients and manufacturing process used to produce it. Originally prepared from cow's milk, butter is a dairy product that comes in a wide range of forms. It can be used in a variety of cuisines and is utilized in baking and cooking. The following nutrients are included in one tablespoon (14 grams) of butter: - calories: 102 - 11.5 grams of total fat. - 11% of the recommended daily intake for vitamin A (RDI) - 2% of the recommended daily intake of vitamin E - 1% of the recommended daily intake of vitamin B12 - 1% of the recommended daily intake of vitamin K Despite having a lot of calories and fat, butter also has a lot of vital nutrients. For instance, vitamin A, a fat-soluble vitamin essential for healthy skin, a strong immune system, and clear vision, is one of its many nutrients. Additionally, it contains vitamin E, which promotes heart health and functions as an antioxidant to save your cells from harm by free radicals. Riboflavin, niacin, calcium, and phosphorus are among the additional elements found in butter in very trace amounts. Butter has a lot of calories & fat, but it also has a lot of essential elements like vitamins A and E. a reliable supply of conjugated linoleic acid Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), a type of fat included in meat and dairy products, is a great source in butter. CLA has been linked to remarkable health advantages. Test-tube research suggests that CLA may have anticancer qualities and could help slow the spread of breast, colon, colorectal, stomach, prostate, and liver cancer. According to additional study, taking a CLA supplement may help you lose weight by reducing your body fat. In one 24-month trial, 134 overweight persons who consumed 3.4 grams of CLA daily saw a reduction in body fat. Additionally, it might improve immunological performance and lessen inflammation-related signs to promote improved health. For instance, a 23-man study revealed that ingesting 5.6 grams of CLA for two weeks reduced levels of numerous inflammatory proteins, such as tumor necrosis factor and C-reactive protein. Remember that the majority of studies that have been done have used supplements containing highly concentrated versions of CLA rather than the amounts present in typical serving sizes of butter. To fully grasp how CLA may affect health when ingested in typical levels from meals, more research is required. Butter includes CLA, a kind of fat that may help prevent cancer, help people lose weight, and enhance their immune systems. Butyrate is a form of short-chain fatty acid that is abundant in butter and has been linked to a number of advantages. The good bacteria in your gut also create butyrate, which is used by the cells in your intestines as a source of energy. By lowering intestinal inflammation and aiding the intake of fluids and electrolytes to improve regularity and electrolyte balance, it can enhance the health of the digestive system. In accordance with both human and animal research, butter includes butyrate, a form of fat that may promote weight management, reduce inflammation, and improve digestive health. high levels of saturated fat Saturated fat, a type of fat that can be found in meals like meat and dairy products, is present in butter in significant amounts. Of actuality, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fat make up 26% and 4% of the total fat content in butter, respectively, while saturated fat makes up around 63% of the fat . Saturated fat has a history of being stigmatized as an unhealthy, artery-clogging kind of fat that is bad for the heart. Recent studies, however, have not discovered any connection between consuming saturated fat and a higher risk of developing heart disease or passing away from it. Still, a balanced diet should include a variety of other heart-healthy fats in addition to saturated fat. In fact, one evaluation of 15 research found a 27% decreased rate of cardiovascular events, which are incidents that harm your heart, when polyunsaturated fat was substituted for some of the saturated fat in your diet. The much more recent Dietary Guidelines for Americans state that saturated fat consumption should be kept to less than 10% of daily calories. This indicates that while butter can be used in moderation, it should be combined with other dietary sources of healthful fat, such as nuts, seeds, olive oil, and fatty fish. Saturated fatty acids like butter also have a high smoke point and are resistant to oxidation, making them particularly beneficial for high-heat cooking. When cooking, this can lessen the production of dangerous free radicals. Saturated fats are prevalent in butter. Although replacing saturated fat with polyunsaturated fat is connected to a lower risk of cardiovascular events, saturated fat may not be linked to a higher risk of heart disease. high in calories Each tablespoon (14 grams) of butter contains roughly 102 calories, making it a calorie-dense food. While this is acceptable in moderation, going overboard can rapidly result in an increase in calories. If you don't adjust your diet in any other ways to make up for these extra calories, you can eventually gain weight. Therefore, increasing your calorie intake by only one serving per day without making any other modifications might result in an annual weight gain of about 10 pounds (4.5 kg). However, it's advisable to consume butter in moderation and replace other fats in your diet with it in order to limit your calorie consumption. Butter has a lot of calories, which can lead to weight gain if consumed in large quantities. How much butter can you eat without becoming sick? It is advised to keep your daily saturated fat intake to less than 10% of your overall calorie intake. For instance, 2,000 calories a day would equal 22 grams of saturated fat, or almost 3 tablespoons (42 grams) of butter. Hence, it's better to limit yourself to 1-2 teaspoons (14–28 grams) each day, along with other healthy fats like olive oil, nuts, seeds, coconut oil, avocados, and fatty seafood. Butter is full of vitamins, minerals, and healthy substances including butyrate and conjugated linoleic acid. Butter and other high-fat milk products have been associated with a lower risk of obesity, diabetes, and cardiac issues. Butter should still be consumed in moderation as it is heavy in calories and saturated fat. It is preferable to eat it with a variety of heart-healthy fats, such as olive oil, avocado, nuts, seeds, and oily salmon. Post a Comment

https://www.healthlifekit.com/2023/01/butter-benefits-and-side-effects.html

Food

en

Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) critical to keep track of everything you eat and drink if you have chronic kidney disease (CKD). This is due to your kidneys' inability to clear waste materials from your body as efficiently as they could. A kidney-friendly diet can help you live longer and healthier. What Does It Mean to Eat a The kidneys' main job is to eliminate waste and excess fluid from your body through pee. They also include: - Maintain a healthy fluid balance in your body. - Minerals such as salt and potassium should be in balance in your body. - Produce hormones that have an impact on the functioning of other organs. A kidney-friendly diet is a method of eating that aids in the prevention of additional kidney damage. Some meals and drinks will have to be limited so that other fluids and minerals, such as electrolytes, do not build up in your body. Simultaneously, you must ensure that you acquire the proper balance of protein, calories, vitamins, and minerals. If you have CKD in its early stages, you may have few, if any, dietary restrictions. However, as your sickness progresses, you'll need to be more cautious about the foods you consume. may advise you to work with a dietitian to select kidney-friendly foods. They Reduce your sodium intake. can be found in a variety of foods. Table salt is the most prevalent source. pressure is affected by sodium. It also aids in the maintenance of your body's water balance. Kidneys that are in good shape keep salt levels in check. However, if you have CKD, your body accumulates extra sodium and water. Swollen ankles, elevated blood pressure, shortness of breath, and fluid buildup around your heart and lungs are all symptoms of this. In your daily diet, you should strive for fewer than 2 grams of sodium. To reduce sodium in your diet, follow these simple steps: - Table salt and high-sodium spices should be avoided (soy sauce, sea salt, garlic salt, etc.). - Cook at home because most fast food has a lot of sodium. - Instead of salt, experiment with various spices and herbs. - If at all possible, avoid packaged foods. They have a high salt content. - When shopping, read the labels, and choose low-sodium goods. - Before serving, rinse canned items (vegetables, beans, meats, and fish) with water phosphorus should be minimized minerals are required to keep your bones healthy and strong. When your kidneys are in good shape, they filter out the phosphorus you don't require. However, phosphorus levels can get excessively high if you have CKD. You're at risk for heart disease as a result of this. Furthermore, your calcium levels start to fall. Your body compensates by pulling it from your bones. This can make them frail and more easily broken. If you have late-stage CKD, your doctor may recommend that you consume no more than 1,000 mg of phosphorus each day. This can be accomplished by: - Choosing foods that are low in phosphorus (search for the word "PHOS" on the label) - Increasing your intake of fresh fruits and vegetables - Choosing grains made of corn and rice - consuming light-colored carbonated beverages - Meat, poultry and fish consumption are being reduced. - Keeping dairy to a minimum - Calcium-rich foods also contain a high amount of phosphorus. The doctor may advise you to limit your calcium-rich foods. The following dairy foods are low in - Swiss or brie cheese - Sour cream or regular or low-fat cream cheese may also advise you to stop taking calcium supplements over-the-counter and prescribe a phosphorus binder, which is a medication that regulates your Lower you’re Potassium Consumption. aids in the normal functioning of your neurons and muscles. However, if you have CKD, your body is unable to filter out excess potassium. It can cause major heart problems if you have too much of it in your blood. found in bananas, potatoes, avocados, oranges, cooked broccoli, raw carrots, greens (excluding kale), tomatoes, and melons, among other fruits and vegetables. Potassium levels in the blood can be affected by these foods. If you need to limit this mineral in your diet, your doctor will let you know. If this is the case, they may advise you to eat low-potassium recommend that you eat low-potassium meals such as: - Apple juice with apples - Cranberries and cranberry juice are two types of cranberries. - As your CKD progresses, you may need to make more dietary modifications. include reducing your intake of high-protein meals, particularly animal protein. Meats, seafood, and dairy products are among them. You may also require additional iron. have CKD, talk to your doctor about which iron-rich foods you can eat such as: - Strawberries, blueberries and raspberries are some of the most popular berries. - Cauliflower, boiled - Beans are a legume (green or wax) As your CKD progresses, you may need to make more dietary modifications. This could include reducing your intake of high-protein meals, particularly animal protein. Meats, seafood and dairy products are among them. You may also require additional iron. When you have CKD, talk to your doctor about which iron-rich foods you Post a Comment

https://www.healthlifekit.com/2021/07/what-foods-help-repair-kidneys.html

Health

en

Last week, we started discussing summary writing, focusing on how to write sentences that will guarantee the candidate a good mark in the section – in the West African Senior School Certificate Examination (WASSCE), the National Examination Council (NECO) and other similar exams. We identified and discussed three points thus: The sentence must be in your own words. The sentence must be a complete one – not a phrase, not a subordinate clause. The sentence should contain only the required point – as presented by the passage’s writer, and as demanded by the examiner. Indeed, as is already in the marking scheme! We will conclude the topic today by looking at more major issues and other related ones. Therefore, the fourth point is that, in summary writing, your sentence should be brief and sharp. This means that it should be as short and smart as possible. To achieve this, do not explain the point. Also, do not engage in repetition just as you should avoid citing examples. Even if the writer gives examples in the passage, it is not your duty to reproduce them. Just identify the main idea in the clause and re-present it in your own words. The fifth point is that you must avoid grammatical errors in all your sentences. You should be very careful in the way you construct them. They should be grammatically okay from the beginning to the end because for every error you commit, the marker normally deducts half mark. Nobody is expecting big words or flowery language from you. Just simple and correct English. Beware of errors of tenses, articles, number etc. You should also create time to read through your answer before submitting your paper. This will give you the opportunity to eliminate omissions because the marker will punish both outright blunders and careless mishaps. You should know the words you often find difficult to spell. So, if you need to use such in your exam, you will be extra careful. Generally, there are expressions that many people usually mishandle or mix up. You should beware of such. When you intend to write ‘were’, don’t carelessly write ‘where’. There is a difference between cause and course, his and he’s, there and their, I’m and am, has/have and had, sing and sung etc. The same applies to ‘been’ and ‘being’. Imagine writing the following as one of the required sentences in the summary section: The matter has being settled. Because ‘being’ is used instead of ‘been’, half mark is already gone. If the devil will have more laugh, the candidate will, in the same sentence, go ahead to commit some of the other blunders we earlier highlighted: According to the writer of the passage, the matters has being settled and this has made the community become peaceful. If you are the examiner, how many half marks will you deduct? First, ‘According to the writer’ is a liability in the sentence. Second, ‘the matters has’ is erroneous. Third, ‘and this has made the community become peaceful’ unnecessarily makes the statement long. The candidate does not need it, the examiner does not want to see it. Now, imagine the irony: the candidate who simply writes ‘The matter has been settled’, based on the nature of the question asked, gets his or her full mark while the one who laboured to write the long sentence ends up with little or no mark. That is how delicate summary writing can be. You should, therefore, handle it as technically and smartly as possible. All rights reserved. This material, and other digital content on this website, may not be reproduced, published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed in whole or in part without prior express written permission from PUNCH. Contact: [email protected]

https://punchng.com/im-discouraged-after-last-weeks-visit-to-buhari-bakare/Summary

Politics

en

Between 1918 and 1919, an outbreak of influenza spread rapidly across the world, and killed more than 50 million—and possibly as many as 100 million—people within 15 months. The speed of the pandemic was shocking; the numbers of dead bodies overwhelmed hospitals and cemeteries. Quarantine centers, emergency hospitals, public use of gauze masks, and awareness campaigns were all undertaken swiftly to halt the spread. But as World War I was coming to a close, millions of soldiers were still traveling across the globe, aiding the spread of the disease. While its exact origins are still debated, it’s understood that the “Spanish Flu” did not come from Spain. The name seems to have arisen as reporting about influenza cases was censored in war-affected countries, but Spain was neutral, so frequent stories appeared about the deadly flu in Spain. Gathered here are images from the battle against one of the deadliest events in human history, when the flu killed up to 6 percent of the Earth’s population in just over a year.

https://www.theatlantic.com/photo/2018/04/photos-the-1918-flu-pandemic/557663/

Health

en

Thanks for signing up! Access your favorite topics in a personalized feed while you're on the go. The discoveries of certain constant numbers have pushed the world forward as much as the the light bulb or the assembly line. These constants have led to bridges being built, finances being accounted for, and th completion of many other significant and necessary tasks throughout history. There are many important numbers that have made this world what it currently is. But the following 10 are the most important numbers, or constants, in the entire world. Archimedes' constant, or "Pi," is the name given to the ratio of the circumference of a circle to the diameter, but it's actually so much more than that. Greek mathematician Archimedes is credited with the first theoretical calculation of Pi, which he estimated was between 3 10/71 and 3 1/7 — or 223/71. Pi is now defined as 3.1415926535... etc Application: Pi is the key constant in any equation that involves circular or harmonic motion. It's one of the most essential relationships in mathematics. Euler's number is also known as the exponential growth constant. It is the base for natural logarithms and is found in many areas of mathematics. Application: In finance, Euler's number is used to determine compound interest, which is extremely vital in understanding the time value of money — the backbone of finance. Moreover, Euler's number is crucial when describing any decaying relationship - think Carbon 14 dating. Source: Math Is Fun The golden ratio is a number often encountered when taking the ratios of distances in geometric figures. Application: The golden ratio is often used in financial technical analysis to attempt to determine when a market will continue its path or reverse. It's also observed very frequently in nature, especially in the way that some naturally occurring spirals expand outward. The constant is named after Max Planck, one of the fathers of quantum theory. Planck's constant reflects the size and energy quanta in quantum mechanics. Werner Heisenberg used it to help determine the Uncertainty Principle. Application: Some writers speculate that this Uncertainty Principle can be used to determine stability and sustainability of a financial instrument. But if you want a real-world application, you'll have to wait a few years though. The quantum-computer is still in theoretical phases, but if it becomes a reality - if engineers are able to design a computer that stores information not in electrical ones and zeros but in six quantum orientations of bits - it could have a bigger impact on the world than the semiconductor. Source: Fin Extra Avogadro's constant is a number used to explain to atoms, molecules, ions and electrons. For elements, the relative atomic mass expressed in grams contains the Avogadro Constant of atoms. Application: Avogadro's constant is an interesting relationship between a multitude of different chemical properties. A chemical engineer might need to use the application of that knowledge - called stoichiometry - every single day of his life. It's in many way a real life "sweet spot," when you have precisely the number of atoms in a pile such that that pile of atoms weighs, in grams, the atomic weight of the substance on the periodic table. That pile is called one "mole" of atoms. So, a mole of Carbon contains exactly 6.022 x 1023 atoms of carbon, and if you weigh it, it would weigh 12.011 grams, carbon's atomic weight. The speed of light is 186,282 miles per second, or 299,792,458 meters per second. A meter is defined from this constant. Understanding the speed of light is both one of physics' proudest accomplishments, and understanding what it really implies is one of its most dizzying questions. Application: The speed of light is used in many different mathematical formulas and in analyzing space travel. It's part of Einstein's famous equation of relativity by which we understand the relationship of mass and energy. It's the "c" in E=mc2. The gravitational constant appears in Newton's law of gravitation, and is known as the constant G. Additionally, G also appears in Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity. Application: G helps determine the force between two masses. Knowledge of G is crucial for any civil, mechanical, or aerospace engineer. Making sure that a bridge can work against both the weight of the cars pushing down on it as well as the impact of the gravitational constant's pull down is one of the, understandably, more essential aspects of bridge construction. The Boltzmann constant is a fundamental constant of physics that occurs in nearly every statistical formulation in classical and quantum physics. Application: Boltzman constant explains why ice cubes melt in warm water, but are not spontaneously created in tepid water, among other uses. "i" equals the square root of -1, which means that i squared is equal to -1. Application: Negative numbers don't have square roots. Math had advanced to the point where saying "there is no square root of negative numbers" was holding back a lot of progress. Solutions of some polynomials have both real solutions that we could use in real life as well as solutions that involved the square root of a negative number, which can be discarded. Euler's identity ties a lot of things together. For one thing, we know from trigonometry that eix = cosine(x) - i * sine(x) because of the infinite series that describe sine, cosine, and e. When you plug in pi for x, sine(pi) = 0 and cosine(pi) = -1. This formula is particularly elegant because it involves the most famous constants in math as well as 1, zero, and 1. Application: What this conceptually describes is walking along the edge of a unit circle in the complex plane, half way around. Until the real value is -1.

http://www.businessinsider.com/most-important-numbers-2012-7?op=1#ixzz3cCdbWlfh

Education

en

This is a series of questions and answers concerning the snake in the garden of eden. I have a Genesis Bible question: When God “found out” that the serpent had deceived Eve, He cursed him and commanded him to crawl on his belly from now on. Now, I take it that the “serpent” was a snake. But Satan was only using the FORM of a snake for his purposes. Why curse an entire species of animal for something Satan did? And did this mean that snakes didn’t “crawl on their bellies” before God cursed them? It certainly is a good question and worth some Biblical reflection. Indeed, the entire story of the temptation and Fall is somewhat confusing at points and can present various questions in people’s minds. So, let me deal with his questions one at a time. His first question is “But Satan was only using the FORM of a snake for his purposes. Why curse an entire species of animal for something Satan did?” It needs to be noted from the outset that Satan certainly did use a real, literal, physical snake as his instrument for tempting Eve. Satan is the master as posing himself as something else and not tempting someone with his full identity exposed. In terms of why God would “curse” the snake for what Satan did, let me offer the following considerations: a. The snake would be a forever symbolic reminder of the Fall. Everytime man would see a serpent he would be reminded that it was the instrument by which he fell into sin. Man was to have dominion and rule over the animal kingdom and yet it was through an animal that he was led astray! That tells man something about the seriousness of the original Fall and also about how culpable he really is. b. The snake would be a symbolic reminder of Satan’s future destruction. The snake imagery is picked up in Genesis 3:15 when the snake is told: “he [the woman’s seed] will crush your head and you will strike his heel.” The snake was cursed to crawl on the ground and therefore susceptible to man’s heel crushing its head (this vulnerability is a direct result of Satan’s sin). This is a foreshadowing of what will really happen to Satan someday. The seed (Jesus Christ) of the woman will crush the head of Satan and His heel will be struck (the crucifixion) in the process. In addition, the curse upon the physical snake was reflective of the actual curse upon Satan himself: crawling low on the belly was a mark of deep degradation (Lev 11:42) and eating dust was also a sign of despair (Micah 7:17). All these factors combine to form very vivid symbolism of what awaits Satan in the end. c. Animals were culpable when used as instruments of sin. Interestingly, elsewhere in the OT when an animal is an instrument in sins against nature he is to be slain along with the man (Lev 20:15,16). Is that because there is real blame and guilt on the part of the animal? No, but because the instrument is often broken/punished along with the actual perpetrator. Chrysostom summed this idea up well: “Just as a loving father when punishing the murderer of his son, might snap in two the sword or dagger with which the murder had been committed.” d. God is the potter and can use some clay for common purposes and other clay for noble purposes ( Romans 9). God has the right to curse an animal in a specific way due to the sin of another; He did that very thing in regard to Adam’s sin. When Adam sinned and threw all of creation into chaos, God cursed the ground so that it produced thorns. Was the ground to blame? Was it actually guilty? No, but it was rightly punished due to the sin of another and is a symbolic reminder to us of that very sin. The second question posed in the letter was: “And did this mean that snakes didn’t ‘crawl on their bellies’ before God cursed them?” The simple answer is: yes. It is clear from this passage that a physical change took place in the serpent as a result of Satan’s actions. It is very difficult...for us to reconstruct what the snake looked like originally with the amount of information Genesis gives us. Now, it is very difficult (and perhaps impossible) for us to reconstruct what the snake looked like originally with the amount of information Genesis gives us. It would simply be speculation. However, it need not be an intellectual difficulty to imagine physical changes in creation as a result of sin. In fact, real physical change took place in the woman’s body so that she produced pain in child birth (3:16); physical change took place in the land so that it was more difficult to cultivate (3:17-18), and physical change took place in plants so that they produced thorns (3:18). It must be remembered that imagining a world not cursed by sin is a very difficult thing. Can you imagine a world with no death, thorns, pain, disease, difficulty, struggle for survival? The world before the Fall was radically different. So, there is no difficulty in imagining the serpent as changing to crawl on its belly even though we are not totally sure what he was like before. The hope is that someday this curse will be reversed; in the new heavens and the new earth there will be no more pain, disease, sickness or thorns. The wolf will lay down with the lamb and the lion will eat straw like an ox (Isaiah 11). And a little child will lead them.

https://answersingenesis.org/genesis/garden-of-eden/what-about-the-snake-in-the-garden-of-eden/

Religion

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Cholesterol is an essential component in the membranes of almost every cell in the body. Cholesterol also works as a necessary precursor for the production of steroid hormones, bile acids and vitamin D. However, high cholesterol or hyperlipidemia is a health problem characterized by excessively high levels of lipoprotein low density (LDL) cholesterol, often called “bad cholesterol”. Unlike high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, or “good” cholesterol, which helps remove excess LDL cholesterol from the bloodstream, high LDL cholesterol increases the risk of atherosclerosis or arterial hardening and plaque buildup, as well as heart disease and other vascular diseases. Studies have shown that compared to people with normal cholesterol levels, people with high cholesterol are about twice as likely to develop cardiovascular disease. The liver naturally produces cholesterol, but can also be produced when consumed in the diet through foods such as meat, cheese, eggs, whole dairy products, butter, snacks, ice cream, shellfish, commercially-fried foods, and organ meats. While regular consumption of these types of foods, as well as foods high in saturated fat and trans fats, can cause high cholesterol, hyperlipidemia is not necessarily the result of poor nutrition alone; instead, there are many risk factors involved. In addition to poor diet, the risk factors for high cholesterol include genetics, smoking, a sedentary lifestyle, obesity, certain diseases such as diabetes. and hypertension, and certain medications. The good news is you can lower your risk for high cholesterol through healthy lifestyle choices. There is some evidence to suggest that various lifestyle choices can lower cholesterol. Here are the 9 best ways to lower cholesterol naturally, without drugs. Read on to see what changes you can start implementing today. Eat greater fibre. Including more fibre in your weight loss plan also can decrease your cholesterol. Studies have shown that everyday intake of three grams of soluble fibre decreased bad cholesterol by an average of almost 18%. Soluble fibre is seen in legumes like beans, peanuts and lentils, vegetables, whole grain, oat and fruit. Though our very own bodies can’t digest soluble fibre, it’s the preferred fuel source for the beneficial gut bacteria and serves as a probiotic. Moreover, studies show that the bacteria inhabiting your intestine microbiome are instrumental in the production and regulation of levels of cholesterol for your body. Keep Away from Trans Fats Trans fats offer absolutely no nutritional advantage and should be removed from the diet as much as possible. Also known as “hydrogenated oils” or “partially hydrogenated oils,” trans fats are found in processed foods such as packaged snacks cakes, store-bought fried foods, margarine, theatre popcorn, vegetable shortening, and processed meats. These oils make food more stable, but can be harmful to your health by simultaneously raising LDL cholesterol and lowering HDL cholesterol, research shows. Go Whole Grains Whole grains contain bran which is high in B vitamins and soluble fibre, which has been researched to lower LDL cholesterol levels and the risk of coronary heart disease. Research indicates that one or two extra servings per day of whole grains, per day, can reduce the risk of hyperlipidemia and heart disease by about 10-20%. Try adding more whole wheat, whole oats, sorghum (such as guinea corn) barley, and teff, or substitute refined grains for whole grains. Try a Plant-Based Diet Many animal products are high in saturated fat, and diets high in animal protein and fat have been proved to cause deleterious changes in the balance of bacteria in the gut, increasing the abundance of inflammatory microbes and reducing the abundance of bacteria that aid digestion, protect the gut barrier and produce good HDL cholesterol. Legumes, seeds, vegetables, fruits, and nuts contain fibre, water, polysaccharides, vitamins, minerals and phytochemicals that support the production of HDL cholesterol, which then circulates and removes bad LDL cholesterol. Make Friend with Healthy Fats Unlike saturated fats and trans fats, unsaturated fats can lower cholesterol and lower the risk of heart disease. Studies have shown that diets high in monounsaturated fat can lower LDL cholesterol and increase HDL cholesterol. Foods like olive oil, walnuts, avocados, almonds, and nuts are high in monounsaturated fat, which may partly explain why the African diet is effective in reducing the risk of many diet-related illnesses. Polyunsaturated fats, such as the omega-3 fatty acids in oily fish like salmon, mackerel, tuna, and sardines, as well as some nuts and seeds, can also lower LDL levels, according to research. While foods high in cholesterol can raise blood cholesterol levels, when considering a diet, saturated and trans fats are the real culprits of high cholesterol. Saturated fats are solid at room temperature due to the double bonds between carbon atoms. They are found in many animal products, such as butter, cheese, meat, fatty poultry and cream. Aerobic exercise can have a dual beneficial effect on your cholesterol levels, as research shows that regular exercise can lower LDL cholesterol and increase HDL cholesterol. Improving HDL cholesterol levels is one of the most important health effects of exercise. While several studies have examined the influence of low-impact aerobic exercise on cholesterol levels and blood lipid profiles, there is also some evidence to suggest that resistance training can improve cholesterol numbers. It’s probably not surprising that smoking can create another health consequence, in this case – high cholesterol. Smoking seems to interfere with the body’s ability to produce good cholesterol, and when HDL levels are too low, LDL levels are no longer kept in check and therefore start to rise. Fortunately, many studies have shown that these changes are reversible, such that quitting smoking can lower LDL and raise HDL cholesterol to more optimal levels. Lose excess weight Just as exercise acts as a positive double blow against high cholesterol by simultaneously raising good HDL cholesterol and lowering bad LDL cholesterol, so too does a healthy weight loss diet and excess weight loss. Research has shown that regardless of the type of diet followed and the foods consumed, weight loss through diet increases HDL and decreases LDL, notably improving the blood lipid profile.

https://nsibidee.com/9-best-ways-to-lower-your-cholesterol-level/

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This topic has been debated among scholars and believers for centuries, and various interpretations exist based on different accounts provided in the Bible. However, it is important to approach this topic with an open mind and respect for different perspectives. Let’s explore the different viewpoints surrounding this controversy. One viewpoint argues that Mary Magdalene, a devoted follower of Jesus, was indeed the first person to see Him after His resurrection. According to the Gospel of John, Mary Magdalene went to the tomb early in the morning and found it empty. Overwhelmed by grief, she encountered a man whom she initially mistook for the gardener. However, as soon as Jesus called her by name, she recognized Him and realized that He had risen from the dead. This interpretation holds significance for many, as it highlights the role of Mary Magdalene as a prominent witness of the resurrection and her deep connection with Jesus. It also reflects the Gospel narratives that emphasize Jesus’ interactions with women and their significant contributions to His ministry. On the other hand, an alternative viewpoint suggests that it was actually Peter, one of Jesus’ closest disciples, who directly encountered Him first. According to the Gospel accounts, after Mary Magdalene informed Peter and John about the empty tomb, they both ran to see for themselves. John arrived first but hesitated to enter, while Peter boldly went inside. It was in that moment that Peter saw the empty tomb and the burial linens, providing him with evidence of Jesus’ rising. This argument emphasizes the significance of Peter’s role as the leader among the disciples and the fulfillment of Jesus’ prediction that Peter would witness the resurrection. It also underlines the importance of Peter’s subsequent encounters with Jesus, which are recorded in the Gospels. The controversy over who first saw Jesus after His resurrection has theological, historical, and cultural implications. While some see it as a matter of gender equality and recognize Mary Magdalene’s primacy as symbolically powerful, others focus on the apostolic authority of Peter. However, it is essential to remember that both Mary Magdalene and Peter played crucial roles in the early Christian community, and their experiences hold great significance in understanding the resurrection event. Ultimately, rather than engaging in contentious debates, it is more productive for us as believers to focus on the central message of Jesus’ resurrection: the triumph of life over death and the hope it brings to all who follow Him. Regardless of who saw Jesus first after His resurrection, His triumph over the grave remains a cornerstone of Christianity, providing believers with salvation and eternal life.

https://spectatorsng.com/who-first-saw-jesus-after-resurrection-man-or-woman/

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Torah code tables, or as they are popularly called Bible Codes, are tables made from the text of the Torah, the Five Books of Moses, in which related words can be found in horizontal, vertical, or diagonal, orientation patterns. The words found in a table are called equidistant letter sequences. They are called equidistant letter sequences (ELS for short) because their letters come from the text, not necessarily letter after letter of the text, but with the same skip from letter to letter of the ELS. Different ELSs in the same table will in general have different skips. A table is actually a selected window on a cylinder of particular size around which are spiraled the letters of the Torah text, without spaces or punctuation marks. The Torah code tables on this website relate to major historical events or have relevance to concepts in Judaism and Kabbalah. Unless othersize stated, all Torah code tables on the website are produced with an objective and statistically valid methodology. There is one objective and statistically valid methodology by which a table can be judged as either something likely to happen by chance or as unlikely to happen by chance. That methodology is to perform a Monte Carlo experiment. To perform an experiment requires a protocol. The protocol specifies the list of key words to be used, the ELS skip specification, the criteria by which ELSs skips are considered to be resonant to a cylinder size, the measure of table compactness, and the control text population on which the experiment is done. The experiment estimates the fraction of texts in the control population that produce tables whose compactness is as good or better than that produced by the Torah text. This fraction is called the p-value of the experiment. When the p-value is small, it suggests that the table is unlikely to happen by chance. When the p-value is large, say greater than 1/100, it suggests that it is more likely that the table happens by chance. The Monte Carlo experiment estimates the fraction by sampling a large number of texts from the control population and by a fixed unchanging algorithm performs the search process, identically on each text, to construct a best table from each text. Because of the complexities of the letter dependencies in the text, the fraction of texts in the control population that produce as good or better tables than the Torah text must be estimated by the Monte Carlo experiment and cannot be estimated by any analytic method as is done in some commercially available software and as shown on some websites. None of these analytic methods produce a probability that corresponds to any Monte Carlo exerimental result. All the tables shown on this website use table area as the measure of compactness and the monkey text population is called the ELS random placement monkey text population. Technical explanations of Torah codes, how tables are formed, and the meaning of p-level can be found in the tutorial.

http://www.torahcode.us

Religion

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Medicine is the field of health and healing. It includes nurses, doctors, and various specialists. It covers diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of disease, medical research, and many other aspects of health. Medicine aims to promote and maintain health and wellbeing. Conventional modern medicine is sometimes called allopathic medicine. It involves the use of drugs or surgery, often supported by counseling and lifestyle measures. Modern medicine has many fields and aspects. Here are some of them. A clinician is a health worker who works directly with patients in a hospital or other healthcare setting. Nurses, doctors, psychotherapists, and other specialists are all clinicians. Not all medical specialists are clinicians. Researchers and laboratory workers are not clinicians because they do not work with patients. The physician assesses the individual, with the aim of diagnosing, treating, and preventing disease using knowledge learned from training, research, and experiences, and clinical judgment. This area of science seeks ways to prevent and treat diseases that lead to illness or death. Biomedical scientists use biotechnology techniques to study biological processes and diseases. They aim to develop successful treatments and cures. Biomedical research requires careful experimentation, development, and evaluation. It involves biologists, chemists, doctors, pharmacologists, and others. This field looks at drugs or medicines and how to use them. Doctors and other health professionals use medications in the medical diagnosis, treatment, cure, and prevention of disease. Surgical procedures are necessary for diagnosing and treating some types of disease, malfomation, and injury. They use instrumental and manual means rather than medication. A surgeon may carry out a surgical procedure to remove or replace diseased tissue or organs, or they may use surgery to remove tissue for biopsy. Sometimes, they remove unwanted tissue and then send it for diagnosis. Health professionals use a wide range of instruments to diagnose and treat a disease or other condition, to prevent a worsening of symptoms, to replace a damaged part — such as a hip or a knee — and so on. Medical devices range from test tubes to sophisticated scanning machines. Alternative and complementary medicine This includes any practice that aims to heal but is not part of conventional medicine. Techniques range widely. They include the use of herbs, manipulation of “channels” in the body, relaxation, and so on. Alternative and complementary do not have the same meaning: Alternative medicine: People use a different option from the conventional one, such as using relaxation measures to improve headaches, rather than pain relief medication. Complementary medicine: People add another treatment option to a main treatment. For example, they may use relaxation as well as pain relief medication for a headache. Alternative and complementary therapies are often based on traditional knowledge, rather than scientific evidence or clinical trials. Examples include homeopathy, acupuncture, ayurveda, naturopathic medicine, and traditional Chinese medicine. Researchers carry out investigations to find out which diseases are present, why they occur, what can treat or prevent them, what makes them more likely to happen, and many other aspects of health. Clinical trials are one aspect of clinical research. They aim to find out if a therapy — often a drug — is safe and effective to use when treating a specific condition. The most effective way to demonstrate the effectiveness of a drug or technique is to carry out a double-blind, random, long-term, large clinical human study. In this type of study, researchers compare the effect of a therapy or drug in with either a placebo, no treatment, or another therapy or drug. Counseling, cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), and other forms of “talking cure” can be helpful for people with conditions that affect their mental health, ranging from depression to stress to chronic pain. Physical and occupational therapy These treatments do not involve medication, although a person may use medication alongside them. Physical therapy can help improve strength and flexibility in people who have a condition that affects their musculoskeletal system. Occupational therapy can teach people new and better ways to do things physically. A person who has had a stroke, for example, may benefit from learning again how to walk, using techniques that perhaps they did not use before. Other fields of medicine include pharmacology and pharmacy, nursing, speech therapy, medical practice management, and many more. There are many branches in medicine. Here are some of them. Anatomy: This is the study of the physical structure of the body. Biochemistry: A biochemist studies chemical components and how they affect the body. Biomechanics: This focuses on the structure of biological systems in the body and how they work, using a mechanical approach. Biostatistics: Researchers apply statistics to biological fields. This is crucial for successful medical research and many areas of medical practice. Biophysics: This uses physics, mathematics, chemistry, and biology to model and understand the workings of biological systems. Cytology: This is a branch of pathology that involves the medical and scientific microscopic study of cells. Embryology: This branch of biology studies the formation, early growth, and development of organisms. Endocrinology: Scientists investigate hormones and their impact on the body. Epidemiology: Researchers track the causes, distribution, and control of diseases in populations. Genetics: This is the study of genes and their impact on health and the body. Histology: This involves looking at the form of structures under the microscope. It is also known as microscopic anatomy. Microbiology: This is the study of organisms that are too small to see with the naked eye, known as microorganisms. Aspects of microbiology include bacteriology, virology, mycology (the study of fungi), and parasitology. Neuroscience: Neuroscientists study the nervous system and the brain and investigate diseases of the nervous system. Aspects of neuroscience include computational modeling and psychophysics. Some types of neuroscience are cognitive neuroscience, cellular neuroscience, and molecular neuroscience. Nutrition: Nutritionists study how food and drink influence health, and how they can help treat, cure, and prevent different diseases and conditions. Pathology: This is the study of disease. A pathologist often works in a laboratory, where they do tests — usually on a sample of blood, urine, or body tissue — to help diagnose diseases and conditions. Pharmacology: This involves the study of pharmaceutical medications, or drugs, where they come from, how they work, how the body responds to them, and what they consist of. Radiology: Radiologists use X-rays and scanning equipment during the diagnostic procedure, and sometimes as part of treatment, too. Toxicology: A toxicologist studies poisons, what they are, what effects they have on the body, and how to detect them. These are not all the aspects and fields of medicine. Many people work in patient transportation, dentistry, not to mention the many different specialties that physicians can choose to follow, such as emergency medicine. For anyone who is considering medicine as a career, there are a wide variety of options. Qualifications, aptitude, and preference will make a particular field more attractive or suitable to an individual.

http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/info/medicine/

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Editor’s Note: Vital Signs is a monthly program bringing viewers health stories from around the world. Smell can reveal when someone is sick due to changes in their immune activity Body odor will vary depending on age, diet, sex, metabolism and health A person's smell escapes not just from their skin but their breath, blood and urine Did you know you have an “odorprint”? The smells pouring out from various parts of the body are unique to an individual, made up of select compounds that vary depending on age, diet, sex, metabolism … and health. “Some diseases result in a characteristic odor emanating from different sources on the body of a sick individual,” said Mats Olsson, an experimental psychologist at the Karolinska Institute in Sweden. A person’s smell escapes not just from their skin but their breath, blood and urine and subtle differences reveal just how healthy they are. “On average, people smell more aversive when they’re sick,” Olsson said. Diabetes? Smells like rotten apples Several diseases have been discovered to harbor signature scents on the body in recent studies, including people with typhoid fever reported to smell like baked bread, people with yellow fever smelling like a butcher’s shop and the glandular disease scrofula leaving people smelling like stale beer – subtle scents picked up most likely by a trained nose. A more common disease with a trademark odor is diabetes, which is described as having notes of rotten apples, caused by low concentrations of acetone released on the breath. The change is subtle, however, and more easily picked up by a trained nose, such as that of George Preti, an organic chemist at the Monell Chemical Senses Center. Preti has been studying body odor for more than 30 years.”I ride public transport a lot, and every now and then, I come across someone emanating a strong odor, and it’s obvious,” Preti said. Olsson’s team set out on a more general challenge: to explore how odors can reveal when someone is sick, or recently infected. The process is thought to be evolutionary among humans who sense the change and steer clear – to stay healthy. “People should be able to detect when someone is contagious,” said Olsson, who sniffed out the truth in a recent study. Smelling the sick The team injected human volunteers with lipopolysaccaharide, a compound known to activate the innate immune system and inflammatory responses in humans as if they were fighting bacteria. By injecting eight volunteers with either the compound or a placebo, bodies were made to behave either as if they were sick or healthy. Body odors were then collected from the armpits of t-shirts worn by volunteers, ready for inspection by a panel of judges whose noses were trained for the occasion. The odors were sniffed by a panel of 40, who described their intensity and pleasantness. The odors stemming from bodies that had begun to behave as if they were sick were found to smell more aversive, proving that disease smells. “This was the first experimental study to show that when you’re sick, you smell differently,” Olsson said. In this instance, the change in smells didn’t distinguish between diseases but was instead a warning light – or smell – that someone was unwell as their immune system was active. The benefits of disgust Since the study in 2014, Olsson has been exploring the doses at which these odors can be picked up as well as the body’s response to unpleasant smells. In more recent studies, he found that the disgust felt by people when smelling unpleasant odors activated a mild immune reaction of their own, to protect them further from disease. Olsson tested immune reactions in people exposed to a range disgusting smells – including cheese, fermented fish and rotten yeast – and found slight increases immune activity. People’s bodies were gearing up for attack. “Emotional disgust is there to keep us healthy,” Olsson said. Olsson has also been exploring other sources of telltale smells – including urine – and the team’s next target is breath, which is harder to sample and expose people to. “We saw this inflammation process affected the smell of urine as well, and breath is a good indicator of some diseases,” Olsson said. But Preti warns that when working with more metabolic odors, such as those in urine and breath, there are many other factors that come into play aside from immune activity. “These can be affected by your diet or you body’s microbiome. … This will make it harder to diagnose the situation,” Preti said.

https://edition-m.cnn.com/2016/01/20/health/the-smell-of-disease/index.html

Health

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Understanding Brain Tumours : Types, Symptoms, And Treatment Options Peter Lucas Neurosurgeon says the human brain, with its intricate network of billions of neurons, is one of the most complex and vital organs in the body. Unfortunately, like any other part of the body, the brain is susceptible to diseases, one of the most concerning being brain tumours. Dr Peter Geoffrey Lucas delves into the various types of brain tumours, their symptoms, and the diverse treatment options available. A tumour is an abnormal growth of cells within an anatomical structure of the body. Primary tumours arise from the structure they are within, while secondary tumours have generally migrated from elsewhere through the blood stream, lymphatics or localised migration. Dr Peter Geoffrey Lucas explains the tumours of the neurological system arise in the brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves and the structures surrounding these areas including muscle and bone. Brain tumours can be benign (noncancerous) or malignant (cancerous). Benign tumours do not spread to other parts of the body, but they can still cause problems by compression of neurological structures potentially causing significant symptoms eg Stroke-like signs or seizure. Primary malignant tumours of the brain tend to migrate within the brain itself and not to structures elsewhere in the body. However secondary malignant tumours arising elsewhere in the body can migrate to the brain readily, I. Types Of Brain Tumours Brain tumours are broadly categorized into two types: benign and malignant. Benign Brain Tumours: These are non-cancerous growths that do not invade nearby tissues. They usually have a defined border and are slow growing or may even stop growing for extended periods of time. Common benign brain tumours include meningiomas, pituitary adenomas, and acoustic neuromas. Malignant Brain Tumours: Malignant or cancerous brain tumours can be aggressive, grow rapidly and often invading surrounding brain tissue. They can originate in the brain (primary) or spread from cancer elsewhere in the body (secondary). Examples of primary malignant brain tumours include glioma with the most aggressive known as Glioblastoma Multiforme. Examples of common secondary brain tumours are those arising from lung, breast, skin and colon.

https://medium.com/@dpeterlucasneurosurgeon/understanding-brain-tumours-types-symptoms-and-treatment-options-05ea25e7d7c6

Health

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What is Mathematics? Mathematics is the study of structure, order, and relationships. Over time, the fundamental techniques of counting, measuring, and describing the shape of objects have evolved. It studies quantity, structure, space, and change. By rigorous deduction from appropriately chosen axioms and definitions, mathematics involves finding patterns, formulating conjectures, and establishing truth. The entities that are stipulated with certain properties called axioms include arithmetic, geometry, algebra, number theory, formulas, formulas, calculus, proofs, and abstractions from nature. A mathematical proof consists of a succession of applications of rules that have already been proven, as well as some basic properties that are considered to be the true starting points of the theory. Mathematics comes from the Greek word “Mathema” which means measure, ratio, and knowledge. Ancient Greek mathematicians introduced mathematics to the world. Several topics from various parts of the world were contributed by mathematicians at the same time. Nobody is credited with inventing mathematics. Archimedes is famous for being a Greek mathematician who is regarded as the father of mathematics. He is considered the Father of Mathematics for his significant contribution to the development of mathematics. Notable inventions of Archimedes are His method to find the circumference of the circle by using the method of exhaustion to find the area of the circle and his use of the formula πr2 (the famous pi or pi) to calculate the area of the circle. Mathematics has been part of the physical sciences for hundreds of years. Quantitative aspects of the life sciences have been assumed by it. The history of mathematics deals with the beginnings of mathematical methods and how they were used in the past. The Egyptians did mathematics before the modern age, and the spread of knowledge, in this version. The examples of their new mathematical developments were written down in a few places. The importance of citations is very important in mathematics and statistics. The basis for referencing mathematical research can be provided by them. When presenting the results of a mathematician’s own publication, it is customary to cite the original work of that mathematician. For purposes of taxation, commerce, and trade and also to record time and formulate calendars, the states of Mesopotamia, Akkad, and Assyria, as well as Ancient Egypt and the Levantine state of Ebla, began using arithmetic, algebra, and geometry from 3000 BC. The history of Mesopotamian and Egyptian mathematics is based on the original documents written by the scribe. Although there are very few documents left in Egypt, these are all of a type and leave no doubt that Egyptian mathematics was, on the whole, elementary and profoundly practical in its orientation. Mesopotamian mathematics was much more advanced than Egyptian mathematics. It had a combination of both writing and math, and it had a large number of clay tablets, which showed the mathematical achievements of a much higher order than those of the Egyptians. The oldest copies of the Greek mathematical documents are in Byzantine manuscripts dating from the 10th century, and from the period before Alexander the Great, no Greek mathematical documents have been preserved except for fragmentary paraphrases. This is completely different from the situation described in Egyptian and Babylonian documents. The invention of printing has solved the problem of obtaining secure texts and has allowed historians of mathematics to concentrate their editorial efforts on the correspondence or the unpublished works of mathematicians. Historians can only treat the major figures in detail for the period from the 19th century on, because of the exponential growth of mathematics. There is a problem of perspective when the period gets closer to the present. The birth of mathematics was thought to have occurred among the ancient Greeks until the 1920s. What was known of earlier traditions, such as the Egyptian as represented by the Rhind papyrus (edited for the first time only in 1877). Mathematics has long been recognized as an essential and indispensable field of study. As it has a wide range of applications in diverse fields such as science, engineering, economics, and art. Its significance has been acknowledged by numerous prominent scientists throughout history. Here are some views on the importance of mathematics, from Bertrand Russell’s famously skeptical quote to Gauss’s declaration that arithmetic is the queen of all mathematics. - “The subject in which we never know what we are talking about, nor whether what we are saying is true”. (Betrand Russell-1901) - “Mathematics is the queen of sciences and Arithmetic is the queen of all mathematics”. (Gauss) - “Mathematics is an indispensable instrument of all physical research”. (Kant) - “Mathematics is the gateway and key to all sciences”. (Bacon) - “Mathematics is the language of physical sciences and certainly, no more marvelous language was created by the mind of man”. (Lindsay) - “Mathematics is a way to settle in the mind a habit of reasoning”. (Locke) - “Mathematics is engaged, in fact, in the profound study of Art and the expression of beauty”. (j.B.Shaw). Branches of Mathematics Mathematics can be broadly grouped into the following branches: Arithmetic is the branch of mathematics that deals with the study of numbers using various operations on them. Arithmetic is about adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing. For the sake of simplicity, we will denote these operations by the given symbols. The branch of mathematics that helps in the representation of problems or situations in terms of mathematical expressions is called Algebra. Adding, subtracting, multiplication and division are some of the mathematical operations that involve variables, x, y, and Z. The use of the branches of mathematics such as trigonometry, calculus, coordinate geometry, and so on is referred to as Algebra. Here’s a very simple example of an equation: (3x) x (2x) = 12 Geometry is a branch of mathematics that deals with the shapes and sizes of things. It also studies how shapes fit together and how things relate to other things. It is the most practical branch of mathematics. The basic elements of geometry are points, lines, angles, surfaces, and solids. The study of angles and their applications to calculations is referred to as trigonometric. It’s also referred to as the geometry of angles. The three basic functions in trigonometry are sine, cosine, and tangent. The other three functions that are cotangent, Secant, and Co Secant are derived from those three functions. These functions are the basis for all trigonometric concepts. Calculus is the branch of mathematics that deals with instantaneous rates of change. In the 17th century, two mathematicians, one from England and the other from Germany, created calculus. Scope of Mathematics There are lots of options for a career in mathematics. Many fields are related to social sciences, medicine, engineering, and natural science. Business problems, scientific problems, and economic problems are some of the things mathematics is used for. Here are some career opportunities a mathematician can pursue in: - Data Analyst / Business Analyst - Chartered Accountant - Investment Banker - Data Scientist - Programmer/ Software Engineer/ Blockchain Developer Studying mathematics can be highly beneficial for our mental development, as it fosters discipline and logical reasoning skills. Moreover, possessing mathematical knowledge is essential for comprehending various other academic subjects, including science, social studies, and even the arts. By delving into mathematics, we can enjoy a range of advantages that positively impact our minds. These include the cultivation of analytical thinking, the acceleration of mental processes, the enhancement of practical problem-solving skills, and the applicability of mathematical principles to everyday life. It’s worth noting that mathematics is a ubiquitous presence in our daily routines. - Mathematics plays a fundamental role in bringing order to our daily lives. It nurtures essential qualities such as reasoning, creativity, abstract or spatial thinking, critical thinking, problem-solving ability, and effective communication skills in those who study it. - By helping us comprehend the world around us, mathematics serves as a powerful tool for cultivating mental discipline. - Mathematics teaches you how to approach problems with logic and reason, fostering your problem-solving abilities, creativity, abstract thinking, and communication skills. - Mathematical literacy is an essential attribute for leading a successful life. It encompasses fundamental skills such as computational proficiency, quantitative reasoning, spatial ability, and more. - In marketing, quantitative analysis is a valuable tool. It enables us to discern patterns, forecast trends, and quantify relationships. Math helps us interpret the world around us and uncover interconnections that exist between things, demonstrating how one element is linked to another. - Mathematics is a versatile discipline utilized in numerous fields and industries, including science, engineering, and economics. It plays a critical role in resolving issues and understanding intricate concepts. Applications Of Math In Different Fields Mathematics plays an important role in every field of life. Here are some applications of mathematics: Math In Environmental Science In environmental science, math plays a crucial role in tasks ranging from counting the number of species in an ecosystem to solving complex chemistry and physics equations related to energy production. Environmental science majors take courses in biology, chemistry, geology, and math. Upper-level courses build on this foundation and apply the knowledge to solve current environmental problems by synthesizing and integrating basic sciences. Math In Medicine Mathematics is essential in healthcare. It assists in determining the effectiveness of treatments and medication, evaluating disease spread, and prescribing the correct dosage to patients. Probability and statistics play a significant role in validating new drugs, while statistical graphs help to illustrate treatment success rates and other significant data points. Math In Technology Mathematics technology includes tools like graphing calculators, spreadsheets, and software designed for math. These tools help scientists and engineers organize and structure their knowledge to create systematic, reproducible, and transmittable knowledge. Math In Nature Mathematics plays a significant role in genetics and evolution, enabling us to comprehend the changes and variations in population size and physical characteristics through mathematical models. Nature presents numerous examples of mathematical concepts, such as symmetry, which is observed in the six-fold radial symmetry of a snowflake. Math In Daily Life Mathematics is the universal language that helps us understand patterns, define relationships, and predict the future. Banking and financial services rely on math for accuracy in managing money and calculating bills and financial obligations. Cell phone technology requires basic math skills for phone operations and functions. Computer science relies heavily on mathematics for data entry, computer operation, and software development. Technological innovation, such as the Internet, is developed with the help of mathematics. Math is widely used in animation design, architecture, sports, population geography, astronomy, music, painting, fashion designing, home decoration, and in the kitchen. Topic Wise Mathematics Articles Basics of Mathematics Difference Between In Math Fundamentals of Trigonometry HCF & LCM Permutation Combination and Probability Set Function & Group Examples in Math The study of mathematics involves the application of logic and reasoning to abstract concepts and models. Mathematics is the art of problem-solving. Mathematics is the science of patterns and relationships Mathematics is the science of logical shape, quantity, and arrangement. It is everywhere in our lives, from mobile devices and computers to software and architecture (both ancient and modern). Math even underpins art, money, engineering, and sports. The Father of Math is the one and only Archimedes – a great Greek mathematician and philosopher. The definition of mathematics is the branch of science that deals with the study of numbers, shapes, and their relationships. An example of mathematics is arithmetic, the study of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. How many types of math are there? There are different types of mathematics Mathematics in the Modern World is a course designed to give students a better understanding of the field of mathematics and how it’s being used in the real world. In the modern world, Mathematics is not just a boring subject you have to take to graduate high school. It can be a lot of fun, especially when it comes to writing copy that gets people excited! While you don’t necessarily have to hire a professional copywriter to do this for you, learning the best practices will give anyone an advantage over competitors! There are many benefits to studying mathematics, including enhancing analytical and problem-solving skills, fostering systematic and logical thinking, and broadening the mind to handle unfamiliar tasks with confidence.

https://eduinput.com/introduction-to-mathematics/

Education

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An enormous asteroid—big enough to leave a six-mile-wide crater and darken the world with dust if it hit Earth—will harmlessly zip by our planet on April 29. The object, called 1998 OR2, is at least a mile wide, and while it poses no threat, it will pass within four million miles of our planet—close enough to be classified by NASA as “potentially hazardous,” because it will continue to make close passes to Earth in the future as both objects orbit the sun. “It’s just a whopping big asteroid,” says Amy Mainzer of the University of Arizona, one of the planet’s leading scientists in asteroid detection and planetary defense. “It’s smaller than the thing thought to have caused the extinction of the dinosaurs, but it is easily capable of causing a lot of damage.” An asteroid passing relatively close to Earth is more common than most people realize. Every year, dozens of asteroids that are big enough to cause regional devastation pass within five million miles of Earth—the cutoff for potentially hazardous asteroids. On average, one or two space rocks large enough to cataclysmically impact a continent pass by each year. Earth will almost certainly confront a space rock large enough to obliterate a city, or worse, at some point in its future. If humans are still around when that day comes, it would be prudent to have a plan for protecting the planet. That’s why NASA is launching a spacecraft next year to conduct the first test of one promising strategy for stopping a killer asteroid: Hit it while it’s still far enough way to alter its course. The Double Asteroid Redirection Test (DART) will slam a spacecraft into the smaller of two asteroids orbiting each other. Any change in the smaller object’s orbit will be easy to measure from Earth and will provide a good indicator of whether it has been successfully deflected. “It’s an exciting time,” says Ed Lu, a retired NASA astronaut and founder of the B612 Foundation, a nonprofit devoted to asteroid detection and deflection. “I think DART’s going to be a tremendous demonstration.” The crowded solar system The first step to stopping a killer asteroid is finding it. “There are literally hundreds of thousands of asteroids out there, and we want to separate out those we should keep a closer watch on and monitor over time,” says Lindley Johnson, NASA’s planetary defense officer. So far, he says, there are 2,078 potentially hazardous asteroids in the catalog. Traveling at nearly 20,000 miles an hour, 1998 OR2 will pass within four million miles of our planet this week, or roughly 16 times farther than the moon. While this distance is no cause for concern, 1998 OR2 will continue on its 3.7-year orbit around the sun, venturing into the asteroid belt beyond Mars and circling back inside Earth’s orbit with each lap. On its next approach to our planet in 2078, it will be much closer, swinging within about a million miles of Earth. After a few hundred years, astronomers can’t calculate exactly where 1998 OR2 will be. NASA classifies anything over 140 meters (about 459 feet) wide that passes within five million miles of Earth as a potentially hazardous asteroid. “Five million miles comes from how much orbits can change over time, and a little bit of a margin put on it, of course, to be sure that we capture anything that might be a potential impact hazard in the future,” Johnson says. In just seven years, another huge asteroid called 1990 MU, nearly two miles wide, will pass within three million miles of Earth. “We don’t want to get hit by something that big,” Johnson says. “Our most important task is finding them and getting a fuller catalog of everything that’s out there, so we don’t get surprised.” In 1998, the U.S. Congress directed NASA to detect and characterize at least 90 percent of potentially hazardous asteroids measuring one kilometer (about 3,200 feet) across or larger. Seven years later, the space agency was directed to find 90 percent of nearby asteroids that are 500 feet wide or larger. The bigger asteroids, including 1998 OR2 and 1990 MU, could devastate life across the planet if they hit. “It is estimated that asteroids of one kilometer or more would result in continent-wide devastation, and the dust injected into the atmosphere would cause drastic cooling and the possibility of global crop failures for at least a few years,” says Jay Melosh, a geophysicist at Purdue University. We’ve found roughly 900 of these larger objects, or 95 percent of the estimated total population. None are even remotely likely to hit the planet in the next several centuries. But of the smaller group, which could still destroy cities, we’ve only detected roughly 30 percent of the estimated 25,000 objects, according to a report from the National Science and Technology Council. “These smaller ones—the sub-global sizes that are capable of causing regional problems—we still have a lot of work to do,” Mainzer says. “Searching for these gray or black rocks against the blackness of space—it’s just a hard problem.” Even space rocks smaller than 500 feet wide can be extremely dangerous. Some meteors explode in the sky with the strength of nuclear bombs, such as one that burst over Chelyabinsk, Russia, in 2013. At only 66 feet wide, this fireball meteor caused a shock wave that hit the city, shattering glass and resulting in about 1,500 injuries. No one saw it coming. Hit it with DART When it comes to stopping an asteroid from colliding with Earth, warning time is the name of the game. With years or even decades to prepare, humans could nudge even the largest asteroids off course. NASA’s DART mission, scheduled for launch in July 2021, will test one strategy by slamming a half-ton spacecraft built by the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory (APL) into an approaching asteroid. In October 2022, about seven million miles from Earth, the refrigerator-size spacecraft will approach a half-mile-wide asteroid called Didymos, which is orbited by a 500-foot-wide moon. “Didymoon,” as the smaller body is affectionately called, is DART’s target. It’s roughly the size of asteroids that can obliterate cities. Ground-based telescopes will be able to detect changes in the duration of its orbit around the larger asteroid to measure the effects of the impact. “If it wasn’t a binary, it would be basically impossible to measure with high precision,” says Megan Bruck Syal of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, who uses a mix of lab tests and supercomputers to model asteroid impacts. ”This is a remarkable opportunity to test the effectiveness of the kinetic impactor technology on a real asteroid.” Shortly before DART smashes into Didymoon at roughly 14,700 miles an hour, the spacecraft will release a shoebox-size camera made by the Italian Space Agency. The camera will watch as the spacecraft smashes into Didymoon, taking pictures of the spray of debris and perhaps even of the resulting crater. Johnson says he expects the collision could decrease the moon’s 12-hour orbit by as much as seven minutes, although the team will consider the mission a success if that change is at least 70 seconds. “By changing the orbit of the moon, we don’t change the orbit of [Didymos],” Johnson says. “Didymos is a potentially hazardous asteroid, so we don’t really want to affect its orbit. We don’t want to accidentally push it the wrong direction.” Another spacecraft called Hera, built by the European Space Agency (ESA), will arrive at the two asteroids in 2026 to take detailed measurements of the impact’s aftermath, as well as test autonomous navigation technologies. Although a “kinetic impactor” strategy is well understood, a number of variables control whether the impact would successfully deflect an asteroid, Syal says. The target body’s composition, strength and structure, how much material is ejected by the impact, and the angle at which the spacecraft comes in are all important factors. “A ricochet would be a really poor outcome, meaning a lot of the momentum is lost,” Syal says. Kinetic impactors might successfully redirect an asteroid as small as Didymoon, but what about 1998 OR2? If something that big were on a collision course with Earth, we’d need a bigger strategy, Lu says—such as detonating a nuclear bomb near the asteroid to vaporize part of its surface and push it off course. A nuclear explosion on the asteroid surface itself would risk creating a shotgun blast of fragments still heading for Earth. Mainzer, who is leading an effort to launch a space telescope dedicated to finding dangerous asteroids, says the most optimal deflection strategy depends both on the incoming object and on how much time we have before impact. To know what will work, we need to practice. “We see this with climate change, this pandemic, even this [planetary defense] problem—a small amount of preparation makes a big difference,” Mainzer says.

https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/giant-asteroid-nasa-dart-deflection

Politics

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In the annals of Islamic history, few periods rival the splendor and sophistication of the Abbasid Caliphate's Golden Age, a remarkable era that spanned from 750 to 1258 CE. Amidst the rise and fall of empires, the Abbasid Caliphate emerged as a beacon of enlightenment, fostering a flourishing of Islamic civilization that left an indelible mark on the world stage. Join me as we embark on a journey to explore the magnificence of the Abbasid Golden Age, from the founding of Baghdad as its capital to the remarkable contributions of scholars, scientists, and artists in art, literature, science, and philosophy. The Founding of Baghdad: In 762 CE, the Abbasid Caliph Al-Mansur laid the foundation for a new capital that would become the epicenter of Islamic civilization: Baghdad. Strategically situated along the Tigris River, Baghdad soon emerged as a bustling metropolis and a vibrant center of commerce, culture, and learning. Its grand mosques, opulent palaces, and bustling markets epitomized the prosperity and cosmopolitanism of the Abbasid Empire, attracting scholars, traders, and artisans from across the Islamic world and beyond. The Flourishing of Islamic Civilization: Under the patronage of Abbasid caliphs, Islamic civilization experienced a golden age of unprecedented intellectual, artistic, and scientific achievement. Baghdad became a melting pot of cultures and ideas, where scholars and thinkers from diverse backgrounds converged to exchange knowledge and foster innovation. The translation movement, initiated by caliphs such as Al-Ma'mun, facilitated the transfer of Greek, Persian, and Indian knowledge into Arabic, laying the groundwork for advancements in various fields. Contributions of Scholars, Scientists, and Artists: The Abbasid Golden Age witnessed a renaissance of scholarship and creativity that reverberated across disciplines. In medicine, scholars like Ibn Sina (Avicenna) revolutionized medical practice with his Canon of Medicine, while mathematicians like Al-Khwarizmi pioneered algebra and introduced the decimal system to the Islamic world. Meanwhile, poets like Al-Mutanabbi and philosophers like Al-Kindi enriched Arabic literature and philosophical discourse, leaving an enduring legacy that continues to inspire to this day. Advancements in Art, Literature, Science, and Philosophy: The Abbasid Golden Age was characterized by a flowering of artistic expression, literary creativity, scientific inquiry, and philosophical discourse. Islamic architecture reached new heights of sophistication with the construction of iconic structures such as the Great Mosque of Samarra and the Alhambra Palace. Literary masterpieces like One Thousand and One Nights captivated audiences with their tales of adventure and romance, while astronomers like Al-Battani made groundbreaking discoveries about the cosmos. The Golden Age of the Abbasid Caliphate stands as a testament to the transformative power of human ingenuity, curiosity, and collaboration. Through the patronage of enlightened rulers and the tireless efforts of scholars, scientists, and artists, Islamic civilization reached unparalleled heights of achievement and left an enduring legacy of innovation and enlightenment. As we reflect on the magnificence of the Abbasid Golden Age, let us draw inspiration from its spirit of inquiry and cultural exchange, and strive to build a future guided by the values of knowledge, creativity, and pluralism. Post a Comment

https://www.alalamychronicles.com.ng/2024/04/the-glorious-epoch-exploring-golden-age.html

Religion

en

In a joint effort to fight substance abuse, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) and the National Drug Law Enforcement Agency (NDLEA) held a major conference in Abuja. Key government officials and experts gathered to discuss effective ways to reduce drug abuse among Nigerian youths. NDLEA Chairman Brigadier General Mohammed Buba Marwa called for more investment in prevention and early detection. He introduced the Drug Integrity Test initiative, which aims to create an anti-drug culture in Nigeria. This initiative targets students, workers, and prospective couples, promoting early intervention and rehabilitation. Dr. Oliver Stolpe, outgoing UNODC Country Representative, emphasized the importance of using proven prevention programs and involving the community in the fight against drug abuse. The event also highlighted the importance of grassroots efforts and tailored programs to meet specific community needs. Local involvement is seen as key to achieving lasting success in reducing substance abuse in Nigeria. What is drug abuse? Drug abuse refers to the misuse of substances, including alcohol, prescription medications, and illegal drugs, in a manner that is harmful to the user’s health, well-being, and ability to function in daily life. This phenomenon is not confined to any particular demographic; it spans all ages, races, and socioeconomic statuses, making it a universal challenge that demands attention and action. What Constitutes Drug Abuse? Drug abuse occurs when a person consumes a substance in amounts or by methods that are harmful to themselves or others. This can involve using legal substances, such as alcohol or prescription medications, in ways not intended by the prescribing doctor, or using illegal drugs like cocaine, heroin, or methamphetamine. The key characteristic of drug abuse is that the substance use leads to adverse consequences in various areas of life, including health, work, and relationships. The Physiological and Psychological Impact The effects of drug abuse can be devastating and far-reaching. Physiologically, drug abuse can lead to a wide range of health issues, from liver damage and cardiovascular problems to neurological impairments and overdose, which can be fatal. Psychologically, drug abuse is often linked with mental health disorders such as depression, anxiety, and psychosis. The interplay between mental health and substance abuse creates a vicious cycle, where each condition exacerbates the other, making recovery more challenging. The impact of drug abuse extends beyond the individual, affecting families, communities, and society at large. Families of drug users often experience emotional and financial stress, and children in these environments may suffer from neglect or abuse. Communities see increased crime rates, as individuals may turn to illegal activities to fund their addiction. The healthcare system is also burdened by the need for emergency care, treatment programs, and long-term rehabilitation services. The Root Causes of Drug Abuse Several factors contribute to the likelihood of someone developing a substance abuse problem: 1. Genetics: Studies suggest that genetics can play a significant role in a person’s susceptibility to addiction. Those with a family history of substance abuse are at higher risk. 2. Environment: Socioeconomic status, peer pressure, and exposure to drugs at an early age can significantly influence the likelihood of drug abuse. 3. Mental Health: Individuals with mental health disorders often turn to substances as a form of self-medication, which can quickly escalate into abuse. 4. Trauma: Past trauma, including physical, emotional, or sexual abuse, can lead individuals to use substances as a coping mechanism. Combatting Drug Abuse Addressing drug abuse requires a multifaceted approach that includes prevention, education, and treatment. Prevention: Effective prevention strategies involve educating young people about the dangers of drug use, promoting healthy lifestyles, and providing support systems that discourage substance abuse. Community-based programs and school initiatives play a crucial role in prevention. Treatment: For those already struggling with substance abuse, a combination of medical and psychological interventions is often necessary. Treatment programs may include detoxification, counseling, behavioral therapy, and medication-assisted treatment. Support groups and aftercare programs are also vital for maintaining long-term sobriety. Policy and Advocacy: Governments and organizations worldwide are implementing policies and programs to combat drug abuse. These include stricter regulations on prescription medications, improved access to treatment facilities, and campaigns to reduce the stigma associated with addiction.

https://crispng.com/what-is-drug-abuse-unodc-ndlea-intensify-action-as-nigeria-battles-substance-abuse/

Health

en

Precursor To The Mark? A 'Vaccination Mark' Under The Skin Now Being Developed By Michael Snyder/End of the American DreamDecember 09, 2020 Share this article: Researchers have found a way to leave a "mark" under the skin that will enable medical authorities to know whether someone has been vaccinated or not. This "mark" is created using a specialized dye that is not visible to the naked eye, and the dye is delivered under the skin as part of the vaccination process. If that sounds quite creepy to you, that is because it is very creepy. Scientists at MIT wanted to create an easy method for keeping track of vaccinations in parts of the world where electronic databases are not commonly used, and what they came up with is extremely alarming... MIT researchers have now developed a novel way to record a patient's vaccination history: storing the data in a pattern of dye, invisible to the naked eye, that is delivered under the skin at the same time as the vaccine. "In areas where paper vaccination cards are often lost or do not exist at all, and electronic databases are unheard of, this technology could enable the rapid and anonymous detection of patient vaccination history to ensure that every child is vaccinated," says Kevin McHugh, a former MIT postdoc who is now an assistant professor of bioengineering at Rice University. Unsurprisingly, the MIT article announcing this discovery stated that this research had been funded "by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and the Koch Institute Support (core) Grant from the National Cancer Institute". In order to see the "mark" that has been left behind by the specialized dye, authorities will need a "specially equipped smartphone", and we are being told that the "mark" can be read for at least five years after the initial injection... The researchers showed that their dye, which consists of nanocrystals called quantum dots, can remain for at least five years under the skin, where it emits near-IR light that can be detected by a specially equipped smartphone. As you read this article, you may be envisioning a long needle as the delivery system, but that is not the case. The scientists involved in this research intend for a "microneedle patch" to deliver the vaccine and the dye at the same time... The researchers designed their dye to be delivered by a microneedle patch rather than a traditional syringe and needle. Such patches are now being developed to deliver vaccines for measles, rubella, and other diseases, and the researchers showed that their dye could be easily incorporated into these patches. We are being told that the "microneedles" on each patch would consist of a mixture that includes dissolvable sugar, and once applied to human skin they would "partially dissolve"... The microneedles are made from a mixture of dissolvable sugar and a polymer called PVA as well as the quantum-dot dye and the vaccine. When the patch is applied to the skin, the microneedles -- which are 1.5 millimeters long -- partially dissolve, releasing their payload within about two minutes. By selectively loading microparticles into microneedles, the patches deliver a pattern in the skin that is invisible to the naked eye but can be scanned with a smartphone that has the infrared filter removed. To many, this invention may sound like a much less painful method to deliver vaccines and a great way to keep track of who has been vaccinated. But for many others, this sort of technology is a giant move in the wrong direction. In addition to being a gross violation of our privacy rights, many are concerned that we could eventually be approaching the days warned about in Revelation chapter 13... 16 And he causeth all, both small and great, rich and poor, free and bond, to receive a mark in their right hand, or in their foreheads: 17 And that no man might buy or sell, save he that had the mark, or the name of the beast, or the number of his name. 18 Here is wisdom. Let him that hath understanding count the number of the beast: for it is the number of a man; and his number is Six hundred threescore and six. According to the Bible, someday people will not be able to perform basic day to day activities without the Mark of the Beast. And even now, we are being warned that those that do not take a COVID vaccine may not be able to live normal lives. Just consider what Ontario's Chief Medical Officer Dr. David Williams just said... "What we can do is to say sometimes for access or ease of getting into certain settings, if you don't have vaccination then you're not allowed into that setting without other protection materials," said Williams. "What may be mandatory is proof of...vaccination in order to have latitude and freedom to move around...without wearing other types of personal protective equipment," he added. We are going to need proof that we have been vaccinated "in order to have latitude and freedom to move around"? I don't like the sound of that at all. Will we eventually get to a point where we are not allowed to go to work and our kids are not allowed to go to school without a COVID vaccine? And could such restrictions foreshadow a day when an even more sinister scheme appears on the global stage? These are such unusual times, and right now a war for our minds is going on. If we do not stand up and object to the increasingly oppressive restrictions that are being instituted now, what will we do when even more draconian measures are instituted during the years ahead? Originally published at End Of The American Dream - reposted with permission.

https://www.prophecynewswatch.com/article.cfm?recent_news_id=4452

Religion

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The Biblical figure Isaiah who prophesied the coming of the Messiah may have been an actual real person. Researchers have found an ancient clay seal from around the time he was reportedly alive, marked with his name. Called a bulla, the seal was retrieved from a 2,700-year-old midden in the Ophel, dating it to around 8th century BCE, and it's inscribed with the Jewish prophet's name. It was found just 3 metres from where the bulla of King Hezekiah of Judah, to which Isaiah was an adviser, was found in 2015. "We appear to have discovered a seal impression, which may have belonged to the prophet Isaiah, in a scientific, archaeological excavation," said lead author Eilat Mazar of the Hebrew University in Jerusalem. "If it is the case that this bulla is indeed that of the prophet Isaiah, then it should not come as a surprise to discover this bulla next to one bearing King Hezekiah's name given the symbiotic relationship of the prophet Isaiah and King Hezekiah described in the Bible." The bulla, sadly broken, is about a centimetre (0.4 inches) in diameter, stamped with the name Yesha'yah[u] (Isaiah) in Hebrew letters. Following it were the letters NVY, which are the first three letters of the Hebrew word for prophet, which is spelled nun-beit-yod-aleph. Whether or not the aleph was present is impossible to determine, since the bulla is broken after the yod. But if it had been, the seal would have read, in its entirety, "Isaiah the Prophet." "The absence of this final letter … requires that we leave open the possibility that it could just be the name Navi," Mazar said. "The name of Isaiah, however, is clear." The seal could have belonged to some other Isaiah hanging around at the time, since the name was a common one, and bullae commonly reference the signatory's father. Isaiah's father was not Navi, but Amoz. However, if the bulla does refer to Isaiah the Prophet, it would constitute the first evidence for his existence outside of religious texts, including the Bible, where his exploits are described in the Book of Isaiah. The authorship of the Book is unclear, but he seemed to be very close to King Hezekiah, who ruled between around 727 and 698 BCE. It was Isaiah, according to the Bible, who advised Hezekiah to resist the warring Assyrians, preventing the invasion of Jerusalem by way of divine intervention. Although the bulla can't constitute definitive proof that Isaiah existed, it's still an extraordinary find, Mazar said. Its proximity to the bulla of Hezekiah and the fact that only persons of status used bullae at least opens the very plausible possibility that the seal belonged to the Biblical Isaiah. Also, fascinatingly, on the reverse side is the imprint of weave, indicating that the seal had been used to close a cloth package - and it's marked by the fingerprint, likely from the person who sealed the package. Perhaps this was Isaiah himself. "The discovery of the royal structures and finds from the time of King Hezekiah at the Ophel is a rare opportunity to reveal vividly this specific time in the history of Jerusalem," Mazar wrote in her paper. "The finds lead us to an almost personal 'encounter' with some of the key players who took part in the life of the Ophel's Royal Quarter, including King Hezekiah and, perhaps, also the prophet Isaiah." The paper has been published in the journal Biblical Archaeology Review.

https://www.sciencealert.com/biblical-prophet-isaiah-clay-bulla-seal-found-jerusalem-8-bce

Religion

en

Although the intelligence quotient (IQ) is the most popular intelligence test in the world, little is known about the underlying biological mechanisms that lead to the differences in human. To improve our understanding of cognitive processes and identify potential biomarkers, we conducted a comprehensive investigation of 158 IQ-related genes selected from the literature. A genomic distribution analysis demonstrated that IQ-related genes were enriched in seven regions of chromosome 7 and the X chromosome. In addition, these genes were enriched in target lists of seven transcription factors and sixteen microRNAs. Using a network-based approach, we further reconstructed an IQ-related pathway from known human pathway interaction data. Based on this reconstructed pathway, we incorporated enriched drugs and described the importance of dopamine and norepinephrine systems in IQ-related biological process. These findings not only reveal several testable genes and processes related to IQ scores, but also have potential therapeutic implications for IQ-related mental disorders. Similar content being viewed by others Each human individual differs from others in his complex intelligent capability to think and reason abstractly, remember and learn from experience, solve problems effectively to adapt to the environment and communicate by exchanging thought1. It is reported that the interaction of genetic and environmental factors are significantly correlated with human intelligence. A study of twins with highly educated parents showed that genetics accounts for 56% of the variability in reading scores and the shared environment accounts for 12%2. While this study is evidence for highly heritable human intelligence, it is single gene-centric and these studies are typically not consistent across different occasions, different domains and different criteria. Moreover, many studies of candidate genes for human intelligence cannot be successfully replicated between studies and populations3. In addition, single gene-centric studies cannot present the complexity of cellular interactions and pathways regulating neurons in cognitive processes, which often change according to various spatial, temporal and environmental factors in the cell. Therefore, single gene-centric studies might also ignore the blueprint of molecules involved in complex cognitive activities, for instance, those genes that express differently due to a single mutation may not be detected, or those genes with lethal effects may be overlooked before those effects appear. The Intelligence Quotient (IQ) test is one of the most widely used phenotypes to measure human intelligence4. As a quantitative trait, the heritability associated with a single gene responsible for a small effect on observed IQ score appears mixed3,5,6. Systematic collection and analysis of genetic predisposition information with single gene-centric evidence might provide a clearer biological picture for IQ and intelligence. Our previous literature-based collection and expansion of genes involved in IQ scores present an overview for the genetic basis associated with IQ7. Pathway analysis reveals that the gene content associated with IQ score is often related to numerous diseases, such as schizophrenia, autism, depression and breast cancer7,8,9,10. The goal of network biology is to clarify the mechanisms ruling the cellular systems and to create testable hypotheses, which can be used to predict the possible outputs of various perturbations and help to identify therapeutic and diagnostic molecules11. To address high genetic heterogeneities of intelligence and understand biological mechanisms for cognition regardless of environmental factors, we adopted a systems biology-based approach to connect the IQ-related genes with literature evidence. We not only found the genomic distribution, but also reconstructed a connected pathway map for IQ-related genes. Based on the hub nodes in the constructed map, we expanded the protein-coding based network to a protein-drug interaction network to generate potential and highly enriched drugs for the genes in our reconstructed IQ pathway. IQ-related genes are enriched in multiple regions of chromosomes 7 and X To address the genetic complexity of IQ score, we developed IQdb (http://IQdb.cbi.pku.edu.cn), a publicly available database for exploring IQ-associated human genes7. In IQdb, 158 experimentally verified genes from the literature serve as the core dataset, among which approximately 16% of the IQ-related genes are located on X chromosome. It is reported that only 3.4% of all human genes belong to X chromosome12. The obvious contrast may indicate that the IQ-related genes are over-represented on X chromosome. To clarify in more detailed which genomic regions contain greater numbers of IQ-related genes, we adopted a hypergeometric test based on the gene content of each cytoband on the human genome. The further enrichment analysis identified 10 genomic regions with significantly larger amount of IQ-related genes. Among 10 regions, 4 belong to X chromosome, including Xp, Xq, Xq28 and Xp11. A previous gene expression study showed that the genes on X chromosome are more likely to express in brain regions and reproductive tissues13. Our results may be consistent with the idea that genes on X chromosome may be associated with the quantitative IQ score12. Since X chromosome is important to sexual differentiation, the enrichment of IQ-related genes on X chromosome may provide an incentive to explore differences in the IQ scores between the sexes14,15. Previous studies have identified 46 genomic regions involved in IQ using a linkage approach7. Though none of these regions are located on X chromosome, six of them are from chromosome 7 in humans (13.04%). Among the ten genomic regions with enriched IQ-related genes, six are not on X chromosome, including 7q, 7q11, 7q31, 8p12, 15q14, and17p13. Except for 8p1216, none of these genomic regions overlap with the genomic regions in the prior linkage studies. Three of six regions are from chromosome 7, accounting for 8.86% of the 158 IQ-related genes (Table 1). One previous study showed that 7q31–36 may be linked to verbal IQ based on 361 Australian and Dutch twins17. Our results may uncover complementary roles of the genes on chromosome 7 in general intelligence. In summary, our analysis narrows the probable genomic regions to several likely candidates, providing a better understanding of an IQ-related genomics and a highly rational way to interpret differences such as gender. Notably, our gene enrichment based approach has identified multiple genomic regions in chromosome X, which was missed in previous linkage studies. This difference may be caused by the sample size of the population in linkage studies. The other potential reason is that most of genes on chromosome X in IQdb are collected based on single-gene-based functional studies. Genetic association is emerging as a large scale screening tool. These small proportions of genomic regions have permitted global examination of the genome/proteome on a larger population. The enriched target genes in 158 IQ-related genes for transcription factors and miRNAs related to mental disorders A fundamental problem in biological systems is discovering potential regulators for candidate genes, which may help us understand the entire volume of genetic information. Compared to enriched IQ-related genes, regulation does not teach us about the linear relationship with the physical chromosome, but the dynamic mechanisms of underlying environmental change. The modifying effects of several types of regulatory genes are widely studied and can be predicted based on sequence features of their potential target genes. Transcription factor (TF) can influence gene expression through transcription activation or suppression of target genes with different binding efficiency in promoter regions18. The other major group of regulators, MicroRNA (miRNA), can regulate mRNA expression at the post-transcriptional level, such as degradation or translational repression by binding the target gene with small complementary sequences19. To identify potential upstream TFs and miRNAs as possible regulators of the 158 gene set, we performed enrichment analysis on both TF and miRNA targets. In total, we identified seven TFs likely to regulate the set of IQ-related genes. They are FOXF2, FOXO4, MAZ, MEF2A, NFIL3, TCF3 and TFAP4. NFIL3 is reportedly related to neuron disease20. Most remarkably, MEF2 is demonstrated to negatively regulate learning-induced structural plasticity and memory formation21. There are 16 target genes for MEF2 in 158 gene set, including ATXN1, BDNF, BRAF, DBH, DMD, DMPK, DRD3, GNAS, GRIN2B, IL1RAPL1, IL6R, NR3C2, PHOX2B, SNAP25, TMEM67 and TSC1. Based on pathway annotation, we found that six of them (BDNF, BRAF, DRD3, GNAS, GRIN2B and SNAP25) had functions in the neuronal system. In addition, the genes DRD3, GNAS and GRIN2B were related to dopaminergic synapse. These MEF2 targets in the IQ-related gene set may form the core transcriptional circuitry influencing memory formation related to IQ, which begs a further experimental validation. Based on a similar approach, we found that 16 human miRNAs tended to regulate IQ-related genes. They were hsa-let-7i, hsa-mir-15b, hsa-mir-16, hsa-mir-181d, hsa-mir-195, hsa-mir-30a-3p, hsa-mir-30e-3p, hsa-mir-330, hsa-mir-374, hsa-mir-424, hsa-mir-429, hsa-mir-497, hsa-mir-515-5p, hsa-mir-519e, hsa-mir-522 and hsa-mir-96. Four of them, hsa-let-7i, hsa-miR-15b, hsa-miR-195 and hsa-miR-330, were related to mental disorders based on disease annotation. Both hsa-miR-15b and hsa-miR-195 belong to the miR-15 family, which has been up-regulated in the superior temporal gyrus and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in schizophrenics22. These two miRNAs can mediate wide gene silence in the cell. Among the 158 IQ-related genes, the targets of these two miRNAs are ADRB2, ATXN2, BDNF, GHR, IL1RAPL1, KCNJ2, MAP2K1, PAFAH1B1, RAF1, RELN, RPS6KA3, SIGMAR1, SLC6A4 and STX1A. Comparing this set with that of the MEF2 targets, only BDNF occurs in both sets of targets of mental-disorder-related TFs and miRNAs, which might highlight its central role in signaling pathways related to human intelligence and its potential role as the hub of regulatory circuits in the IQ-related genes23. Reconstruction of the core pathway for IQ-related genes using known biological pathways We are now able to specify several genomic regions and regulators as possible determinants of the IQ phenotype. We adopted a pathway reconstruction approach to describe more complex biological processes arranged in the form of a cascade of connected biochemical reactions or signaling transductions. Generally, molecular biological experimental technology enables us to identify physical and functional interactions between molecules in the cell. Plenty of signaling networks and pathways are summarized based on reliable experimental evidence. Generally speaking, the biological pathways are scattered in many databases and are often represented as diagrams. Recently, Pathway Commons integrated popular pathway databases and now provides a convenient plain-text-based convenient format for further pathway mining and reconstruction24. In order to utilize the available data, we adopted the Klein-Ravi Steiner algorithm to extract core interactions from the integrated human pathway data (see Methods). The reconstructed core pathway contains 97 genes and 129 fully connected pathway connections in total (Figure 1A). Among the 97 nodes, 62 are in the 158 IQ-related genes. Biological pathway enrichment analysis is one of the most practical ways to mine underlying molecular mechanisms in complex cellular processes25. Further functional enrichment analysis showed that 97 genes in our reconstructed map were enriched in 30 biological pathways (Table 2). In terms of neuron-related function, there are three identified pathways: “Neurotrophin signaling”, “Long-term potentiation” and “GnRH signaling”. Interestingly, the majority of the remaining 27 pathways are related to various signaling events, including signaling in cancer, ErbB receptor, TRAIL, proteoglycan syndecan, IFN-gamma, PI3K, MAPK, TSH, Kit receptor, TCR, IL-3 and hepatocyte Growth Factor Receptor. Besides neurohormone GnRH, which is produced in a neural cell and released at its neural terminal, the map indicated that five additional hormones may have an effect. These are androgen, endothelins, glypican, leptin and prolactin. In summary, our reconstructed map revealed multiple paths related to several known signaling pathways, suggesting potential cellular mechanisms which have not been presented on the topic of signaling transduction, as far as we know. Hormone related pathways, including an androgen reception signaling pathway related to development of male secondary sex characteristics, might suggest interesting and new components related to sex difference, extending our current knowledge. The arrangement and structure of the nodes in a complex system, such as a biological network, often follow specific rules which may be closely related to the function in this system11. To decompose the reconstructed maps, topological analysis was conducted (Figure 1B–D). Generally, the number of connections at each node is represented as the degree in a network11. As shown in Figure 1B, the degrees of all molecules in the reconstructed map follow a power law distribution: P(k) ~ k−b, where P(k) is the probability that a molecule connects with k molecules and b has an estimated value of 1.602. Therefore the majority of molecules in our map are sparsely connected. In contrast, a small fraction of molecules are more likely to be connected. In total, there are 11 molecules with at least five connections. They are PRKACA (14), CREB1 (9), TP53 (8), SOS1 (8), JAK2 (7), PTPN11 (7), PIK3CA (6), CREBBP (6), CDC42 (6), RAF1 (5) and GNAI3 (5). Among these, four are in 158 IQ-related gene set, namely SOS1, PTPN11, CREBBP and RAF1. The remaining seven molecules are appended through pathways connected to the 158 genes. The hub nodes in a network often serve as common connections to mediate information transduction along a short path. Thus, they often play a prominent role in biological network. In our map, gene PRKACA is the most connected, showing 14 connections. PRKACA (protein kinase, cAMP-dependent, catalytic, alpha) plays a fundamental role in various cellular functions related to 76 KEGG and 59 REACTOME pathways including cell cycle, apoptosis, signaling transduction, gap junction and interaction with HIV and the immune system. In addition, PRKACA involves many neurological processes such as Long-term potentiation, GnRH signaling, Nicotine Activity on Dopaminergic Neurons, addiction (Amphetamine, Cocaine and Morphine), synapse activities (Cholinergic, Dopaminergic, Glutamatergic and Serotonergic synapse). Previous studies demonstrates that cAMP-dependent protein kinases are involved in the associative learning of the Drosophila (fruit fly)26. Additionally, cAMP/cAMP-dependent protein kinases in the hippocampal region are reported to be related to a late memory consolidation phase of aversively motivated learning in rats27. Moreover, cAMP-dependent protein kinases can also cooperate with CaMKII in the H3 receptor to regulate the synthesis and release of histamine28. In addition to PRKACA, CREB1 (cAMP response element-binding protein 1), the second-most connected gene in our reconstructed map, can also bond to cAMP response elements in DNA. This gene has been reported to facilitate the formation of long-term memory. Furthermore, CREB1 interacts with BDNF and NTRK2 to form a core pathway in depression29. In spite of this volume of evidence for the role of cAMP-dependent protein kinases and cAMP response element-binding protein in cognitive-related process, there has been no association between cAMP-dependent protein kinases or cAMP response element-binding protein with IQ. These overlaps with many known signaling cascades with IQ-related genes, which might provide a clue for complex signaling cross-talk centered by PRKACA/CREB1, which is in IQdb. In addition to the cAMP related molecules, there are at least two cancer related genes identified by our pathway reconstruction approach. One is the most well-known tumor suppressor TP53. In fact, there is evidence that is play a role in IQ-related mental disorders such as schizophrenia30. Furthermore, the other oncogene, PIK3CA, is also included in our final map and is known to influence several psychiatric processes31,32,33. The next three most-connected genes (JAK2, CDC42 and GNAI3) have also been reported to be related to cognitive disorders or related neuronal functions. JAK2 is related to cognitive impairment in the mouse model34. CDC42 is associated with neurofibromatosis and mental retardation35. In spite of the fact that there is no direct evidence for its role in cognitive process, GNAI3 takes part in negative regulation of synapse transmission, long-term depression and axon guidance according to KEGG pathway annotation. In summary, of the seven hub molecules in our reconstructed map related to IQ, at least six (85.71%) of them are reported in the literature to be potentially associated with IQ or other cognitive processes. This high relevance not only demonstrates the accuracy of pathway-based reconstruction approach to identify critical molecules, but also provides a fully-connected signaling pathway worthy of further investigation. Though our reconstructed map is an unoriented signaling pathway, it provides many testable molecules in a typical small-world network involved in cognitive processes, where their degrees follow a power-law distribution. Our further topologic analysis on short path (Figure 1C) and closeness centrality (Figure 1D) shows that the reconstructed map is relatively compact. The path length represents how many steps are between one node and other nodes11. As shown in Figure 1C, the majority of nodes in the map are easily reached from another node in three to six steps. The closeness centrality is used to reveal the shortest step from one node to another11. As shown in Figure 1D, the nodes with more neighbors tend to have higher closeness centrality. A connected drug-target network in the core pathway of IQ-related genes Based on the reconstructed pathway map, we further identified enriched drug targets in this map. Using the enriched drug targets as inputs, we combined the drugs and their targets to form a drug-target network. As shown in Figure 2A, there are ten enriched drugs, namely dopamine, nitric oxide, L-tyrosine, methamphetamine, norepinephrine, glutathione, amphetamine, tetrahydrobiopterin, apomorphine and somatropin recombinant. Except for somatropin recombinant, all have been reported to be active in nervous systems or mental functions according to pharmacodynamics annotation in DrugBank36. Interestingly, six of them interact with two critical neurotransmitters (dopamine and norepinephrine) systems that regulate mood and behavior. These include amphetamine, apomorphine, dopamine, L-tyrosine and norepinephrine. Dopamine is a neurotransmitter responsible for various behavior and cognition activities, such as whose found in reward-driven learning systems. Dopamine is also linked to many neurological disorders such as Parkinson's disease, psychosis and schizophrenia37. Norepinephrine plays a critical role in decision making and can affect attention; it is also used as anti-depressant and anti-schizophrenic38,39. L-tyrosine is one of the precursors in the synthesis of dopamine and norepinephrine and can be used to treat depression, improve memory and enhance mental alertness according to DrugBank annotation36. Amphetamine can stimulate central adrenergic receptors to release norepinephrine and a high dosage of amphetamine is reported to help release dopamine. Methamphetamine, a related entity, is neurotoxic to dopamine transporters and is often used to mark dopamine terminal laboratory animals. Since it is involved in dopamine systems, methamphetamine has been reported to be associated with slower motor function and memory deterioration40. Apomorphine is a dopamine agonists and is used to treat Parkinson's disease based on DrugBank annotation, according to DrugBank annotation36. The six drugs that affect the two critical neurotransmitters dopamine and norepinephrine covered 66.7% of the target genes (32 genes) in the drug-target map (Figure 2A). Since we constructed this map through enriched drugs, this drug-target map is mostly centered by drugs. Therefore, the connectivities of drugs are higher than drug target genes as shown in Figure 2B. Using topological analysis, most of the nodes can be reached from another in two to four steps (Figure 2C). Since the majority of targets and drugs are related to dopamine and norepinephrine system, this network is also very compact based on closeness centralities (Figure 2D). In summary, our enrichment and network-based analysis shows that the dopamine and norepinephrine systems are critical to IQ-related genes, which may provide more insight into the cognitive process from an IQ aspect. Systems biology, herein defined as the systematic study of complex regulation and interaction in biological systems, makes efforts to analyze cellular processes from a systematic rather than reductionistic perspective, expecting to generate hypotheses to understand the systems. While plenty of single gene-centric studies have been reported as a genetic basis for the explaining IQ, the outcome of the system cannot be fully understood using independent analysis of the parts. Here, we applied an integrative systems-based approach to mine the enriched genomics regions and reconstruct critical biological gene interaction map relevant to IQ. The results support both previously known and novel gene networks related to IQ. For example, we uncovered importance of dopamine and norepinephrine systems in IQ-related biological process. It is still remain unclear about the genetic background about gender-related cognitive processes. Based on functional enrichment analysis, we found that the IQ-related genes were predominantly occurred on X chromosome. This abnormal distribution may highlight the highly rational way to interpret IQ differences between genders. Our integrative analysis may advance the understanding the genomics/cellular factors that promote human cognitive abilities related to IQ, which may elucidate novel pathways for future drug development on IQ-related mental disorders. We note that the completeness of the cellular processes related to human intelligence is limited by an ever-expanding knowledge of associations between mental phenotype and candidate genes. The associations used here are based on our literature-based database which currently represents the best available depository of IQ-related genes. It continues to develop quickly due to high-throughput technologies for identifying IQ–related gene associations. Such expansion might unveil the complex signaling cross-talks of human intelligence. Significant improvements are expected from more accurate reconstructions of the human intelligence pathway map, from the more comprehensive integration of various new static and dynamic data and from improvements in network-based pathway reconstruction approaches. Although the approach may be promising, multiple testable results in our study will not significantly change, i.e. the finding that cAMP related cellular events in the IQ-related pathway highlight the importance of cAMP signaling. In addition, a brain-specific miR-134, localizing hippocampal dendritic spines, is involved in regulation of dendritic spine size22. This synaptic change is related to human memory and plasticity. Though our miRNA target analysis did not intersect with miR-134, we identified four miRNAs related to mental disorders; two of them belonging to the miR-15 family22. In our reconstructed pathway map, numerous genes were involved in tumorigenesis. Our observation that the oncogenic genes tend to occur in the IQ-related cellular process raises an important question: Is there a common pathway between cancer cell proliferation and the IQ-related cellular process? Previous studies show that there is an extensive connection between cancer and neurodegeneration disorders. For example, the defects of cell-cycle and DNA damage/repair genes both lead to tumorigenesis and neuron diseases41. One of most well-known Parkinson's causal gene PARKIN has been reported as a tumor suppressors in several cancer types42. Though there is no direct evidence to associate cognitive processes with cancer, our previous pathway analysis showed that IQ-related genes were highly related to neuron disorders such as schizophrenia, autism and bipolar7. Therefore, it is reasonable to expect numerous overlaps in molecular pathways implicated in cancer and IQ-related cellular processes. We showed that the targets of two schizophrenia-related miRNAs are enriched in our 158 IQ-related genes. Both of these are from miR-15 family, which has been identified as tumor suppressors targeting oncogenes BCL243,44. In summary, the evidence may provide an opportunity to reuse known therapeutic approaches in both groups of disorders. A fundamental goal of biomedical research is to discover effective drugs to cure human diseases. Our rudimentary analysis of a potential drug target network allows us to relate the two critical neurotransmitters dopamine and norepinephrine systems to IQ-scores. Though dopamine is known to be important in reward-driven learning systems, its broader effect on human intelligence has not been explored. In addition, our constructed drug-target network implied that dopamine and norepinephrine may cooperate with each other to influence other common targets related to IQ. Taken together, these results offer insight into the functional importance of several neurotransmitters in human cognitive process and their relevance to human mental health. Our systematic analysis of IQ-related genes from the literature resulted in numerous testable hypotheses regarding critical genomic regions, transcription factors, miRNAs, signaling molecules and neurotransmitters. Most importantly, we found that the systematic mapping of these genes between various annotations helped us uncover some critical biological events and helped to explain their underlying interplay in the human cognitive process. Collecting IQ-related genes from the literature To systematically study the IQ-related genes, we performed an extensive literature search followed by manual assembly of the data. Our literature search focused on family-based linkage studies, population association studies, genome-wide association studies and other functional analyses using the following expression against PubMed database: (“intelligence quotient” [Title/Abstract] OR “IQ” [Title/Abstract]) AND ((“genome-wide association study” [Title/Abstract] OR “genome wide association study” [Title/Abstract]) OR ((“gene” [Title/Abstract] OR “genetic” [Title/Abstract]) OR (“association” [Title/Abstract] OR “linkage” [Title/Abstract]))). This search returned 2307 abstracts on 10 January 2013. We manually assembled the experimentally verified candidate genes, single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and genomic regions relevant to IQ. This information and related annotation were stored in the IQdb database and published for public use7. In this article, all 158 literature-based and IQ-related genes were downloaded from IQdb website7. Biological function enrichment analysis To assess the function of all the 158 IQ-related genes, we conducted functional enrichment tests using the online tool WebGestalt45. WebGestalt adopts a hypergeometric model to measure whether an input set of object pairs has a different frequency of annotation pairs than would occur randomly. To study the genomics features of the 158 IQ-related genes, we conducted chromosome cytoband-based enrichment analysis to identify the genomic regions which IQ-related genes were significantly enriched using all the genes on these regions as background. Similar processes were used to identify enriched TF targets, miRNA targets and drug targets. The identified TFs and miRNAs were regarded as the potential upstream regulators for the IQ-related genes. In these enrichment analyses, all the human protein-coding genes in WebGestalt were used as background to calculate statistical significance. In addition, the Benjamini-Hochberg method was implemented in the WebGestalt to further exclude false negative results. Finally, we identified those enriched functional terms with an adjusted P-value less than 0.05, as calculated by the hypergeometric test. Network reconstruction, visualization and topologic analysis To reconstruct a network based on the 158 IQ-related genes, we first downloaded a non-redundant human pathway interaction from Pathway Commons Database24. In Pathway Commons, it integrates 1,668 pathways from public pathway databases, including KEGG46, BioCyc47, Reactome48 and pathway interaction database49. Based on the reactions in these pathway maps, Pathway Commons decomposes these pathways into pairs of protein-protein interactions. This pathway interaction data can be used to reconstruct biological pathways efficiently. In total, the final human pathway-based interactome contained 3629 nodes and 36034 pathway interaction links. To build a non-redundant protein-protein interaction dataset, all the self-interaction were excluded. Using the Klein-Ravi Steiner minimal tree algorithm50, we reconstructed a sub-network as an IQ-specific pathway from the entire human pathway-based interactome. Among the 158 IQ-related genes, only 112 were mapped to data from Pathway Commons. Visualization of the reconstructed pathway network was performed using the Cytoscape software51. The input to Cytoscape is tab delimited file with two columns with two interacting genes. The node is corresponding to each interactors, the edge denotes the pathway interaction between the two interacting genes. Node shapes and colors were used to represent molecules with different functions. Links between any two nodes indicated their functional relevance. To obtain the network topological properties, we calculated the number of connections (degree), the path length and the closeness centrality for each node in the reconstructed IQ core pathway using NetworkAnalyzer toolkit in Cytoscape51. The degree is a local property to represent the number of connections of each node. The higher the degree, the higher the probability of this gene which interacts to other genes in the reconstructed network. The path length is defined as the number of steps along the shortest paths from a specific node to the remaining network nodes. The shortest path length distribution gives the number of node pairs with different number of step to communicate. The closeness centrality calculates how many steps a specific node requires to connect to other nodes. Closeness centrality is preferred to mean shortest-path length, as it gives higher values to more central nodes and so is usually positively correlated to degree. Neisser, U. et al. 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Authors and Affiliations M.Z. and K.L. carried out the analyses and helped write the manuscript. H.Q. conceived of the analysis and helped write the manuscript. The authors declare no competing financial interests. Rights and permissions About this article Cite this article Zhao, M., Kong, L. & Qu, H. A systems biology approach to identify intelligence quotient score-related genomic regions and pathways relevant to potential therapeutic treatments. Sci Rep 4, 4176 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1038/srep04176

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Medieval manuscripts from the Djenne Library (credit: Sophie Sarin) Niger Valley Civilization Did you know that ancient West Africans of the Niger River Valley were the first to practice cermonial burials, domesticate millet and smelt iron? Despite widespread ignorance of West African history, archaeological evidence and written accounts help us trace the development of this cradle of civilization that birthed wealthy empires and city-states whose stone, earthen and walled cities became intellectual hubs of the medieval world. Khufu's large ship at Giza (2580 BC) (credit: Bradipus) Nile Valley Maritime History Over 10,000 years ago, Nilotic Africans were already using boats to fish. And their increasing reliance on boats, coupled with the expansion of agriculture along the river banks, gave rise to the world's oldest documented maritime civilization, where ancient, advanced ships were used for practically everything-- from hunting and sporting to commerce and international trade. New Archaeological Discoveries in Africa 50 Coffins and Book of the Dead Scroll at Saqqara At Saqqara, Egyptian archaeologists found 50 wooden coffins, a 13-foot-long Book of the Dead scroll, a model boat, and other artifacts dating to the New Kingdom (1570-1069 BC). Although the site was originally excavated in 2010, archaeologists only recently linked it to 6th Dynasty Queen Naert, the wife of King Teti (2680-2180 BC). 27 Coffins at Saqqara Egyptian archaeologists uncovered 27 decorated sarcophagi and other artifacts from two different wells located at Djoser's Pyramid at Saqqara. Although the pyramid is the world's oldest, dating to roughly 2670 BC, the newly discovered coffins only date to the Coptic era under Persian rule (roughly 500 BC). Vast Funeral Industry at Saqqara Although discovered in 2018, the 'funeral home' or mummification workshop at Saqqara (600 BC) has only recently revealed the extent of the funeral industry in ancient Kemet. In addition to large incense burners, blood drainage channels and a ventilation system, archaeologists found mummified remains, coffins, and urns prepared using various methods and materials, suggesting ancient undertakers offered different embalming methods and funerary products for different budgets. Oldest Known Christian Church in Ethiopia Archaeologists unearthed the remains of the oldest known Christian church in Ethiopia, built in the 300s AD some 30 miles north of the ancient capital of Aksum. The main structure of the 60x40 ft church, built in the style of a Roman basilica, a gold ring with a bull's head, and a stone penant with Ge'ez writing, were the most important finds.

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Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) 28 March 2023 | Q&AWHO is continuously monitoring and responding to this pandemic. This questions and answers page will be updated as more is known about COVID-19, how it spreads and how it is affecting people worldwide. For more information, regularly check the WHO coronavirus pages. https://www.who.int/covid-19 COVID-19 is the disease caused by a coronavirus called SARS-CoV-2. WHO first learned of this new virus on 31 December 2019, following a report of a cluster of cases of so-called viral pneumonia in Wuhan, People’s Republic of China. The most common symptoms of COVID-19 are - sore throat. 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For those with COVID-19 who are at high risk of severe illness (see question below), WHO has made recommendations on which drug treatments are effective in improving outcomes and preventing hospital admissions. It is also important to be vigilant in recognizing people with severe disease and those needing hospital treatment so that they are treated early. The consequences of severe COVID-19 include death, respiratory failure, sepsis, thromboembolism (blood clots), and multiorgan failure, including injury of the heart, liver or kidneys. In rare situations, children can develop a severe inflammatory syndrome a few weeks after infection. People aged 60 years and over, and those with underlying medical problems like high blood pressure, diabetes, other chronic health problems (for example those affecting the heart, lungs, kidneys, and brain), low immune function / immunosuppression (including HIV), obesity, cancer, and unvaccinated people are most at risk of severe illness. However, anyone at any age can get sick with COVID-19 and become seriously ill or die. Some people who have had COVID-19, whether they have needed hospitalization or not, continue to experience symptoms, including fatigue, respiratory and neurological symptoms. These long-term effects are called post COVID-19 condition (also called long COVID). For further information on long COVID, see post COVID-19 condition and questions and answers. You can protect yourself and others from COVID-19 by following preventive measures, such as keeping a distance, wearing a mask in crowded and poorly ventilated spaces, practicing hand hygiene, respiratory etiquette (covering your mouth and nose with a bent elbow or a tissue when you cough or sneeze), getting vaccinated and staying up to date with booster doses. Check local advice where you live and work. Read our public advice page for more information. Anyone with symptoms such as acute onset of fever and cough should be tested, wherever possible, to ensure that they receive appropriate clinical care. People who do not have symptoms but have had close contact with someone who is, or may be, infected may also consider testing. Contact your local health guidelines and follow their guidance. While a person is waiting for test results, they should preferably wear a mask when interacting with others in or outside of their household or sharing space with others. Where testing capacity is limited, tests should first be done for those at higher risk of infection, such as health workers, and those at higher risk of severe illness such as older people, especially those living in seniors’ residences or long-term care facilities. Individuals with signs and symptoms suggestive of COVID-19 or those who test positive for the virus should wear a mask when interacting with others in or outside of one’s household or sharing space with others. There are two main types of tests that can confirm whether you are infected with SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19. Molecular tests, such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR), are the most accurate tests for diagnosing SARS-CoV-2 infection. Molecular tests detect virus in the sample by amplifying viral genetic material to detectable levels. Rapid antigen tests (sometimes known as rapid diagnostic tests or RDTs) detect viral proteins (known as antigens). RDTs are a simpler and faster option than molecular tests and are available for testing by trained operators or by the individual themselves (sometimes called self-tests). They perform best when there is more virus circulating in the community and when sampled from an individual during the time they are most infectious, generally within the first 5–7 days following symptom onset. Samples for both types of tests are collected from the nose and/or throat with a swab. Antibody tests can tell us whether someone has had an infection in the past, even if they have not had symptoms. Also known as serological tests, these tests detect antibodies produced in response to an infection or vaccination. In most people, antibodies start to develop after days to weeks and can indicate if a person has had past infection or has been vaccinated. Antibody tests cannot be used to diagnose SARS-CoV-2 infection in the early stages of infection or disease but can indicate whether or not someone has had the disease in the past. If you have been vaccinated, many antibody tests are not able to distinguish between whether you were previously infected or have been vaccinated (or both), so in such situations you will test positive in Both isolation and quarantine are methods of preventing the spread of COVID-19. Quarantine is used for certain persons who are a contact of someone infected with SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19, whether the infected person has symptoms or not. Quarantine means that you remain separated from others because you have been exposed to the virus and you may be infected and can take place in a designated facility or at home. For COVID-19, this means staying in the facility or at home for several days. Isolation is used for people with COVID-19 symptoms or who have tested positive for the virus. Being in isolation means being separated from other people, ideally in a medical facility where you can receive clinical care. If isolation in a medical facility is not possible and you are not in a high-risk group for developing severe disease, isolation can take place at home. If you have symptoms, you should remain in isolation for at least 10 days. If you are infected and do not develop symptoms, you should remain in isolation for 5 days from the time you test positive. You can be discharged from isolation early if you test negative on a rapid antigen test. If you have been exposed to someone with COVID-19, you may become infected, even if you feel well. After exposure to someone who has COVID-19, do the following: - Call your healthcare provider to get tested or test yourself. - Stay home if you feel unwell. - Wear a mask when interacting with others in or outside of your household or sharing space with others. - Clean your hands regularly. - Practice respiratory etiquette: cover your mouth and nose with your bent elbow or a tissue when you cough or sneeze. - Avoid crowded, enclosed or poorly ventilated spaces. - Get vaccinated and stay up to date with booster doses. The time from exposure to COVID-19 to the moment when symptoms begin is, on average, 5–6 days and can range from 1–14 days. This is why people who have been exposed to the virus are advised to remain at home and stay away from others in order to prevent the spread of the virus. Yes. There are several COVID-19 vaccines validated for use by WHO (given Emergency Use Listing) and from other stringent national regulatory agencies (SRAs). The first mass vaccination programme started in early December 2020 and the number of vaccination doses administered is updated on a regular basis here. For more information on vaccine for COVID-19, see the vaccine questions and answers: Coronavirus disease (COVID-19): Vaccines (who.int) - If you are unwell, stay at home. - If you have any symptoms suggestive of COVID-19, wear a mask when interacting with others in or outside of your household or sharing space with others. If you have shortness of breath or pain or pressure in the chest, seek medical attention at a health facility immediately. Call your health care provider or hotline in advance for direction to the right health facility. - Get tested for COVID-19, regardless of your vaccination status, and especially if you are at high-risk for severe illness and could therefore be eligible for drug treatments. - Practice protective and preventive measures. Wear a mask, avoid crowded and poorly ventilated areas, improve ventilation in indoor spaces, keep a distance, practice hand hygiene, and respiratory etiquette (covering your mouth and nose with a bent elbow or a tissue when you cough or sneeze), get vaccinated and stay up to date with booster doses. There has been huge progress in developing treatments for patients with COVID-19. Treatments for COVID-19 should be decided on an individual basis between the person and the healthcare professional looking after them. The choice will depend on the severity of disease and the risk of disease worsening (including the person’s age and whether they have any health problems). WHO maintains a list of recommended treatments, together with the evidence for each, available at https://app.magicapp.org/#/guideline/nBkO1E. These currently include: - for non-severe COVID-19: nirmatrelvir-ritonavir; molnupiravir; remdesivir - for severe COVID-19: corticosteroids (including dexamethasone); IL-6 receptor blockers (tocilizumab or sarilumab); baricitinib; remdesivir. Apart from these medications, amongst the most commonly and globally used, and important treatments is oxygen for severely ill patients. WHO leads work which aims to improve global capacity and access to oxygen production, distribution and supply to patients. For corticosteroids, further specific information can be found in the Corticosteroids, including dexamethasone questions and answers. Antibiotics do not work against viruses; they only work on bacterial infections. COVID-19 is caused by a virus, so antibiotics do not work. Antibiotics should not be used as a means of prevention or treatment of COVID-19. In hospitals, physicians will sometimes use antibiotics to treat secondary bacterial infections, which can be a complication of COVID-19 in severely ill patients. They should only be used as directed by a physician to treat a bacterial infection.

https://www.who.int/news-room/q-a-detail/q-a-coronaviruses

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Jawbone infections occur as a result of dental cavities remaining untreated. Jawbone infections or dental abscesses are pockets of pus in a tooth caused by an infection. The infection can result from an untreated cavity, injury or old dental work. Causes Of Jawbone Infection An untreated cavity causes jawbone infection, and cavities are tooth decay. Cavities are permanent damage to your tooth crown that develops tiny holes or openings. Cavities can be caused by multiple factors, but the most common causes of cavities include bacteria in your mouth, frequent snacking, sipping sugary drinks, and not cleaning your teeth well. Since untreated cavities cause jawbone infection, it will be better to prevent cavities or tooth decay from happening than to let it get to the jawbone infection stage. How Can You Prevent Tooth Decay? Well, you have to do as your dentist advises and eat more healthy foods, including foods with less sugar content and fewer junk foods. Here are other ways in which you can prevent tooth decay. Brush with fluoride toothpaste after eating or drinking You should brush at least once twice daily. It’s highly recommended to do this as it helps prevent infections like cavities. You should also brush after you eat foods that stick to the surface of your teeth. Use recommended toothpaste that contains fluoride. Rinse your mouth Ensure that you rinse your mouth properly after brushing or eating. You should rinse the remaining food particles away so they don’t assimilate bacteria and cause cavities. Visit your dentist regularly Visit your dentist for check-ups, especially when you feel pain or discomfort in your mouth. Drink some tap water You should drink water more often, especially after you’ve eaten, in the morning and at night. Drinking water has other benefits apart from digesting food particles. Water helps break down food so that your body can take in (absorb) the nutrients. Water also makes stool softer, which helps prevent constipation. Avoid frequent snacking and sipping You should limit your intake of junk foods and eat tooth-healthy foods more often. Eat tooth-healthy foods Eat soft foods rather than hard foods that can stress your teeth. Eat more vegetables and fruits; take in more soft meat rather than half-cooked and grilled meat. Avoiding alcohol and tobacco When enamel becomes thin, the natural yellowish dentin shows through. Alcoholism, combined with smoking, can eventually cause periodontal disease, leading to cavities, decay, and tooth loss. Smokers are four times more likely to have gum problems than non-smokers. Symptoms Of Jawbone Infection Apparently, there might be no signs of jawbone infection, but untreated cavities can cause toothache, infection and tooth loss, redness or swelling, and drainage of pus from the area. You should seek immediate dental attention after you’ve observed any of these symptoms. Your dentist will try to drain the infection and will probably prescribe antibiotics. In severe cases, the tooth may need to be pulled or surgery performed to stop the infection from spreading further into the bones. Basically, untreated cavities progress into jawbone infections. There might not actually be an obvious sign that the infection is coming. This is why it’s highly advisable to visit the dentist at least once every 12–24 months. Treatment of Jawbone Infection - Improving your dental hygiene and procedures - Dental restoration, which may include replacing a decayed tooth - Treatments include fluoride, fillings, and crowns. Fillings are used to treat a small hole, or cavity, in a tooth. Dentists remove decayed tooth tissue and fill them with material. Learn more. Severe cases may need a root canal or removal.

https://www.fitnessethics.com/2022/08/04/jawbone-infection-causes-symptoms-and-treatment/

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A recent study on tattoo ink discovered that black ink could cause long-term health problems. The study examined black ink, which is common in nearly every tattoo. Black tattoo inks use soot and iron oxide as a base, and they are not regulated by the FDA, so they may contain hazardous chemicals that potentially can stay in the skin for a lifetime, absorb UV radiation and may affect skin integrity, researchers say. Kristina Chiprean, Director of the McLaughlin Health Center, said most students at SRU take very good care of their tattoos. “We’ve seen people with allergic reactions to tattoos, and we often call the tattoo artist to find the best solution to treating the infection while attempting to save the aesthetics of the tattoo,” Chiprean said. “But by and large, students take good care of their tattoos.” Chiprean said that, presently, she doesn’t think that scientists can tell how tattoo inks will affect human bodies. “Because tattoos weren’t as popular 30 years ago as they are today, it isn’t as easy to monitor the effects,” Chiprean said. “Watching people who are 20 now over the next 50 years, that’s when we’re really going to figure out the long term effects of tattoo ink.” According to Chiprean, when the Health Center does see a patient with an infected tattoo, it’s not because of the ink. “Often times a tattoo gets infected because bacteria moves through the holes in the skin, not from an allergic reaction to the ink,” Chiprean said. “What people don’t realize is that skin is our largest organ, and by putting holes in it we open ourselves up to invasive bacteria.” Chiprean compared tattooed skin to camping. “Its like staying in a tent, and taking an ice pick and putting holes in that tent,” Chiprean said. “More likely than not, something is going to get in through those holes.” According to the study in Experimental Dermatology, a scholarly journal, tattooing can require injections of substantial amounts of black ink, meaning large amounts of chemicals shot into and under the skin. Many of these chemicals — such as benzo(a)pyrene, a carcinogen found to cause skin cancer in animal tests — are toxic, so some advocates have called for further scrutiny and oversight of tattoo inks. The study also suggests that the substances in black tattoo inks — materials known as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) — migrate into subjects’ lymph nodes, which aid an individual’s body in filtering out disease-causing organisms. The FDA’s National Center for Toxicological Research is investigating tattoo inks and whether their movement in the body has health consequences. Tattoo pigments are subject to U.S. Food and Drug Administration regulation, but the agency’s website says that, “because of other public health priorities and a previous lack of evidence of safety concerns, the FDA has not traditionally regulated tattoo inks or the pigments used in them.” The unregulated inks are a primary concern for tattoo artists and consumers alike. Despite the many health risks associated with tattoos, students at SRU are ultimately concerned with their professional marketability after graduation, and how a tattoo might affect that. Renee Coyne, Assistant Director of Career Services, said that the advice she gives students is always circumstantial. “It depends on the content and location of the tattoo,” Coyne said. “If the tattoo includes profane or graphic images, it may be difficult for employers and clients to overlook.” Coyne said that many companies have strict policies regarding tattoos and piercings. “Geico Insurance Company, Disney, the U.S. Postal Service and Starwood Hotels are examples of companies who have written policies restricting employees from having visible tattoos,” Coyne said. Coyne suggested that students should cover up their tattoos for job fairs, interviews, and other meetings with potential employers. “A tattoo may not get you fired from a position, but it can keep you from getting hired,” Coyne said. John Rindy, Director of Career Services, said that he tells students to think beyond their first professional position. “For example, if a young lady is aspiring to move up in a company, moving to the executive level might mean corporate mixers and cocktail events and things like spaghetti straps or strapless dresses,” Rindy said. “So, a student has to consider their future aspirations as well before adding a tattoo in a place like shoulders and such. Also, if you attend the company picnic and want to wear shorts – adding a tattoo to the leg might raise some eyebrows.”

http://www.theonlinerocket.com/news/2012/09/21/black-tattoo-ink-may-carry-long-term-health-risks/

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To better understand the SARS-CoV-2 virus and COVID-19, the disease it causes, from an infectious disease perspective, some experts advise viewing coronaviruses categorically as “old” and “new” in terms of how long these viruses have been infecting humans. Frank Esper, MD, a pediatric infectious disease specialist at Cleveland Clinic, notes that genetically they are separated into four groups: alpha, beta, gamma and delta coronaviruses; only alpha and beta coronaviruses have been found to infect humans.1 The older human coronaviruses were first identified in the mid-1960s, but have likely circulated in humans for centuries. These include 229E (alpha coronavirus), NL63 (alpha coronavirus), OC43 (beta coronavirus) and HKU1 (beta coronavirus).2 For the most part, these older iterations present with a mild respiratory infection, except for HKU1, which can also cause gastrointestinal infection, he notes. Dr. Esper refers to the newer coronaviruses as “true emerging infectious diseases.” These include SARS-CoV (SARS), MERS-CoV (MERS) and, of course, SARS-CoV-2. He explains, “These are strains that have undergone recent animal-to-human transition.” This can happen when a virus either mutates directly to humans, or through a second (intermediary) species that then further mutates into a human pathogen. “This is what we saw with SARS in 2002-2003 and MERS in 2012 and likely what just happened with SARS-CoV-2,” he says. For the most part, these viral mutations occur in animals — and predominantly stay in animals — but when the rare mutation allows transmission into humans, our immune systems are less-equipped to manage the disease. “This is the case with these larger epidemics we have seen; although, it’s important to remember, just because a mutation is demonstrating human transmission, doesn’t mean it’s reproducing well,” he says. In cases of MERS, SARS and SARS-CoV-2, reproduction was successful enough to jump from animal-to-human and then from human-to-human, but that doesn’t mean it has evolved enough to become a persistent human pathogen. “Once these virus mutations allow transmission to humans, their survival becomes dependent on optimization of virus infection between humans.” A swift public health response can mitigate the likelihood of this by limiting the spread of infection in humans and, thus, reducing the chance of new, more efficient viruses from emerging. In some cases, unpredictable variables may also work to suppress the spread of the virus, like weather conditions or other circulating pathogens, as examples. “We are still speculating why exactly SARS disappeared. One hypothesis is that while SARS was able to cause human-to-human transmission, the virus wasn’t able to go from one season to the next. It basically got its one winter transmission season then largely disappeared and never came back.” To put the more modern coronaviruses in perspective, the case-fatality rate for SARS was 9.6%; the virus infected a total of 8,098 individuals during the 2003 outbreak and 774 of these cases were fatal.3 Unlike SARS, the MERS outbreak of 2012 continues to infect several dozen patients each year. The World Health Organization reports that since Sept. 2012, there have been a total of 2,494 confirmed cases and 858 fatalities, a case-fatality rate of 34.4%.4 The virulence of SARS-Cov-2 remains to be seen, although it has demonstrated significant adaptability to spread from person-to-person in areas of outbreak and outpaced SARS in number of documented cases and fatalities. Dr. Esper cautions that the true number of infected patients will still take some time to confirm. The “new” coronaviruses have also taught us a lot about infectious disease in an era of globalization. It’s been almost 20 years since the SARS outbreak occurred. Dr. Esper stresses that this was a moment in infectious disease history that highlighted the implications of a pandemic in an era of increased global connectivity, for better and for worse. “It was a wake-up call. We saw the virus’s ability to circulate very quickly across countries and into new global regions. On the other hand, we also saw a substantial collaborative response among countries and regions to halt and prevent the spread.” The World Health Organization developed a global outbreak alert and response network shortly after the SARS outbreak. They have continued to strengthen these efforts to equip clinicians with tools and resources to manage patient care and provide real-time data and safety alerts to the public. “It does stand to reason, however, that we are not playing catch-up as much with this virus as we were with the previous SARS and MERS coronaviruses or pandemic influenza, where by the time we recognized there was a new strain of the virus, it already spread elsewhere in the world.” There is currently no vaccine for COVID-19, although development efforts are underway. Dr. Esper notes that making a vaccine is only a fraction of the job. “You have to make sure that the vaccine is safe, effective and can be stably transported to people who need it, not just in one country but across the world,” he says. “Growing the virus to develop a viable vaccine candidate is an important step, but there are still many others.” In the U.S, a clinical trial is investigating the use of remdesivir, a broad-spectrum antiviral drug, to treat COVID-19, but so far there are no data to validate its efficacy to treat this particular strain of the disease. This rapidly evolving situation means clinicians should remain vigilant and up-to-date on public health guidelines, keeping in mind that there is still much more we are going to learn about this virus. “At this point in time, there is no treatment. There is no vaccine. The best thing we can do is give everyone the information that they need on how to protect themselves, which will also aid in mitigating further spread,” says Dr. Esper.

https://consultqd.clevelandclinic.org/coronaviruses-have-been-around-for-centuries-what-differentiates-2019-ncov/

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Learn more: PMC Disclaimer | PMC Copyright Notice Ebola Virus Pathogenesis: Implications for Vaccines and Therapies Ebola virus is an aggressive pathogen that causes a highly lethal hemorrhagic fever syndrome in humans and nonhuman primates. First recognized near the Ebola River valley during an outbreak in Zaire in 1976 (6, 20), outbreaks have occurred in Africa in the ensuing 27 years, with mortality rates ranging from 50 to 90% (26, 28). Outbreaks have been identified yearly for the past 3 years in central Africa, the most recent of which continues in the Republic of the Congo, with more than 125 fatalities to date according to the World Health Organization (http://www.who.int/csr/don/2003_05_07/en/, accessed 7 May 2003). The natural host for Ebola virus is unknown, so it has not been possible to implement programs to control or eliminate viral reservoirs of transmission to human populations. The rapid progression of Ebola virus infection has further complicated the control of this disease, affording little opportunity to develop acquired immunity. There is currently no antiviral therapy or vaccine that is effective against Ebola virus infection in humans. Although its clinical course is well known, the specific mechanisms underlying the pathogenicity of Ebola virus have not been clearly delineated. This is due, in part, to the difficulty in obtaining samples and studying the disease in the relatively remote areas in which the outbreaks occur. In addition, a high degree of biohazard containment is required for laboratory studies and clinical analysis. Isolation of the viral cDNAs and the development of expression systems have allowed the study of Ebola virus gene products under less restrictive conditions and facilitated an understanding of the mechanisms underlying virally induced cell damage. EBOLA VIRUS DISEASE PROGRESSION Typically, Ebola virus infection runs its course within 14 to 21 days. Infection initially presents with nonspecific flu-like symptoms such as fever, myalgia, and malaise. As the infection progresses, patients exhibit severe bleeding and coagulation abnormalities, including gastrointestinal bleeding, rash, and a range of hematological irregularities, such as lymphopenia and neutrophilia. Cytokines are released when reticuloendothelial cells encounter virus, which can contribute to exaggerated inflammatory responses that are not protective. Damage to the liver, combined with massive viremia, leads to disseminated intravascular coagulopathy. The virus eventually infects microvascular endothelial cells and compromises vascular integrity. The terminal stages of Ebola virus infection usually include diffuse bleeding, and hypotensive shock accounts for many Ebola virus fatalities (for reviews, see references 9 and 28). STRUCTURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF THE EBOLA VIRUS Ebola virus and the related Marburg virus are members of the Filovirus family, which are pleomorphic, negative-sense RNA viruses whose genome organization is most similar to the Paramyxoviridae. Of the four identified strains of Ebola virus, three—the Zaire, Ivory Coast, and Sudan strains—have been shown to cause disease in both humans and nonhuman primates, with the Zaire strain exhibiting the highest lethality rate (13, 29). The only documented outbreaks of Ebola virus infection in the United States were fortunately restricted to nonhuman primates at holding facilities in Virginia and Texas, caused by the Reston strain, which has not yet caused fatal disease in humans (19). The Ebola virus genome is 19 kb long, with seven open reading frames encoding structural proteins, including the virion envelope glycoprotein (GP), nucleoprotein (NP), and matrix proteins VP24 and VP40; nonstructural proteins, including VP30 and VP35; and the viral polymerase (reviewed in reference 28). Unlike that of Marburg virus, the GP open reading frame of Ebola virus gives rise to two gene products, a soluble 60- to 70-kDa protein (sGP) and a full-length 150- to 170-kDa protein (GP) that inserts into the viral membrane (29, 41), through transcriptional editing. EBOLA VIRUS GP AND VIRAL PATHOGENESIS The Ebola virus GP is synthesized in a secreted (sGP) or full-length transmembrane form, and each gene product has distinct biochemical and biological properties. For example, GP appears to form a trimeric complex (30) and binds preferentially to endothelial cells, whereas sGP does not (49). Preferential binding of Ebola virus GP to the endothelium was demonstrated by use of two independent methodologies as follows: direct binding was assessed by fluorescence-activated cell sorter analysis, and pseudotyping experiments were performed in which virus titers, cell numbers, and confluence were carefully determined so that the multiplicity of infection was controlled and equal in all cell types. Another study failed to demonstrate this preferential binding (17), but direct binding of GP to endothelial cells was not measured and neither the multiplicity of infection, target cell numbers, nor cell confluence was reported in that study. The receptors required for cell binding and infection are not completely understood. A folate-related receptor can serve as a cofactor to facilitate infection (8), but whether it serves as a receptor remains unclear. The cell surface lectin DC-SIGN can also facilitate GP binding to cells through viral carbohydrate determinants, but it does not appear to mediate entry by itself (1, 32). In contrast to GP, sGP gives rise to a dimeric protein (30) that interacts with neutrophils (49). sGP mediates neutrophil binding, directly or indirectly, through CD16b, the neutrophil-specific form of the Fcγ receptor III (49). After the initial description of the neutrophil binding of sGP, it was shown that immunoglobulin G (IgG), but not an Fab fragment, against sGP was needed to detect neutrophil binding (T. Maruyama, M. J. Buchmeier, P. W. H. I. Parren, and D. R. Burton, Technical Comment, Science 282:843-844, 1998). A subsequent study showed that the binding could also be seen if an irrelevant IgG was used with the Fab fragment against sGP (Z.-Y. Yang, R. Delgado, L. Xu, R. F. Todd, E. G. Nabel, A. Sanchez, and G. J. Nabel, Author's Reply, Science 282:844-846, 1998). Though such binding could potentially arise from binding of immune complexes, additional studies using resonance energy transfer showed that neutrophils incubated with sGP showed a significant reduction in the CR3-Fcγ RIIIB RET signal (22), demonstrating that sGP alters the physical and functional interaction between Fcγ RIIIB and CR3. Through this interaction, sGP may contribute to immune evasion by inhibiting early steps in neutrophil activation (as measured by the down-modulation of l-selectin) that would ordinarily assist in virus clearance (49). Several lines of evidence suggest that the viral GP plays a key role in the manifestations of Ebola virus infection. The transmembrane form of GP targets the Ebola virus to cells that are relevant to its pathogenesis. Specifically, GP allows the virus to introduce its contents into monocytes and/or macrophages, where cell damage or exposure to viral particles may cause the release of cytokines (34) associated with inflammation and fever, and into endothelial cells, which damages vascular integrity (48) (Fig. (Fig.1).1). Thus, sGP may alter the immune response by inhibiting neutrophil activation, while the transmembrane GP may contribute to the hemorrhagic fever symptoms by targeting virus to cells of the reticuloendothelial network and the lining of blood vessels. GP expression in cultured human endothelial and epithelial cells causes cell rounding and detachment (48). GP is the only one of the seven Ebola virus gene products to exert this effect, and though GP from all four documented Ebola virus strains acts similarly, the highly pathogenic Zaire strain has the most potent activity in this cell culture assay (33). These effects require the presence of the mucin-like, serine-and-threonine-rich domain of GP and correspond with the down-regulation of specific molecules on the cell surface (48). Cytotoxicity appears to be precisely controlled by a mechanism involving down-regulation of GP expression through a transcriptional RNA editing event by the viral polymerase. The importance of this phenomenon was shown by use of a reverse genetics system for replicating Ebola virus in which a mutation that increases the level of full-length GP expression is significantly more cytotoxic than the wild-type virus (42). The in vivo relevance of GP-induced endothelial cell toxicity was explored in blood vessel explants (48) in which human saphenous veins were infected with replication-defective adenoviral vectors carrying the gene for GP or sGP. Staining with horseradish peroxidase and scanning electron microscopy were used to observe severe damage to the endothelial cell lining in vessels that received the virus encoding full-length Ebola virus GP but not sGP or vectors in which the mucin domain of GP was removed. Cell damage in explant cultures paralleled the species specificity of different Ebola virus strains: no toxicity was observed when Reston strain GP was introduced into human vascular explants, whereas significant tissue damage was observed in vascular explants from nonhuman primates. Further in vitro analyses have begun to elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying GP-induced cytotoxicity. Critical mediators of cell adhesion to the matrix and immune signaling (e.g., integrins and major histocompatibility complex class I cell surface proteins) are among the cell surface molecules that are dysregulated (33, 37). Transient expression of Ebola virus GP in human kidney 293T cells caused a reduction of specific integrins (primary molecules responsible for cell adhesion to the extracellular matrix) on the cell surface. GP mutants lacking the membrane-spanning region of the ectodomain did not cause this down-regulation, suggesting that anchorage of GP to the cell membrane is required for this effect. Disruption of major histocompatibility complex class I expression on the cell surface is a mechanism for evading host immune responses that is shared by several pathogens, including cytomegalovirus, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and herpesviruses (27). It is not known whether GP affects integrin levels by altering intracellular trafficking or by modulation of protein synthesis or degradation, but preliminary experiments suggest a role for cellular protein transport machinery in GP-mediated cytotoxicity (N. Sullivan, unpublished observations). In any event, the biologic effects of GP alone may account largely for the features of Ebola virus infection that lead to fatal disease, including inflammatory dysregulation, immune suppression, and loss of vascular integrity. Structural analyses of GP have revealed features in common with other viral envelope proteins. The crystal structure of the GP ectodomain revealed a coiled-coil domain resembling a trimer of helical hairpin-like loops (23, 44). The hairpin structure is adjacent to the fusion-peptide region (16) hypothesized to insert directly into the target cell membrane. Analogous coiled-coil regions have been defined for GPs of influenza virus, murine retroviruses, HIV, and simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) as well as for some cellular proteins, called SNARES, that function in intracellular vesicle fusion (44). For HIV gp160, it has been possible to identify peptides that bind to a transient intermediate form that precedes hairpin formation. Because of their potent inhibition of viral entry, these reagents have shown considerable promise in clinical trials (21). The Ebola virus GP contains a homologous hairpin structure for which a possible inhibitory peptide has been identified (43), a region that remains a potential therapeutic target. IMMUNE RESPONSE TO EBOLA VIRUS INFECTION Ebola virus replicates at an unusually high rate that overwhelms the protein synthesis apparatus of infected cells and host immune defenses (28). Both the adaptive immune and inflammatory systems respond to infection at the same time that some cell types, specifically monocytes and macrophages, are targets relevant to disease pathogenesis. This feature of the infection was initially suggested by the immunohistochemical localization of Ebola virus in vivo: endothelial cells, mononuclear phagocytes, and hepatocytes are the main targets of infection (3, 4, 12, 50). The components of the immune system that may protect against Ebola virus infection have not been defined. Antibody titers against Ebola virus GPs are readily detectable in patients who recover from Ebola virus infection; however, anecdotal reports have indicated that serum from recovered patients did not consistently protect against infection or exhibit neutralization of virus replication in cell culture. Furthermore, passive transfer of antibodies in animal models only delays the onset of symptoms and does not alter overall survival (18). More recently, the neutralization of virus replication by selected monoclonal antibodies isolated from the bone marrow of recovered patients was demonstrated in vitro (24), and monoclonal antibodies that recognize specific epitopes of Ebola virus GP have been shown to confer immune protection in a murine model of Ebola virus infection (15, 45) and in guinea pigs (25). However, it is relatively easy to protect against infection in the mouse model, and protection of guinea pigs required a high dose of antibody administered very close to the time of virus challenge. Taken together, these results suggest that antibodies alone do not provide protective immunity in a natural context and that cellular immunity is likely to play a significant role in virus clearance. Whether hyperimmune serum from surviving vaccinated animals or certain infrequently occurring antibodies are capable of attenuating infection remains unknown, but such antibodies could potentially contribute to therapy if they can be identified and optimized. A comparison of immune parameters in survivors and nonsurvivors of infection has provided clues into the constituents of an effective immune response. Baize et al. (2) characterized the immune responses of patients in two large Ebola virus outbreaks in Gabon in 1996. There was no significant difference in viral antigen load between survivors and nonsurvivors, but immune responses varied, suggesting that survival is dependent on the initial or innate immune response to infection. Survivors exhibited more significant IgM responses, clearance of viral antigen, and sustained T-cell cytokine responses, as indicated by high levels of T-cell-related mRNA in the peripheral blood. In contrast, antibodies specific for the virus were nearly undetectable in fatal cases, and while gamma interferon (IFN-γ) was detected early after infection, T-cell cytokine RNA levels were more indicative of a failure to develop adaptive immunity in the days preceding death. During infection, there is evidence that both host and viral proteins contribute to the pathogenesis of Ebola virus. Increases in the levels of inflammatory cytokines IFN-γ, IFN-α, interleukin-2 (IL-2), IL-10, and tumor necrosis factor alpha were associated with fatality from Ebola hemorrhagic fever (40). Moreover, in vitro experiments demonstrated that tumor necrosis factor released from filovirus-infected monocytes and macrophages increased the permeability of cultured human endothelial cell monolayers (12). However, other reports have observed an association between elevated levels of IFN-γ mRNA and protection from infection (2), and a protective effect of IFN-α and -γ is suggested by the fact that the virus has evolved at least one protein, VP35, that acts as an IFN-α/β antagonist (5). Whether the effects of cytokines are protective or damaging may depend not only on the cytokine profile but also may represent a delicate balance influenced by the route and titer of incoming virus as well as factors specific to the individual host immune response. Several animal models have been developed to study the pathogenesis of Ebola virus infection and to assess the efficacy of various vaccine approaches. Guinea pigs and nonhuman primates represent the primary animal models for vaccine development because the progression and pathogenesis most closely resemble those of the human disease (10, 46, 47). A murine model was later developed by serial passage of virus in mice (7). Though the model allows the use of knockout and inbred strains to evaluate genetic determinants of disease, it is considered less predictive of human disease because it relies on a serially passaged, attenuated virus. While symptoms and time course of disease in guinea pigs parallel those in humans, nonhuman primate infection is considered the most predictive and useful for vaccine development (14). Live attenuated viruses and recombinant proteins have been used successfully in a variety of vaccines, but the safety and immunogenicity of gene-based vaccines have proven increasingly attractive. Among the gene-based approaches, naked plasmid DNA has been used successfully in animal models to direct the synthesis of immunogens within the host cells and has proven helpful in a variety of infectious diseases (reviewed in references 11 and 38). Genetic immunization with plasmid DNA was developed in the guinea pig and was the first successful vaccine for Ebola virus (47). In this model, NP elicited a primarily humoral response and was less efficacious, while sGP and GP elicited T-cell proliferative and cytotoxic responses as well as a humoral response. Protection against lethal challenge was conferred by each of these immunogens when animals were infected within 1 month of the last immunization, but only GP or sGP provided long-lasting protection. The degree of protection correlated with antibody titer and antigen-specific T-cell responses. Subsequent studies of NP and GP plasmids conferred protective immunity in mice (39), but it is uncertain whether the attenuated murine virus is more sensitive to neutralization than the wild-type virus. Thus, the relative potency of NP, or its requirement as an immunogen for providing long-term protection, remains uncertain. While DNA vaccines have been highly effective in rodents, their efficacy in nonhuman primates or humans has been less impressive. Priming-boosting immunization protocols that use DNA immunization followed by boosting with poxvirus vectors carrying the genes for pathogen proteins have yielded dramatically enhanced immune responses in animal studies, with 30-fold or greater increases in antibody titer from the booster (31). A different priming-boosting strategy using replication-defective adenovirus for an Ebola virus vaccine was tested in cynomolgus macaques (36). This study demonstrated the superior immunologic efficacy of this priming-boosting combination for both cellular and humoral responses. These animals displayed complete immune protection against a lethal challenge of virus, providing the first demonstration of an Ebola virus vaccine approach that protects primates against infection. Recently, an accelerated vaccination has been developed that confers protection against a lethal virus challenge in nonhuman primates after a single immunization (36a). If this vaccine works similarly in humans, it may be useful in the containment of acute outbreaks by ring vaccination. In summary, an understanding of the mechanisms underlying Ebola virus-induced cytopathic effects has facilitated the process of vaccine and antiviral therapy development, which has in turn provided new information about pathogenesis and the immune response. Ebola virus does not exhibit the high degree of variability that other enveloped viruses may employ to evade host immunity, but Ebola virus GP alters target-cell function and exemplifies a novel strategy for immune evasion that may have arisen through the evolution of Ebola virus with its natural host. The cytotoxic effects of GP on macrophage and endothelial cell function disrupt inflammatory cell function and the integrity of the vasculature. In addition, by altering the cell surface expression of adhesion proteins and immune recognition molecules, Ebola virus may disrupt processes critical to immune activation and cytolytic-T-cell function. These phenomena likely account for the dysregulation of the inflammatory response and the vascular dysfunction characteristic of lethal Ebola virus infection, providing a rationale for focusing on GP as a target for a preventative vaccine and providing leads for other clinical interventions.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC224575/?report=classic

Health

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During this season, there is particular emphasis on an event that occurred over 2,000 years ago in the town of Bethlehem. Christmas commemorates the birth of Jesus, prophesied in the Old Testament. However, to fully understand the significance of Christmas, we need to understand the history of the Old Testament that led up to this greatest of events. Following the creation of the world, we read of the creation of the first man, called “Adam,” from whom all of mankind is descended. When God created Adam, he didn’t make him to be a puppet; Adam had the ability to choose and make decisions. God gave Adam an instruction to obey in Genesis 2. Adam, however, chose to disobey God by eating the fruit of the one tree God had told him not to eat from. Because Adam was the first member of the human race, what Adam did affected all of humanity. The punishment for Adam’s sin was death (bodily death with our immortal souls separated from God)—not only for Adam but for all his descendants. In Genesis 3:15, God made a statement that provided hope to Adam and Eve and their descendants (us) and actually sums up the message of the entire Bible: there is a way to be saved from the effects of sin. This declaration summarizes the whole meaning of Christmas: I will put enmity between you and the woman, and between your offspring and her offspring; he shall bruise your head, and you shall bruise his heel. The words “her offspring ” are actually a prophecy concerning the One who, conceived by God Himself, would be born of a woman (actually a virgin): the baby who was born in Bethlehem—the last Adam. The first Adam was the father of humanity and endowed all his descendants with sin and death (Romans 5:12). The last Adam, Jesus Christ, the baby of Bethlehem, communicates life and light to all people, and gives eternal life to those who receive him and believe on his name—to become the sons of God (John 1:1–14). This is the message of Jesus’ birth in Bethlehem. It starts with the creation of a perfect world, and then, because of our sin in Adam, leads to our need of a Savior—which is why Jesus stepped into history 2,000 years ago. Today, we talk about “keeping Christ in Christmas,” but do we communicate clearly enough why this is so important? If we discount the account of creation, we remove the significance of Christmas. And sadly, generations of young people are being educated in schools and by the media with evolutionary ideas about our origins. The erosion of Christianity in society is directly linked to the attack on the history of Genesis and the increasing indoctrination in a false history—that man is a result of millions of years of evolutionary processes. If we discount the account of creation, we remove the significance of Christmas. The message of the two Adams is what life is all about. But if we want people to understand this message, we need to clearly show them that the history in Genesis is true, for otherwise, they will not understand or listen to what is said about the babe of Bethlehem. Editor’s note: This article is a summary of the article “What Is Christmas?”

https://answersingenesis.org/christmas/from-genesis-to-bethlehem/

Religion

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Phillis Wheatley – There is an analogy that states, ‘When you were born, you looked like your parents, but when you die, you look like your decisions.’ This profound statement’s ideology must have awakened the inner power in Phillis Wheatley, as she dared to walk through the valley of the shadow of death to fulfill her purpose. Torn between the deep red sea and the devil, with no iota of hope, Wheatley defied reality’s odds to become the pioneer of what can be contemporarily described as the legend of words. Delving into her remarkable life story, Phillis Wheatley was a slave from Senegal purchased by an American. Sold at just seven years old, this must have tainted young Wheatley’s childhood experience. Amidst her plethora of pain and misery, she began writing poetry in a foreign language at thirteen. Although her authorship of these indelible poems was questioned, at twenty years old, she was extolled for her extraordinary performance as she recited texts from Virgil, Milton, and the Bible, affirming the originality of her work. Phillis Wheatley’s noteworthy dedication to her gifts and talents earned her the distinction of being the first African-American author to publish a book in the United States. Phillis Wheatley’s impact is remembered through various dedications, including her inclusion on the Boston Women’s Heritage Trail. Her name is honored by institutions such as the YWCA in Washington, D.C., high schools in Houston and Florida, and libraries in South Carolina and New York. Moreover, elementary schools and community centers in New Orleans, Greenville, and Minneapolis bear her name, testifying to her enduring legacy. In the contemporary era, Wheatley’s gifts have spread like a gospel, inspiring remarkable poets globally who persevere in making society a better place through their masterpieces. Unfortunately, she died at the age of 31. (Born in 1753- Died in 1784)

https://www.voiceyourstories.com/phillis-wheatley-the-extraordinary-poet/

Literature

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Foods humans should never eat It's important to choose entire foods that will fuel your mental and physical health and help you feel your best when it comes to eating healthily. Although eating ice cream or chocolate occasionally is good, eating leafy greens and salmon regularly is also important for maintaining balance in In your diet, you should limit the foods on this list a little more about it, though. A favorite of yours may have made the list, but it's entirely fine to continue to enjoy it periodically. In spite of this, they might not be among the most nutrient-dense foods to include as part of a balanced, healthy diet. The opinions of a few dietitians about these foods are shown below. According to Suzanne Dixon, RD, a registered dietician with the Mesothelioma Center in Orlando, Florida, drinking sugar-sweetened soda can cause dental decay, obesity, fatty liver disease, high triglycerides, type 2 diabetes, and other health problems. Having soda once a week is acceptable if you love it. Dixon advises, "But keep it out of the house and don't treat it as an everyday method of self-hydration." Sweetened Fruit in Cans The majority of the canned fruit you'll find in the grocery store is made with heavy syrups or heaps of added sugar. This can be an unneeded source of extra sugar in the diet, similar to soda. Choose only fruit that has been canned in its own juice if you do so, advises Dixon. And don't drink the juice; pour it off. Fresh fruit is usually a better option, says Better alternatives include fresh, frozen, or sugar-free Industrial Fried Foods French fries, battered fish, and fried chicken are just a few quick foods that are frequently fried and cooked in hot cooking oils. Although trans fats were outlawed by the FDA in 2018 and are not present in foods purchased at the grocery store, repeatedly reheating cooking oils can increase the likelihood that trans fats are present in food. Edible oils can naturally form trans fatty acids by being heated and reheated to very high temperatures, according to a study from 2022 that was published in It is well recognized that trans fats raise the risk of certain medical disorders, such as high LDL ("bad") cholesterol. Better alternatives include frying food at home while keeping oil temperatures below smoking. Don't buy energy drinks and don't keep them around the house to break the habit of reaching for one. If you need to keep an energy drink at home, read the label and double-check the contents, advises Maggie Michalczyk, M.S., RD. Instead of drinking energy drinks, she advises choosing tea or coffee as your primary source of caffeine. Go for natural alternatives rather than those that contain a lot of sugar or ingredients with unfamiliar names. Tea and coffee are preferable choices. Pretzels are a meal that is easy to consume in excess, yet they provide virtually little nourishment, according to Michalczyk. This does not exclude you from ever enjoying pretzels; however, try to select whole-grain varieties or consume them in moderation. Try another crunchy food that is high in fiber, such as carrot and jicama sticks or whole-grain crackers. To increase the amount of protein and fiber in your snack, you may also dip your pretzels in a healthy spread like hummus. Avoid using artificial sweeteners on a regular basis, if you can. The sweetness of these can range from 200 to 7,000 times that of table sugar. The sweet taste can interfere with your ability to recognize foods that should genuinely taste sweet, according to Kelly Jones M.S., RD, CSSD, LDN. Despite the fact that they may be able to use less, they advertise this as a positive. The healthy bacteria in our digestive tract can also be disrupted and appetite can increase with regular use, Jones continues. Sweeteners that are derived naturally, like honey and maple syrup, are preferable selections. Marinated Deli Meats Here, we're not referring to freshly butchered, lean meat. You should probably avoid processed, high-sodium deli meats for your health. According to Jones, "Nitrates and nitrates are added to the most popular cured meats such as bacon, sausage, ham, and other lunch meats." Better alternatives include making a sandwich with chicken breast or using hummus, eggs, or cheese as a protein-rich filling. likewise, there are some nitrate-free options available on the market. Propylparaben is an ingredient that is used in some products like tortillas and muffins, adds Jones, even though many people strive to avoid parabens in skin-care and body-care products. According to Jones, parabens may have the ability to interfere with the functions of hormones in the body. In addition, they include more calories, sugar, and saturated fat than homemade versions. Although we love muffins, we recommend that, whenever possible, you make your own delicious blueberry or pumpkin muffins from scratch rather than purchasing packaged muffins from the store. Popcorn packaged from the microwave We are discussing packaged treats found in convenience stores, which are similar to muffins. I truly adore popcorn and suggest it as a nutritious whole-grain treat (yep, popcorn is a complete grain)! However, the issue with bagged microwave popcorn is that it contains a ton of additives, according to Natalie Rizzo, M.S., RD. Perfluoroalkyl and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) may also be present in food packaging, including microwave popcorn bags. Synthetic chemicals such as PFAS can raise your chance of developing conditions including hypertension. Indeed, cheese can be canned, but it won't taste the same as fresh cheese. However, cheese in a can is the furthest thing from cheese. Cheese is another food that I really love. It is made up of a variety of processed chemicals that together make for a less-than-healthy product, according to Rizzo. Better alternatives include choosing a string cheese or a slice of cheddar cheese, both of which add protein and calcium to your diet. your health while learning more! Consider the advice we've given if you want to be as healthy and fit as you can be. Through the provision of excellent, fact-based services, we hope to enhance your general well-being. Subject-matter specialists have been collected to give training resources on a variety of health-related issues. We have put a lot of effort into educating you so that you might have the happiest life imaginable. You can get information on sound sleeping habits elsewhere other than the most recent headlines. Share YOUR PERSONAL HEALTH EXPERIENCE IN THE COMMENTS BELOW. The article might have a rating. - A foods list - Foods you should never eat - Worst food u can eat - Foods difficult to digest - Foods definition Post a Comment

https://www.healthlifekit.com/2023/04/10-dangerous-foods-you-should-never-eat.html

Food

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Without a spark, your car will not start—or go anywhere. In cars, the spark plug provides the spark needed by the ignition to start a car. This electrical spark from a spark plug ignites the fuel/air mixture in the combustion chamber. Electrical energy is transmitted through the spark plug, jumping the gap in the plugs firing end if the voltage supplied to the plug is high enough. The condition of the spark plugs determines the performance of a car engine. Without healthy ones—your ride cannot sustain maximum power. Now, here are some signs that your spark plugs need replacements. Your Car Doesn’t Start Easily If you have trouble starting your car, and you are sure it is not a battery problem and your car is not out of fuel, it might just be a bad or worn out spark plug. A bad or worn out spark plug does not produce the spark needed to get the vehicle moving. If this happens, your car won’t start. A faulty spark plug can drain your car battery. Your engine constantly misfires A car engine misfires when it causes the moving car to suddenly halt – for a fraction of a second – and then resumes normal motion. When this happens, it means one or more cylinders are not firing properly. This condition can lead to higher petrol gas emission or the burning of more fuel. Engine Gives Inconsistent sound The sound originating from the engine is consistent and smooth. But if your spark plugs are not performing as they should, your engine will produce a rough and jittery sound while producing larger vibrations through the car. Not having this checked can lead to costly damage being done. Lack of acceleration When your car does not accelerate when you put your foot on the accelerator, this is also a sign of a bad spark plug. This ‘sluggishness’ can be easily fixed by having the vehicle serviced with a spark plug change. Increased fuel consumption A worn-out or bad spark plug causes your car to burn more fuel within a short time. Your car fuel economy will depreciate by up to 30%. This is due to incomplete combustion. If you notice you have to fill up more often than usual it can be caused by deteriorating spark plugs. To get back to your vehicle’s optimum level of fuel consumption all you will need to do is have your spark plugs changed. When your car jerks and then slows down, or it constantly starts and stops, this could be a sign of a bad spark plug. Jerking or surging occurs when a vehicle sucks in more air than usual in the combustion process. Jerking can cause a car in motion to slow down or continually start and stop. When this happens, it means the vehicle’s engine is working inefficiently. This is also known as engine hesitation and a dangerous situation can arise if this occurs in traffic.

https://autojosh.com/how-to-tell-if-your-spark-plug-needs-replacement/

Car Talk

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Psychology is an extraordinarily diverse field with hundreds of career paths. Some specialties, like caring for people with mental and emotional disorders, are familiar to most of us. Others, like helping with the design of advanced computer systems or studying how we remember things, are less well known. What all psychologists have in common is a shared interest in the minds and behaviors of both human and nonhuman animals. In their work, psychologists draw on an ever-expanding body of scientific knowledge about how we think, act and feel and they apply the information to their areas of expertise. Many psychologists work in more than one setting. For instance, college professors often consult for industry or see clients on a part-time basis. Although it is possible to identify a host of different work settings, for the purpose of this booklet, we’ll consider some of the most prominent examples. Where psychologists work Note: The chart represents employment settings for those with recent doctorates in psychology. Totals amount to 97 percent due to rounding and exclusion of 17 "not specified" responses. Adapted from D. Michalski, J. Kohout, M. Wicherski & B. Hart (2011), 2009 Doctorate Employment Survey (Table 3) (PDF, 33KB). Psychologists conduct research Many psychologists conduct research that runs the gamut from studies of basic brain functions to individual behavior to the behavior of complex social organizations. Subjects of such scientific study include nonhuman animals, human infants, both well-functioning and emotionally disturbed people, older persons, students, workers and just about every other population one can imagine. Some research takes place in laboratories where the study conditions can be carefully controlled; some is carried out in the field, such as the workplace, the highway, schools and hospitals, where behavior is studied as it occurs naturally. Much of the laboratory research is conducted in universities, government agencies (such as the National Institutes of Health and the armed services) and private research organizations. Whereas most psychological scientists are engaged in the actual planning and conduct of research, some are employed in management or administration — usually after having served as active researchers. Dr. Linda M. Bartoshuk Psychophysics psychologist, researcher, and university professor I am a psychologist and Bushnell Professor at the University of Florida (UF). I direct human research in the UF Center for Smell and Taste and collaborate with food scientists and plant geneticists working to make fruits and vegetables more palatable. I study taste and the genetic and pathological conditions that affect taste and thus alter a variety of behaviors (dietary choice, smoking, drinking) affecting health. I earned my BA at Carleton College. Although I began my college career as an astronomy major, my courses in astronomy got me interested in people’s abilities to compare the brightness of stars, and that led to my interest in the senses. I switched my major to psychology. After receiving my PhD from Brown University, I worked at the Natick Army Research labs (where research related to food for military personnel is conducted), then went to the Pierce Foundation and Yale University in New Haven, Conn., and am now at the University of Florida in Gainesville. Psychology contributes to health in significant ways. As an academic working in the health professions, I have collaborated with dentists and physicians in using psychophysics to quantify symptoms, thereby advancing the understanding of disorders in my field (taste/oral pain) and promoting patient well-being. Psychology and the science supporting it have never been more relevant to the world around us. I spend a typical workday at my computer and with patients. My students and I design experiments to study the sense of taste, run the experiments and then analyze the data. Sometimes I serve as a subject in experiments, because I never do an experiment on another person that has not been done on me first. I believe that to be a psychologist, a good background in mathematics and science is useful, and you need to observe the world around you and yourself. Behavior is fascinating. Psychology includes many subspecialties. The more you learn about them, the easier it will be to pick an area that will use your skills and give you great satisfaction. I love being a psychologist. We study the behavior we see, but we know how to look beneath the surface to explore mechanisms. We are sophisticated and tolerant thinkers, yet we recognize nonsense. We have an impact on the lives of real people, and we care about them. To me, there is no better way to spend one’s life...I feel very lucky to be able to do the work that I love. The best advice that I ever gave myself was to go with my heart! Dr. Robert Rescorla University professor and research psychologist who studies how we learn Dr. Robert Rescorla became a psychologist because he likes puzzles. “You see a phenomenon and try to understand it,” he says. “I like the logic of designing an experiment, developing a hypothesis, and testing your ideas.” Dr. Rescorla studies his favorite phenomenon, learning, at the University of Pennsylvania, where he directs undergraduate studies in psychology and is Christopher H. Browne Distinguished Professor in Psychology. Throughout his career, he has discovered and defined the ways that animals (including humans) learn, especially by the power of association. His love of research was sparked at Swarthmore College, where one professor encouraged students to conduct their own experiments in visual perception. Recalls Dr. Rescorla, “It was exciting to be the first person in the world to know the answer to something.” After graduating in 1962, he earned a PhD in psychology in 1966 at the University of Pennsylvania. Inspired by a book by one of the field’s early researchers, Dr. Rescorla and Dr. Richard Solomon embarked on a classic series of experiments on the mechanisms of learned fear. Their findings have helped to shape effective therapies for treating phobia and other anxiety disorders. Dr. Rescorla began his teaching career at Yale University. In 1981, he returned to the University of Pennsylvania, where in 1986 he was appointed the James M. Skinner Professor of Science. He studies not only how animals and humans learn that one stimulus signals another, but also how they learn that this relationship no longer holds. Dr. Rescorla also figured out how to measure the strength of learning, the key to documenting his observations. This lifelong researcher has seen his work help to relieve human suffering. Armed with insights into associative learning, clinical psychologists have developed ways to “extinguish” the phobias that develop when people learn to fear a stimulus because it signals a painful experience. Dr. Rescorla encourages more undergraduate research because, as he learned, “Once you do it, you’re hooked.” At Penn, he has chaired the psychology department and been dean of the College of Arts and Sciences. He was elected to the Society of Experimental Psychologists in 1975 and to the National Academy of Sciences in 1985. For students considering psychology, he recommends a broad liberal arts education and adds, “Take the psychology intro course, and then sample broadly around it so you can find out what psychology is, whether it’s right for you, and what particular topic within it grabs you.” Dr. Rescorla also urges students to study more biology and math. “Psychology increasingly has a biological component — not just in the laboratory but in the applied world, for various therapies. Plus, you will need more of a quantitative background.” Dr. Stanley Sue Clinical psychologist, researcher, and university professor I am a professor of psychology and the director of the Center for Excellence in Diversity at Palo Alto University. Unlike psychologists who specialize in a technique or a theory, I specialize in a population. Much of my work focuses on Asian American and ethnic minority clients, who often have special needs, especially if they immigrated to the United States. I went to an all-boys technical high school and wanted to be a television repairman. Within a year, I became disinterested in electronics and woodworking, so I switched schools and tried to prepare myself for college. Along the way, I decided I wanted to become a clinical psychologist even though I was quite naive and didn’t know what a clinical psychologist actually did. But I remember always watching a television program called The Eleventh Hour that featured both a psychiatrist and a psychologist and thinking that this is what I wanted to do. I told my father that I was interested in psychology, particularly clinical psychology. He’s Chinese from the old country and couldn’t understand what a psychologist does and how one could make a living at it. But I persisted and went to the University of Oregon to major in psychology and then to the University of California, Los Angeles for graduate work. Since then, my three brothers have gone into psychology. The oldest brother even married a psychologist! At the Palo Alto University center, we focus on cultural and group issues involving diversity dimensions such as ethnicity; race; lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender issues; gender; and social class. We conduct research, develop programs to promote diversity, integrate such issues into our courses, and recruit and train students to work effectively with diverse groups. My particular area of interest is to study rates of mental disorders among Chinese people in the United States. Little is known about Asian Americans in this regard. Many people have said that Chinese and other Asian Americans don’t have many mental health problems. But we know that they have problems just like any other group of people, although there are some differences in the distribution of disorders. What we have found generally, however, is that Asian Americans tend to underutilize mental health services and that those who do use the services tend to be very disturbed. This means that Asian American people with mild disturbances tend not to come in until their problems are serious. We’re also trying to determine the factors related to mental disturbances among some Chinese people in this country and the factors that seem to insulate others in this population from mental problems. Several researchers at the center are also studying parent–child conflicts in Asian American families to see if the conflicts are different from those affecting other ethnic families and to identify ways to resolve the conflicts. Other investigators are looking at husband–wife problems to ascertain if they’re unique because of cultural differences. One researcher has developed a scale that measures “loss of face,” which is a particularly important concept for people of Asian descent; fear of losing face affects how they behave. We are also going to look at how to improve the delivery of effective mental health services to Asian Americans. Psychologists study social development Developmental psychologists study the many behavioral and psychological changes that occur throughout the life span. Dr. Pamela Trotman Reid Developmental psychologist, researcher, professor and college president Developmental psychologists look at the changes that occur across an entire lifetime. It is a fantastic area because you can do so many different things. You can focus on language development, for example, and study why children’s speech may not reflect their thinking. You can look at adolescents and the problems they have in establishing identity. Or you can examine families, from how they use discipline to how they develop attitudes. There is also a growing interest in adult development and aging, partly because of the graying of America and partly because we are beginning to realize that we don’t stop growing when we reach puberty. Instead, we continue to change and develop in many areas all our lives. Developmental psychologists can investigate adult learning issues at the workplace or the effects of aging on cognition. I was always interested in science; even as a child I had played with chemistry sets. At Howard University in Washington, D.C., I majored in chemistry and thought about becoming a medical doctor. But because so many of my friends were taking psychology as an elective, I did, too. Psychology, I learned, is about both science and the application of science to people. I fell in love with the subject, switched my major to psychology, and then went to graduate school and earned my doctorate in educational psychology. As a researcher and professor in psychology for many years, I specialized in social development; the effects of gender and culture were my primary interest. Today, as the president of Saint Joseph College in Connecticut, I still get a great deal of pleasure from teaching and research. I enjoy helping my students prepare for leadership roles by studying how leaders develop and what factors influence their leadership styles from childhood through adulthood. In some of my past studies, I investigated why girls act in certain ways and why boys behave in different ways. One small body of research had suggested that women and girls are typically more interested in babies than men and boys are. But all this research had been conducted on White children and adults. So I looked at both Black and White children and found no difference between African American boys and girls! In 8- to 10-year-old middle-class children, the White girls liked the babies (they looked at them, touched them, and smiled at them), the African American girls liked the babies, and even the African American boys liked the babies. Only the White boys appeared uninterested. As often happens, the research led to more questions. Now, instead of asking why girls are more interested than boys in babies, the question became are we socializing White boys so that they don’t like babies? I also conducted research with children who lived in shelters because their families were homeless. I learned about the stresses they undergo so that we can understand how some children cope and others do not. For me, the important thing is that in psychology, you can research the questions that you are interested in, not only those that someone else has posed. Dr. Miguel Ybarra Counseling psychologist and director of a VA substance abuse treatment program There are many ways to enter the field of psychology, but the best way is to understand your strengths and what it is you want to accomplish. I started my academic career as a music major. One of my professors helped me see that my strengths, however, were in another area. I decided that there had to be a better fit for me in a different career. One day, it occurred to me that most of my friends and family would seek me out to talk about things going on in their lives. I felt I had a natural ability to help people see the options that were before them. It was at that moment that I decided to explore what I could get out of (and offer) the field of psychology. Having to master statistics and research methodology was an intimidating prospect. In fact, the very idea of having to learn this material was so worrisome that I almost decided not to apply to graduate school at all! But once I started learning the material and applied these skills to real-life situations, it made sense and became enjoyable. Statistics became a tool I would use to actually provide the clinical services for which I was in training. This was the best part of my academic experience because the very thing that almost kept me out of a graduate program became the means to achieving my goals. During my course work in counseling psychology at the University of Wisconsin—Madison, I was fortunate enough to have worked with one of my professors and participate in a study he was directing. The design of this project was to learn about the use of various coping strategies by middle-school students living and interacting in a multicultural setting. This experience became even more important to me when I realized that we were also searching for ways to get our findings back to the community that had agreed to participate in the study. With great enthusiasm, we presented our findings to the parents and teachers of those students at an open meeting. Through all of this, I learned that the need for psychologists to bring crosscultural considerations and multicultural competency to their work is increasing daily because of the changing cultural and ethnic composition of our country. As members of the larger and increasingly diverse society, we need to meet the needs of people from different backgrounds and communities, thus allowing them to build on their strengths. Also, let us not forget the role of language. We must understand the context from which language (and behavior) emanates in order to be successful psychologists, whether we are conducting research, teaching or providing therapy. Since completing my doctoral degree, I have worked as a full-time and part-time faculty member and have taught in undergraduate, master’s and doctoral programs and in college counseling centers. I have also been involved with the Veterans Affairs initiative to integrate mental health with primary health care; worked as a consultant for businesses and academic programs; and conducted research. Currently, I am the program director of a VA substance abuse treatment program. Each professional experience has helped to shape my own journey and has added to my satisfaction and success within the field of psychology. My best advice is to seek out diverse experiences that match your interests, be ready to transform a “not-so-great” job description into a great work experience, and never take yourself out of the running to achieve a goal you want to attain. Psychologists teach and provide services to students Psychologists provide a number of services — both direct and indirect — to children, youth and families in schools at all levels, from early childhood education settings through college. Some focus on improving student learning and behavior through research on topics such as motivation and cognitive processes, while others provide psychological services within educational settings. Psychologists work within specialty areas of learning, too, such as the arts and sports. School psychologists help students with learning or behavior problems in the classroom and serve as members of the interdisciplinary teams that develop individual educational plans for students with learning disabilities, social and emotional issues, or other special needs. They work with students and staff members on schoolwide issues such as bullying prevention, and they consult with teachers on problems in the classroom. Dr. Sylvia Rosenfield School psychologist, university professor and consultant Schools are essential to our democratic society. I find them fascinating as organizations and recognize how important they are to children’s learning and mental health. I enjoy solving problems in schools and am never bored. As an undergraduate at Cornell, I took Urie Bronfenbrenner’s child development course and became aware of how much settings contribute to behavior. Years later, after obtaining my degree from the University of Wisconsin in educational psychology, with a major in school psychology, I maintained my focus on settings and learning environments. Over the course of my career, I have worked as a school psychologist in the Madison (Wisconsin) public schools and as a school psychology faculty member at Fordham University in New York City, Temple University in Philadelphia, and the University of Maryland. I have been engaged in teaching, research and consultation with state education departments and with school systems around the country. My work has consistently been about enhancing learning environments for staff and students. Schools today are diverse institutions, reflecting the multicultural nature of our society. There is consensus that schools have a mission to educate all students, including those of color, those with mental health and learning issues and those whose impoverished backgrounds have limited their learning opportunities. School psychologists play a key role in this essential work. As a faculty member in Fordham University’s urban school psychology program, I initiated a bilingual school psychology specialty to reflect our urban mission. We recruited and funded bilingual students and also provided all the school psychology students in the program with a better understanding of how culture and language affect teacher perceptions of students and student outcomes. School psychologists engage in direct interaction and service to students, as well as focus on prevention (such as bullying prevention) and intervention through consulting with school staff about student concerns. My focus has been on using consultation skills to support school staff in promoting positive student outcomes, particularly for students at risk of developing more severe academic and behavior problems. Through my work on consultation, I recognized the importance of helping schools develop structures so that staff can support their students’ development more effectively and efficiently. My colleagues and I created Instructional Consultation Teams (IC Teams), which we developed at the Lab for IC Teams at the University of Maryland. We embedded evidence-based process skills and content into a team structure and figured out how to help schools implement and sustain IC Teams, which are now conducted in multiple states and school districts. People spend a large part of their lives in school. When you return as a school psychologist, you see the schools in a new way. Helping to create healthy environments in which children and youth can flourish is a rewarding life’s work. Psychologists promote physical and mental health Psychologists as health providers span a large and diverse spectrum of subfields. Some psychologists work alone, with patients and clients coming to the psychologist’s office. Others are involved in health care teams and typically work in hospitals, medical schools, outpatient clinics, nursing homes, pain clinics, rehabilitation facilities, and community health and mental health centers. Increasingly, psychologists in independent practice are contracting on either a part-time or a full-time basis with organizations to provide a wide range of services. For example, a psychologist can join a health practice and work with a team of other health care providers, such as physicians, nutritionists, physiotherapists and social workers, to prevent or treat illness. This team approach, which is likely to become more common in the future, frequently includes efforts to change unhealthy behaviors and ensure that patients follow the recommended treatment. The team also helps patients cope with stress. Psychologists also instruct students who are training to become health care professionals, such as physicians and nurses, about the psychological factors involved in illness. And they advise health care providers already in practice so that illnesses with symptoms that have a psychological component can be better diagnosed and treated. Dr. Daniel Abrahamson Clinical psychologist, administrator and advocate It’s important to pick a career that suits your temperament and your likes and dislikes. I grew up in a family that values helping people who are less fortunate and less able to take care of themselves. So psychology was a natural choice for me. I studied clinical psychology in graduate school. I also went into psychology because I thought it would provide me with more variety than any other field. I have been a practicing psychologist, an administrator, a consultant and a researcher. I now work for the American Psychological Association as assistant executive director for state advocacy. Before coming to APA, I was a clinical psychologist and the administrative director of a large group practice — The Traumatic Stress Institute (TSI) — in Connecticut. At TSI, my colleagues and I dealt with trauma — everything from natural disasters and industrial accidents to physical and sexual abuse. The institute is a model for independent practice because we did more than sit in an office for 50 minutes of psychotherapy with a patient — although we did that, too. But we also did research, training and community education to help traumatized individuals get their lives back on track as quickly as possible. At TSI, my colleagues and I valued professional involvement and advocated for public policy that provides services and secures the rights for those who have experienced traumatic events. Over time, I became more involved in advocacy efforts on a number of fronts, primarily through my various roles in the state psychological association and also at APA. Ultimately, I changed careers and began working full-time at APA on a broad range of issues affecting the professional practice of psychology at the state and national levels. For the past several years I’ve worked on health care reform, changes in health finance and reimbursement as they affect psychological and mental health services, and parity in mental health insurance coverage. All of these opportunities to advance the practice of psychology stemmed from my earlier role as a practitioner interested in contributing to the field through state advocacy efforts. It is essential more than ever that psychologists think both locally — regarding their individual practices — and globally — concerning how they can contribute to the larger world. Through involvement in a broad range of institutions (e.g., educational, health care, business/corporate, correctional, environmental systems), psychologists can have a significant impact on the psychological well-being of others. I can’t think of a single part of our culture, a single part of the world that we live in, where psychology doesn’t have something to contribute. I get excited when I think that I can make a difference in somebody’s life. I love the field. Dr. Dorothy W. Cantor Clinical psychologist in independent practice I like to help people solve their problems. My work as a clinical psychologist with an independent practice in New Jersey allows me plenty of opportunity to do so. I help individuals from teenagers to octogenarians, and some couples, who have varied psychological or relationship concerns. I earned my PsyD, a professional psychology doctorate, in 1976, was licensed in 1978 and since then have practiced psychodynamic therapy, which assumes that a person’s early years are a critical part of his or her current problem and explores them in the context of the patient–therapist relationship. I listen with the ear of someone who is trained to understand the dynamics of what the person is saying. If medication is indicated for the patient, I coordinate the treatment with a local psychiatrist. Psychology wasn’t my first career. I was originally trained to teach because that’s what most women who went to college in the 1950s did. Beginning when my children were in preschool, I earned two master’s degrees (in reading education and school psychology) at New Jersey’s Kean College. I went on to earn the newly offered PsyD, a doctoral degree designed for people who want to practice psychology, at Rutgers University’s Graduate School of Applied and Professional Psychology. It was important that the schools I attended be close to home so that I could combine my education with being a mom — and Rutgers is 35 minutes from home! I earned my doctorate so that I could be licensed to have a clinical private practice. As a school psychologist, I did a lot of the assessing of problems but never got to help alleviate them. To be a good psychologist, you should be a good listener, nonjudgmental, smart and flexible in order to apply scientific theory to people in a nonformulaic way, which takes a certain creativity. I advise students entering the field to prepare for many years of education, all the way to the doctorate. The rewards are just so great. It’s so gratifying to be helpful to people on an ongoing basis. I am past president of the American Psychological Association and current president of the American Psychological Foundation. I’ve written many articles and several books, including "Women in Power" (with Dr. Toni Bernay), "What Do You Want to Do When You Grow Up?" and "Finding Your Voice." And I’ve appeared as an expert on many television shows, including Good Morning America, Prime Time Live and the Today show. What lies ahead? I expect psychology to become more of a part of the bigger health care system, as people come to understand how mind and body interact. I hope that people will go for mental health checkups the way they go for physical health checkups. As for my career, my role model was a 90-year-old psychologist who worked until her death. I plan to write a few more books. And then, as always, I’ll see what opportunities present themselves. There are just so many opportunities for psychologists. Dr. Rodney Hammond Health psychologist and CDC violence-prevention program administrator My passionate interest in helping people live their lives to their fullest potential is what attracted me to psychology. My early training and experiences prepared me for career opportunities that I could scarcely have imagined as an undergraduate in college. Ultimately, I identified as a health psychologist because it is a field that goes beyond traditional mental health and addresses broader health concerns. When I started as an undergraduate at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, I hadn’t decided on my major. To help finance my education, I took a part-time job in a child development research program sponsored by the psychology department. There, I observed inner-city children in settings designed to enhance their learning. I saw firsthand the contributions psychology can make, and I knew I wanted to be a psychologist. After completing undergraduate work in psychology, I went on to earn my doctorate, focusing on children, both in school and in the community. When I graduated, there was no such thing as a health psychologist. I started as an assistant professor in a doctoral program in school psychology at the University of Tennessee. But soon I went on to direct a children’s program at Meharry Medical College in Nashville. As a psychologist in a medical setting, I could help children with health problems as well as their families and physicians. At Meharry, I was in charge of an extensive and innovative program with an interdisciplinary staff. We worked with children who had developmental disabilities, dealt with child abuse and neglect, developed partial hospitalization for children with emotional problems, and created prevention programs for youths at risk. I then became assistant dean at the Wright State University School of Professional Psychology in Ohio, where I trained clinical psychologists and directed a program to prevent homicide and violence among minority youths. Most of my career was spent at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), where for 15 years I served as the director of the Division of Violence Prevention at the National Center for Injury Prevention and Control (I retired in 2011). The division, with its budget of more than $100 million, manages research, surveillance, and programs in intentional injury; homicide, suicide, and youth, family and intimate partner violence prevention; and rape and sexual assault prevention. As director of this CDC division, I oversaw the world’s largest concentration of public health experts working on violence issues and prevention. These experts come from a variety of fields, including psychology, medicine, sociology, economics and epidemiology. I was also involved in global efforts to prevent violence through the World Health Organization and Pan American Health Organization. Through my work, I was able to achieve a career level unprecedented by a psychologist — I was the first psychologist to serve as the director of a division of the CDC. As you can see from my experience and background, my early work as a health psychologist was the basis for — but just the beginning of — this adventure. Psychology is much more than the traditional roles you may be aware of. When you think of a career in psychology, think beyond those limited roles! Dr. Parinda Khatri Clinical psychologist and community health organization director I was always interested in human behavior; it seemed to be a key component to so many aspects and issues in life. I was also strongly influenced by my father, who was both a sociologist and psychologist. When I was a child, he would talk to me about the work of Freud and B. F. Skinner. I knew words like classical conditioning and super ego before I reached the 9th grade! I wanted to contribute to society and engage in a variety of activities such as teaching, clinical practice and research. Psychology offered the opportunity to fulfill these goals in a meaningful way. After majoring in psychology at the University of Alabama at Birmingham, I graduated with a PhD in clinical psychology from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. I completed a postdoctoral fellowship at Duke University Medical Center, which was an amazing experience. On my first day I joined the cardiac rehab team and talked to patients about health behavior change while walking on a track with them. What a shift from the traditional 50-minute therapy session! From then on I realized that the knowledge and skill base in psychology could be adapted to fit almost any setting and, moreover, could have a significant impact on a person’s quality of life, health status and overall functioning. Today I am director of integrated care at Cherokee Health Systems (CHS), which is a comprehensive community health organization that provides integrated primary care and behavioral health services in east Tennessee. CHS is both a federally qualified health center and a community mental health center, with a mission of improving the physical and mental health of everyone in our community. As a community health organization, we see everyone in our communities regardless of their ability to pay. Therefore, we are able to bring progressive, evidenced-based health care to everyone, including people who are uninsured. Working in community health means I can fulfill my personal and professional mission to work with the underserved in our communities. As director, I am responsible for implementing the clinical model of integrating behavioral health and primary care to optimize functioning and quality of life for our patients. I am also involved in teaching and consulting with other organizations as part of CHS’s training and outreach initiatives on integrated care. I serve on teams that provide oversight and guidance regarding clinical activities and procedures within the organization. In my leadership role, I am responsible for many of CHS’s wellness, chronic care and research initiatives. As training director of CHS’s APA-accredited internship program, I am closely involved with teaching, clinical supervision, and program administration. On any given day, I may see patients, work on a grant, develop a training schedule, address operational and clinical issues that arise at any of our clinics, provide clinical supervision (i.e., supervise the work of other providers) and participate in a management meeting. I love the variety and stimulation in my work. I get to work with bright, mission-oriented individuals with a range of expertise in different fields, including medicine, behavioral health and business management. Working in a community health setting with a mission to the underserved provides tremendous professional and personal satisfaction. Primary care psychology offers exciting opportunities for psychologists to practice in a unique and rewarding setting. It is a significant growth area in the field. My advice to new psychologists: Work hard, be guided by a sense of mission and purpose, think outside of the box and be open to new possibilities. You will be amazed by the opportunities that will come your way. Dr. Carol Manning Neuropsychologist and university professor My doctoral degree was in clinical psychology. I do clinical work, research and teaching at the University of Virginia. All three aspects of my career are very important to me. For example, I work in a memory disorders clinic as part of a team of neurologists, nurses and medical technicians. I oversee patient treatment apart from medication. What I learn in my research, I use in my clinical practice. And in my clinical practice, I learn the important questions to ask in my research. One of my patients who has Alzheimer’s disease is in a clinical drug trial involving an experimental medication. No one knows if he is receiving medication or a placebo, which is something that looks like the medication but is actually inert (i.e., an inactive substance or preparation). I assess this person periodically and also talk with his wife occasionally to determine whether his condition has changed. I test his ability to remember things, and I look to see if the kinds of judgments he makes are the same kinds of judgments you or I would make. I test his ability to know the time, date and place — to see if he knows generally where he is. I look at his ability to copy drawings and also to remember those drawings. I also check his attention span. I use computers to run experiments. This morning, I tested a patient’s spatial memory: He had to remember where words were placed on the screen. I also use computers for statistics — to analyze what my data mean. I teach in the Department of Neurology, and some of my work involves supervising graduate students. It’s important that my students are truly interested in psychology and in the projects they’re working on. They need to think creatively, be determined and work thoroughly and carefully. I’m helping one graduate student learn to do therapy and to assess patients. Another graduate student works with me on research studies. She helps me guide people through the research program on the computer. She analyzes data, and she’s learned to do statistics and how to design studies. We write papers together for publication. If you’re interested in psychology, I’d advise you to take psychology courses as an undergraduate. And try to work in a research laboratory so that you can get some insight into what the field is really like. Many of today’s students are encouraged to take time off between undergraduate and graduate school because it’s a long haul and it takes a lot of determination. Sometimes I think it’s nice for people to have a break in there. It takes persistence to earn a doctorate in psychology, along with a great interest in psychological research, science and people. It takes a long time — but I think it’s well worth it! Dr. Susan McDaniel Clinical psychologist, family health psychologist and administrator I was raised in the South during desegregation and have always been interested in the underlying values and behaviors that can bring different individuals, groups or cultures together. This process is a common thread in my professional life, whether working to strengthen couples and families or in primary care teams with physicians, psychologists and other clinicians. My father was an obstetrician/gynecologist who loved being a physician. It was clear to me that I wanted to do meaningful, rewarding work, too. My interest in science came from him. My emotional intelligence came from my mother. Put those with the irrational events of the time I grew up in, and you have the makings of a budding psychologist. When I went to college in the early 1970s, I wanted to study stereotyping and why people generalize across groups. This led to a double major in cultural anthropology and psychology at Duke. I loved studying the effect of culture on behavior and language but thought psychology might be a more practical choice for graduate school. I was fortunate to attend the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in clinical psychology, working with many talented clinical and research professors, including William Stiles, with whom I did my dissertation on language (verbal response modes) in psychotherapy. Probably because of my strong southern family, I went to the University of Texas Medical Branch in Galveston for internship and worked with pioneering family psychologists Harry Goolishian and Harlene Anderson. Family therapy made immediate sense to me. It is applied anthropology — understanding individual behavior in the context of the group. A fascination with mind–body interaction led me to accept a part-time job as a faculty member in the Department of Family Medicine at the University of Rochester (the first woman and first PhD on the faculty) in 1981. These bright, dedicated residents wanted a more organized behavioral science curriculum that would prepare them for the huge proportion of primary care practice that is psychological in nature. They were also interested in what family therapy had to offer family medicine. Collaborating closely with family physician Thomas Campbell, we developed a practical curriculum that taught family medicine residents to evaluate the mental, behavioral, and interpersonal difficulties of their patients along with their biomedical problems. We combined the biopsychosocial approach with a family systems approach that is particularly well suited to primary care. The problems people bring to their primary care doctor aren’t always physical and are often difficult to evaluate. Having systems skills to understand the individual, family and community components is extremely helpful for assessment and successful treatment planning. It is also useful in enlisting family input and support and in promoting team functioning among the disciplines that make up the primary care team. The Family Medicine Department has been a wonderful home. I see my own patients in the primary care setting (and see many patients who will not enter the traditional mental health system). My systemic/family skills are now put to use in promoting healthy faculty functioning, leadership coaching, and helping to transform primary care practice into patient-centered medical homes that are psychologically healthy. The year after I joined the family medicine faculty (1982), I joined the psychiatry faculty when a family therapy training program began there. I eventually took over as division chief and developed the Institute for the Family, which has clinical, training, and research functions. We train family medicine, psychiatry, pediatric and internal medicine residents. By design, faculty members work both in the Institute and in another clinical department (i.e., ob/gyn, pediatrics, the epilepsy center, internal medicine, family medicine) to provide behavioral health at the point of service as part of a heath care team. Health care — patients, families and other health professionals — needs psychologists. There is enormous opportunity for psychologists with clinical, systems, health and research training. Some opportunities are defined and posted, others (like the coaching program) are innovative and an obvious fit with our skill set. Like my father, I have meaningful and rewarding work that I love. You can, too. Psychologists support community and individual well-being Community psychologists focus on changing community settings to increase opportunities for individuals and families to successfully participate in community life. While they may work in different locations (e.g., as university faculty, in government or nonprofit agencies, as part of consulting firms, or as individual practitioners), they collaborate with professionals and community activists from different disciplines and with the people who are being served. They use their psychological training to address community issues and use community-based participatory research to guide community decision making. Dr. Meg A. Bond, PhD Community psychologist, professor of psychology, researcher and activist Through a career in community psychology I have been able to live my passion for promoting social justice. As a professor of psychology at the University of Massachusetts Lowell, I teach in our community social psychology program; conduct applied research addressing gender, racial and ethnic differences; and direct a Center for Women and Work. I am also a resident scholar at the Brandeis University Women’s Studies Research Center. But I did not start out knowing that this is what I wanted to do. When I started graduate study in clinical psychology, I knew I wanted to “help people,” but something was missing for me. I took a 2-year leave of absence, during which I worked in a residential treatment center for adolescent girls. I returned to school to discover a new program emphasis on community psychology. With its focus on empowerment, prevention and changing social conditions to improve people’s lives, I knew I had found the right professional home. My investment in social change predates my career decisions. I have been attuned to issues of inclusion since my years at a multiracial high school where I was in a minority as a White girl, which taught me much about relating across differences. This introduction to racial inequity has shaped my career-long work on the dynamics of diversity in organizational settings. Influenced by the feminist movement, I worked at the grassroots level on issues such as domestic violence and women’s health care. This interest in women’s rights propelled me through a nontraditional dissertation about what sustains women’s activism. Community psychology, which integrates research and action, has allowed me to pursue both my interests: helping individuals and addressing the systemic causes of injustice. My career exemplifies how letting your interests guide you can take you on a rewarding, albeit circuitous, path. Following my clinical internship, I provided management training and organizational consultation to agencies serving individuals with developmental disabilities, and I became active in the Society for Community Research and Action (SCRA: Division 27 of APA). As co-chair of the SCRA Women’s Committee (the first of many leadership roles in this organization), I became interested in barriers to women’s professional development, which led to research on sexual harassment and the realization that I enjoy research, particularly when there are clear action implications. After 6 years as an entirely applied psychologist (i.e., a psychologist who applies the theories, principles and techniques of psychology to practical concerns), I sought an academic job — violating the common advice that you must decide in grad school if you desire an academic career. I have been at UMass Lowell for 22 years, and my work has continued to evolve — both because community psychology is a diverse field and because academic positions provide great flexibility. In our applied community psychology master’s program, I help new professionals bridge theory with skills for promoting social justice. For almost 15 years, I have directed a Center for Women and Work, with an interdisciplinary group of scholars, and I have been able to partner with community members on numerous action projects. At the university, I work much more than 40 hours/week, but I have the flexibility to pursue what I am most passionate about. Naturally, there are unmovable commitments to teaching, mentoring and meetings, but I choose where to focus my research, initiate action projects that I care about, and become involved in social issues of importance to me. Additionally, this flexibility allows me to navigate the roles of professor, activist, partner and mother more smoothly. Psychologists study the work environment and performance issues Anywhere people work, and anything they do while at work, is of interest to psychologists. Psychologists study what makes people effective, satisfied and motivated in their jobs; what distinguishes good workers or managers from poor ones; and what conditions of work promote high or low productivity, morale and safety. Some psychologists design programs for recruiting, selecting, placing and training employees. They evaluate, monitor and improve performance. They help make changes in the way the organization is set up. Others help design the actual tasks, tools and environments people must deal with when doing their jobs. These specialists can also help design the products that organizations create and conduct research related to product design. For example, they play a big role in making computer hardware and software more user friendly. Psychologists with training in mental health and health care also deal with the health and adjustment of individuals in the work setting. They work with employee assistance plans that provide help with drug or alcohol addiction problems, depression and other disorders; they also foster healthy behavior. Others work on performance issues in areas such as sport psychology, where they may provide athletes with counseling, work with them to improve motivation and performance, explore psychological considerations in sports injuries and rehabilitation, and perform a range of tasks related to sports performance and education. Dr. Elizabeth Kolmstetter Industrial/organizational psychologist, researcher and senior executive If we’re going to keep up with the “bad guys,” we need to keep our workforce skills, knowledge and competencies continuously developing. As an industrial/organizational (I/O) psychologist, I helped lead the drive to heighten airport security after Sept. 11, 2001. This involved the largest civilian mobilization effort in the United States — to hire more than 50,000 airport screeners for the government in less than a year. The undertaking, called for in the Aviation and Transportation Security Act that President Bush signed into law soon after the attacks, sought to strengthen airport security screening by federalizing it and enhancing the workforce skill standards. At that time, I was the director of Standards, Testing, Evaluation and Policy for the newly formed Transportation Security Administration (TSA). I created a team of I/O psychologists, HR professionals, medical experts and trainers to develop higher standards and the accompanying tests for screeners’ cognitive, customer service, X-ray detection and physical abilities. Using future-oriented job analyses, the team validated new post–9/11 skill standards for every aspect of the new screener rotational job design and then designed an assessment process, including automated application screening, computer-based tests and in-person structured interviews and medical evaluations, that could process masses of applicants efficiently. Applying the newly established standards, the TSA processed more than 1.8 million applications and hired and trained about 50,000 screeners by the congressionally mandated 1-year deadline. Throughout the process, the team faced many obstacles, but we did get it done — we raised the standards for the workforce and national security, and we did it against unbelievable odds. During my nearly 6 years with the TSA, I developed numerous testing and assessment programs for screeners, law enforcement officers and armed pilots; implemented enhanced training, including the automated Learning Management System; implemented a mandatory, annual certification program for all screeners; instituted a pay-for-performance program; and designed and implemented a career progression program for the screeners. In 2007, I became the deputy associate director of National Intelligence for Human Capital at the Office of the Director of National Intelligence (established in 2005). I help to drive the collaboration and integration of the 17 agencies that make up the Intelligence Community (IC). My work includes setting common competency directories for the occupations of the IC, supporting culture change through common performance standards and appraisal processes, developing common leadership programs and succession management processes, establishing a consistent workforce planning template and annual process, and designing a common professional development framework and associated metrics. It is very rewarding to know that the programs I build as an I/O psychologist touch every employee and greatly improve the workplace. I continuously see how our work directly improves the nation’s ability to enhance and ensure national security during this most challenging time in our history. A lot of it has to be done with creativity and innovation. Dr. David Sirota Industrial/organizational psychologist and consultant When I began my career as an industrial/organizational (I/O) psychologist, there was an emphasis on testing — ability testing, personality testing and so on — in an effort to put the right person in the right job. Today, the emphasis is turning to establishing the atmosphere most conducive to productivity and quality work. The field has become extremely influential — starting in the late 1970s — in part because of the overwhelming competition from Japan and the success of their products. Studies indicated that Japanese companies tended to manage the way I/O psychologists say people should be managed. Most I/O psychologists maintain that people go to work wanting to do good work. Nevertheless, when we look at a company that has a problem — let’s say, a drop in customers or a large turnover in labor — we see large percentages of people not working very hard. When we analyze what causes people to lose their motivation, the answer usually has to do with how they’re being managed. For example, if management treats employees like children or criminals, the employees are likely to become demoralized. I had wanted to be a psychologist since I was a psychology major at the City College of New York (I originally thought I would go into engineering). One great influence on me was my father. He was a strong union man. From him I learned that workers’ opinions are very important to a company’s overall well-being. While earning my doctorate in social psychology at the University of Michigan, I also became enamored of survey work at the university’s Institute for Social Research. I was an I/O psychologist for IBM for 13 years and then set up my own consulting firm, Sirota and Associates, in New York City. (I sold the firm a few years ago.) It is now called Sirota Survey Intelligence and does work for companies, government agencies and nonprofits all over the world. Earlier in my career, I also taught at a number of universities, such as MIT and the Wharton School. My particular branch of the field focuses on data collection. We diagnose an organization’s problems by surveying people in the organization through questionnaires, informal interviews, focus groups or a combination of all three methods. Why do employees stay with the company? What helps them produce quality products or quality service? Do they have the right training, the right equipment, the right management, the right whatever? Does the way management treats employees cause them to feel good or bad about the company’s customers? Often we interview the customers, too. All these variables constitute the heart of what we do. We come back to management with our analysis. We try to be candid, but not abrasive, pointing out what’s being done well and the opportunities for improvement. We then try to get the managers involved in coming to their own solutions. Unlike a doctor who finds out what’s wrong with you and then writes a prescription, most I/O psychologists want people to become their own doctors. We’re not necessarily interested in people liking each other or becoming “nice guys,” per se. Of course, it’s good if they do, but what we want is for them to deal with what has to be done in terms of business objectives. Dr. Adam Shunk Neuropsychologist and sport psychologist There are many different paths that may lead to a career in psychology, and many opportunities that present themselves along the way. In my case, my passion to work as a psychologist in athletics guided my journey to create my dream job. I always knew as a child that I loved sports and wanted my career to involve athletics. I was a dedicated high school athlete who was fortunate enough to earn an athletic scholarship to the University of North Carolina. After college, I followed my passion for sports to become a professional track-and-field athlete who competed on the international circuit for 4 years. My involvement in sports and my experience as a coach helped me understand the sports culture. Early in my academic training, I realized that I wanted to focus on positive psychology and help individuals in their pursuit of excellence. In my studies, I was drawn to biology and the relationship between brain and behavior. Although I was primarily trained as a neuropsychologist through my formal education, I emphasized and integrated sport psychology course work into my curriculum at both the undergraduate and graduate levels, and focused rotations were part of my internship and postdoctoral training. I had to be innovative in creating a training program that met formal guidelines in neuropsychology and also provided appropriate training in sport psychology. It worked out beautifully for me, as I found a career that allowed me to pursue my passion for sports and neuropsychology with a population focused on athletic achievement. My schedule differs on a daily basis, and flexibility is an essential part of my job. For example, 2 days a week I work in an athletics setting at Purdue University, where my time is spent providing counseling and assessment services in the athletic department. As a sport psychologist, I have been trained in the applied practice of sport and performance psychology, and I work with “elite” performance issues and positive psychology applications. Another focus of sport psychology is to provide individual counseling for mental health issues and consultation services for coaches, teams and administrators. My job often involves travel, and I frequently work with clients on weekends and in the evenings to accommodate their busy schedules. The focus of sport psychology is to use psychological interventions to enhance athletic and overall performance. The nature of athletics creates some specialized needs for athletes, who must manage and deal with rigorous practice, workout schedules, extensive travel, injuries, fatigue, high expectations and media exposure, in addition to normal stressors. If you are interested in becoming a sport psychologist, you’ll need to establish proficiency within the field. APA’s Division 47 (Exercise and Sport Psychology) provides appropriate guidelines for establishing competency as a sport psychologist. Pursuing my interests in neuropsychology and sport psychology has certainly been challenging, but it has taught me that if you know what you want to do, there is always a way to make it happen.

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Education

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For the past 5 years, Nigeria’s inflation rate has been on an upward trend, which has been triggered by a global pandemic, supply-chain disruptions, and the war in Ukraine, contributing to a rapid rise in the cost of fuel, food, and a broad range of goods. Nigeria has been experiencing a double-digit inflation rate since the 1980s. Inflation rates are most often measured by the consumer price index, or CPI, which is calculated based on a total “basket” of goods and services bought by all consumers in a national economy. However, these inflation rates may not necessarily represent the impact that inflation has on you personally. For example, the latest Nigerian national basket assumes that 10.8 percent of household budgets are spent on personal transport, such as owning and using a car. While this may be representative of Nigeria as a whole, it may not be at all representative of you as an individual if, for example, you do not own a car or use it significantly less than the national average. Why estimate your personal inflation rate? Knowing your personal inflation rate is crucial because it allows you to estimate your experience of inflation according to the constraints, priorities, and preferences that shape your personal spending patterns. It is a way of gaining insight into how inflation affects your personal finances. Estimating your personal inflation rate is a straightforward process. Begin by tracking your spending over a set period, such as a month, and comparing it to your spending from a similar period in the past. You can then calculate your personal inflation rate by comparing the differences in the cost of the goods and services you buy. Understanding your personal inflation rate is a powerful tool for creating a budget that reflects your unique spending patterns. By knowing how inflation affects you personally, you can adjust your spending habits to stay ahead of rising prices and make informed financial decisions. In conclusion, estimating your personal inflation rate is an essential step towards taking control of your finances. It is a way of gaining insight into how inflation affects you personally and allowing you to adjust your spending habits accordingly. With the right tools and knowledge, you can stay ahead of rising prices and make informed financial decisions.

https://ratecaptain.com/inflation-why-you-need-to-know-your-personal-inflation-rate/

Politics

en

Deep within the Earth's rocky mantle lies oceans' worth of water locked up in a type of mineral called ringwoodite, new research shows. The results of the study will help scientists understand Earth's water cycle, and how plate tectonics moves water between the surface of the planet and interior reservoirs, researchers say. The Earth's mantle is the hot, rocky layer between the planet's core and crust. Scientists have long suspected that the mantle's so-called transition zone, which sits between the upper and lower mantle layers 255 to 410 miles (410 to 660 kilometers) below Earth's surface, could contain water trapped in rare minerals. However, direct evidence for this water has been lacking, until now. [See Images of Water-Rich Ringwoodite and Earth's Layers] To see if the transition zone really is a deep reservoir for water, researchers conducted experiments on water-rich ringwoodite, analyzed seismic waves travelling through the mantle beneath the United States, and studied numerical models. They discovered that downward-flowing mantle material is melting as it crosses the boundary between the transition zone and the lower mantle layer. "If we are seeing this melting, then there has to be this water in the transition zone," said Brandon Schmandt, a seismologist at the University of New Mexico and co-author of the new study published today (June 12) in the journal Science. "The transition zone can hold a lot of water, and could potentially have the same amount of H2O [water] as all the world's oceans." (Melting is a way of getting rid of water, which is unstable under conditions in Earth's lower mantle, the researchers said.) A water-rich mineral Ringwoodite is a rare type of mineral that forms from olivine under very high pressures and temperatures, such as those present in the mantle's transition zone. Laboratory studies have shown that the mineral can contain water, which isn't present as liquid, ice or vapor; instead, it is trapped in the ringwoodite's molecular structure as hydroxide ions (bonded oxygen and hydrogen atoms). Sign up for the Live Science daily newsletter now Get the world’s most fascinating discoveries delivered straight to your inbox. In March, another research group discovered an unusual diamond from the mantle that encased hydrous ringwoodite. Though the find suggested the transition zone could contain a lot of water, it was the first and only ringwoodite specimen from the mantle scientists have ever analyzed (all other samples were produced in the lab or found in meteorites), and may not be representative of other mantle ringwoodite. [Shine On: Photos of Dazzling Mineral Specimens] "Right now, we're one-for-one, because that ringwoodite had some H2O in it, but we didn't know if it was normal," Schmandt told Live Science. So Schmandt and geophysicist Steven Jacobsen of Northwestern University in Illinois set out to observationally test if other mantle ringwoodite also contains water. The researchers knew the crystal structure of ringwoodite allows the transition zone to hold water, but that structure changes if the material moves across the boundary to the lower mantle (due to increasing pressures and temperatures). Because the structure of minerals in the lower mantle can't trap water the way ringwoodite can, Schmandt and Jacobsen reasoned the rocks would melt as they flowed from the transition zone to the lower mantle. "Melting is just a mechanism of getting rid of the water," Schmandt said. To test this hypothesis, Jacobsen and his colleagues conducted lab experiments to simulate what would happen to transition zone ringwoodite as it travels deeper into the Earth. They synthesized hydrous ringwoodite and recreated the temperatures and pressures it would experience in the transition zone by heating it with lasers and compressing it between hard, anvil-like diamonds. Using their setup, they then slowly increased the temperature and pressure to mimic the conditions in the lower mantle. The ringwoodite transformed into another mineral called silicate perovskite, and transmission electron microscopy showed that the mineral contained silicate melt around single crystals of perovskite. "What that tells us is if there is similarly hydrated ringwoodite in the transition zone that's dragged down, we would expect it to produce melt," Schmandt said. "Because melt changes how seismic waves propagate, that's a target I can hunt for [with seismometers]." Finding the melt Using the Earthscope USArray, a network of portable seismometers across the United States, Schmandt analyzed seismic waves as they passed from the transition zone to the lower mantle. He found the waves slowed as they crossed into the lower mantle, suggesting that melt was present in the boundary. Importantly, the decrease in seismic velocity didn't happen everywhere — models showed the wave velocity decreased only where material was flowing downward from the transition zone to the lower mantle, as the researchers predicted. [Infographic: Earth's Tallest Mountain to Its Deepest Ocean Trench] The melt produced in the boundary likely then flows back upward, returning to minerals that can hold the water, Schmandt said, adding that this mechanism allows the transition zone to be a stable water reservoir. "[The study] provides critical experimental support for the important role that the transition zone plays in controlling the melting behavior and flux of hydrogen in the deep Earth," Graham Pearson, a mantle geochemist at the University of Alberta, who wasn't involved in the work, told Live Science in an email. Anna Kelbert, a geophysicist at Oregon State University who also wasn’t involved in the study, notes that scientists have previously used numerous approaches to look for evidence of Earth's interior water reservoir, but this is the first time researchers have searched for clues of the reservoir by focusing on the potential water-induced melting at the bottom of the transition zone. "It provides an important multidisciplinary perspective on this problem," Kelbert said. "It has important implications on our understanding of the behavior of subducting slabs deep in the mantle, and on our understanding of [the] overall water budget/distribution in the Earth." Schmandt hopes to now analyze seismic data from other areas across the globe and see how common mantle melting is. This would allow researchers to see if there's something special about the subduction history of the mantle beneath North America, or how the Earth's plates have shifted beneath one another over time. The new findings will also help scientists better understand Earth's water cycle. "The surface water we have now came from degassing of molten rock. It came from the original rock ingredients of Earth," Schmandt said. "How much water is still inside the Earth today relative to the surface?" Follow Joseph Castro on Twitter. Follow us @livescience, Facebook & Google+. Originally published on Live Science.

http://www.livescience.com/46292-hidden-ocean-locked-in-earth-mantle.html

Religion

en

Smoking, chewing tobacco and excessive boozing have long been blamed for causing mouth cancer - but they are set to be overtaken by ORAL SEX. The shock revelation comes due to the spread of cases caused by HPV, or the human papillomavirus . Although HPV is in itself not actually cancerous, it can affect the cells, causing abnormal tissue growth in the mouth. This can eventually lead to mouth or oral cancer, according to online health clinic Euroclinix . Mouth cancer can occur on various areas of the mouth including the tongue, the lips, the inside of the cheek, in the gums and the throat. According to experts, detecting mouth cancer in its early stages can increase survival changes by 90%. Knowing how to spot the symptoms of mouth cancer is therefore crucial. They can include red or white patches on your tongue or in the mouth, lumps, mouth ulcers, pain and difficulty swallowing. The human papilloma virus affects the skin found in areas of the body that are exposed to moisture, such as the mouth, rectum, cervix and throat. HPV can be contracted through unprotected sexual activity. As the type of HPV found in the mouth is almost certain to be related to sexual activity, it is highly likely that oral sex is a risk factor for mouth cancer . Unprotected oral sex also carries the risk of STI transmission, including genital herpes, chlamydia, gonorrhoea and syphilis. The NHS advises men to wear condoms and women to place a latex square or dental dam over their genitals to help prevent contracting HPV during oral sex.

http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/world-news/unprotected-oral-sex-has-become-6855939

Romance

en

As lockdowns are lifted, procedures are being put in place to reduce the spread of COVID-19. Along with physical distancing, hand sanitisation and wearing of masks, fever screening is increasingly being set up as a requirement before entry is allowed into hospitals, shops, workplaces and schools. But there are physiological and clinical reasons why fever screening simply won’t work. Andrea Fuller and Duncan Mitchell explain why fever screening is unlikely to reduce the spread of the virus. Their arguments are based on an understanding of the physiology of fever, body temperature measurement, and fever prevalence in people who transmit COVID-19. What happens to your body when you have a fever? Fever is a temporary elevation of body core temperature. It is part of a defensive response to infection by a virus. When you develop a fever, you feel cold, heat generation in your body increases (achieved by shivering) and heat loss decreases (achieved by seeking warmth, covering up and reducing the flow of warm blood to the skin). When a fever breaks, either naturally or because you have taken an antipyretic like paracetamol, you feel warm. Your reactions include increasing the flow of warm blood to the skin and sweating, which helps to bring the body’s core temperature back to normal. What are the limitations to infrared thermometers or thermal cameras detecting fevers? Detecting fever requires measuring body core temperature. To do that accurately, you need to put a thermometer into the body core. Temperature in the rectum and the mouth get close to body core temperature. Needing to measure body core temperature raises the first problem with fever screening. Thermal cameras and infrared thermometers measure heat radiating from a surface – in other words surface temperature. They don’t measure body core temperature. Measuring surface temperature has contributed usefully to healthcare and to biology. For example, infrared cameras have shown whether skin grafts are receiving blood. On the biology front they have shown that toucans dump body heat through their bills. But the forehead skin or inner eye temperatures that infrared thermometers or thermal cameras usually measure in fever screening are not body core temperatures. Human surface temperature is heavily influenced by environmental conditions. In cool environments, surface temperatures can be much lower than body core temperature. And doing exercise, or being exposed to the sun, can raise the temperature on our foreheads above body core temperature. Thermal cameras screen for high skin temperature. They can and do find high face temperatures that have nothing to do with infections. Those “false positives” waste time and money in unnecessary follow-up. Another problem is that skin temperature does not rise during the developing phase of a fever. It falls, because warm blood is kept away from the skin. So your skin temperature changes in the opposite direction to your body core temperature. Thermal cameras would declare you safe, because your skin temperature is low, but you could be in the most infectious phase of the fever. No surface temperature is a reliable indicator of fever. Could better fever screening detect COVID-19? Even if infrared thermometers could detect fever reliably, they could not detect COVID-19 reliably. Nor could any other thermometer. Patients with COVID-19 are not guaranteed to have a fever. Recent research indicates that many people who test positive for COVID-19, and especially children, never have any detectable sign of illness, including fever. Even people who later do show symptoms will not have a fever during COVID-19’s incubation phase, which can last nearly two weeks. During this period, when they are asymptomatic, they can spread the virus. The finding that infected people without symptoms shed virus is the Achilles’ heel of controlling the current pandemic. To add to the problem, not all patients with symptoms will have a fever, at least on the basis of once-off measurement. Only 31% of patients presenting at New York State hospitals with COVID-19 had fevers. So, in addition to not measuring body core temperature well, infrared thermometers are being used to find a high temperature that many people exposed to COVID-19 won’t have. Has fever screening ever helped to prevent the spread of viruses? Thermal cameras were introduced at airports at the outbreak of the 2002/3 Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) pandemic. They were widespread in airports during the 2009 Influenza A (H1N1) pandemic. But for medical and technological reasons they have failed to prevent the import of any virus causing respiratory disease. They have failed even in combination with other interventions like follow-up contact and health declaration questionnaires. For example, 930 people who presented as potentially infected candidates were picked out by thermal screening from over 9 million passengers entering Japan in 2009/2010. But not one case of H1N1 influenza was diagnosed. The data from Ebola shows the same pattern. Not one case of Ebola virus infection was picked up in 166,242 airport passengers screened when entering and leaving Sierra Leone in the 2014/2016 outbreak. In the case of COVID-19, CNN has reported that no cases were detected among the more than 30,000 passengers screened with thermal cameras at US airports by mid-February 2020 . Some scientists have been forthright about the dubious value of fever screening, arguing that border screening for infectious diseases should not be continued. Is there any place for fever screening? Perhaps, there may be benefits. Some people with viral infections who know they are sick attempt to conceal their illness. Travellers wanting to fly home are prone to do so. Others take antipyretic drugs, hoping to avoid triggering thermal cameras. Though there still is no scientific evidence, researchers have suggested that the prospect of being caught by fever screening is a deterrent to such dishonesty. But we do not believe that the potential benefit outweighs the negatives. Apart from fever screening being unreliable, infrared thermometry poses a risk to thermometer operators who are required to come up close to potentially infected persons. Successfully passing a fever screen can create a false sense of security. And the thermal cameras used for mass screening are costly. So are the personnel required for any fever screening. Andrea Fuller, Professor, School of Physiology; Director, Brain Function Research Group, University of the Witwatersrand and Duncan Mitchell, Adjunct Professor in the School of Human Sciences, University of Western Australia, and Honorary Professorial Research Fellow, University of the Witwatersrand This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/poverty-continues-to-rise-in-the-south-africa/So

Education

en

Endometriosis is a chronic, inflammatory disease characterized by tissue growth similar to the lining of the uterus (endometrium) outside the uterus. This condition commonly results in debilitating pelvic pain, and pain during menstruation, and may also lead to infertility. It affects approximately 5-10% of women and adolescents of reproductive age (15-49 years). Additionally, endometriosis is associated with symptoms such as fatigue, depression, anxiety, and an increased risk of cardiovascular disease. Several compelling reasons endometriosis should be addressed in women: - Pain Management: Endometriosis often causes severe and chronic pain, significantly impacting a woman’s quality of life. Effective management of symptoms through various treatments can help alleviate this pain and improve overall well-being. - Infertility: Endometriosis is one of the leading causes of female infertility, affecting a considerable percentage (24-50%) of women experiencing infertility. Addressing endometriosis can potentially improve fertility and increase the chances of conception. - Long-term Health Risks: Research suggests that endometriosis is associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease, which poses a significant health concern for affected women. - Mental Health: Women with endometriosis are more likely to experience depression and anxiety. These mental health challenges can have a substantial impact on overall well-being and quality of life. - Early Detection and Treatment: Early detection and treatment of endometriosis are crucial for managing symptoms, slowing the condition’s progression, and improving quality of life. Unfortunately, there is often a significant delay between the onset of symptoms and diagnosis, leading to prolonged suffering. - Impact on Daily Life: Endometriosis can significantly disrupt daily activities, strain relationships, and diminish overall well-being. Addressing the condition can empower women to regain control over their lives and improve their overall quality of life. While endometriosis itself is not typically considered life-threatening, it can lead to various complications if left untreated or if the condition becomes severe. These complications include: - Small Bowel Obstruction: Endometrial tissue growth in the intestines can lead to bleeding and scarring, potentially resulting in intestinal obstruction. If untreated, this can lead to bowel perforation or reduced blood flow, both of which can be life-threatening. - Ectopic Pregnancy: Endometriosis increases the risk of ectopic pregnancy, where the fertilized egg implants outside the uterus, often in a fallopian tube. If the tube ruptures, it can cause internal bleeding, posing a life-threatening situation. - Peritonitis: Inflammation associated with endometriosis in the abdominal cavity can lead to peritonitis, a severe infection of the lining of the abdominal cavity that can be life-threatening if not promptly treated. - Urinary Tract Obstruction: Endometriosis can block the ureters, leading to potential kidney damage and life-threatening complications if not addressed. - Rectal Fecal Impaction: Severe cases of endometriosis can result in rectal fecal impactions, causing severe pain and potentially life-threatening complications if not treated promptly. Addressing endometriosis through early detection, comprehensive treatment, and management strategies is essential for preventing these potentially life-threatening complications and improving the overall well-being of women affected by this condition.

https://thenews-chronicle.com/endometriosis-why-women-everywhere-should-pay-attention/

Health

en

President Hugo Chavez: A 21st Century Renaissance Man President Hugo Chavez was unique in multiple areas of political, social and economic life. He made significant contributions to the advancement of humanity. The depth, scope and popularity of his accomplishments mark President Chavez as the ‘Renaissance President of the 21st Century’. Many writers have noted one or another of his historic contributions highlighting his anti-poverty legislation, his success in winning popular elections with resounding majorities and his promotion of universal free public education and health coverage for all Venezuelans. In this essay we will highlight the unique world-historic contributions that President Chavez made in the spheres of political economy, ethics and international law and in redefining relations between political leaders and citizens. We shall start with his enduring contribution to the development of civic culture in Venezuela and beyond. Hugo Chavez: The Great Teacher of Civic Values From his first days in office, Chavez was engaged in transforming the constitutional order so that political leaders and institutions would be more responsive to the popular electorate. Through his speeches Chavez clearly and carefully informed the electorate of the measures and legislation to improve their livelihood. He invited comments and criticism – his style was to engage in constant dialogue, especially with the poor, the unemployed and the workers. Chavez was so successful in teaching civic responsibilities to the Venezuelan electorate that millions of citizens from the slums of Caracas rose up spontaneously to oust the US backed business-military junta which had kidnapped their president and closed the legislature. Within seventy-two hours – record time – the civic-minded citizens restored the democratic order and the rule of law in Venezuela , thoroughly rejecting the mass media’s defense of the coup-plotters and their brief authoritarian regime. Chavez, as all great educators, learned from this democratic intervention of the mass of citizens, that democracy’s most effective defenders were to be found among the working people – and that its worst enemies were found in the business elites and military officials linked to Miami and Washington. Chavez civic pedagogy emphasized the importance of the historical teachings and examples of founding fathers, like Simon Bolivar, in establishing a national and Latin American identity. His speeches raised the cultural level of millions of Venezuelans who had been raised in the alienating and servile culture of imperial Washington and the consumerist obsessions of Miami shopping malls. Chavez succeeded in instilling a culture of solidarity and mutual support among the exploited, emphasizing ‘horizontal’ ties over vertical clientelistic dependency on the rich and powerful. His success in creating collective consciousness decisively shifted the balance of political power away from the wealthy rulers and corrupt political party and trade union leaders toward new socialist movements and class oriented trade unions. More than anything else Chavez’ political education of the popular majority regarding their social rights to free health care and higher education, living wages and full employment drew the hysterical ire of the wealthy Venezuelans and their undying hatred of a president who had created a sense of autonomy, dignity and ‘class empowerment’ through public education ending centuries of elite privilege and omnipotence. Above all Chavez speeches, drawing as much from Bolivar as from Karl Marx, created a deep, generous sense of patriotism and nationalism and a profound rejection of a prostrate elite groveling before their Washington overlord, Wall Street bankers and oil company executives. Chavez’ anti-imperial speeches resonated because he spoke in the language of the people and expanded their national consciousness to identification with Latin America, especially Cuba ’s fight against imperial interventions and wars. International Relations: The Chavez Doctrine At the beginning of the previous decade, after 9/11/01, Washington declared a ‘War on Terror’. This was a public declaration of unilateral military intervention and wars against sovereign nations, movements and individuals deemed as adversaries, in violation of international law. Almost all countries submitted to this flagrant violation of the Geneva Accords, except President Chavez, who made the most profound and simple refutation against Washington: ‘You don’t fight terrorism with state terrorism’. In his defense of the sovereignty of nations and international jurisprudence, Chavez underlined the importance of political and economic solutions to social problems and conflicts – repudiating the use of bombs, torture and mayhem. The Chavez Doctrine emphasized south-south trade and investments and diplomatic over military resolution of disputes. He upheld the Geneva Accords against colonial and imperial aggression while rejecting the imperial doctrine of ‘the war on terror’, defining western state terrorism as a pernicious equivalent to Al Qaeda terrorism. Political Theory and Practice: The Grand Synthesizer One of the most profound and influential aspects of Chavez’ legacy is his original synthesis of three grand strands of political thought: popular Christianity, Bolivarian nationalist and regional integration and Marxist political, social and economic thought. Chavez’ Christianity informed his deep belief in justice and the equality of people, as well as his generosity and forgiveness of adversaries even as they engaged in a violent coup, a crippling lockout, or openly collaborated and received financing from enemy intelligence agencies. Whereas anywhere else in the world, armed assaults against the state and coup d’états would result in long prison sentences or even executions, under Chavez most of his violent adversaries escaped prosecution and even rejoined their subversive organizations. Chavez demonstrated a deep belief in redemption and forgiveness. Chavez’s Christianity informed his ‘option for the poor’, the depth and breadth of his commitment to eradicating poverty and his solidarity with the poor against the rich. Chavez deep-seated aversion and effective opposition to US and European imperialism and brutal Israeli colonialism were profoundly rooted in his reading of the writings and history of Simon Bolivar, the founding father of the Venezuelan nation. Bolivarian ideas on national liberation long preceded any exposure to Marx, Lenin or more contemporary leftist writings on imperialism. His powerful and unwavering support for regional integration and internationalism was deeply influenced by Simon Bolivar’s proposed ‘United States of Latin America’ and his internationalist activity in support of anti-colonial movements. Chavez’ incorporation of Marxist ideas into his world view was adapted to his longstanding popular Christian and Bolivarian internationalist philosophy. Chavez’ option for the poor was deepened by his recognition of the centrality of the class struggle and the reconstruction of the Bolivarian nation through the socialization of the ‘commanding heights of the economy’. The socialist conception of self-managed factories and popular empowerment via community councils was given moral legitimacy by Chavez’ Christian faith in an egalitarian moral order. While Chavez was respectful and carefully listened to the views of visiting leftist academics and frequently praised their writings, many failed to recognize or, worse, deliberately ignored the President’s own more original synthesis of history, religion and Marxism. Unfortunately, as is frequently the case, some leftist academics have, in their self-indulgent posturing, presumed to be Chavez’ ‘teacher’ and advisor on all matters of ‘Marxist theory’: This represents a style of leftist cultural colonialism, which snidely criticized Chavez for not following their ready-made prescriptions, published in their political literary journals in London, New York and Paris. Fortunately, Chavez took what was useful from the overseas academics and NGO-funded political strategists while discarding ideas that failed to take account of the cultural-historical, class and rentier specificities of Venezuela . Chavez has bequeathed to the intellectuals and activists of the world a method of thinking which is global and specific, historical and theoretical, material and ethical and which encompasses class analysis, democracy and a spiritual transcendence resonating with the great mass of humanity in a language every person can understand. Chavez’ philosophy and practice (more than any ‘discourse’ narrated by the social forum-hopping experts) demonstrated that the art of formulating complex ideas in simple language can move millions of people to ‘make history, and not only to study it’.. Toward Practical Alternatives to Neoliberalism and Imperialism Perhaps Chavez greatest contribution in the contemporary period was to demonstrate, through practical measures and political initiatives, that many of the most challenging contemporary political and economic problems can be successfully resolved. Radical Reform of a Rentier State Nothing is more difficult than changing the social structure, institutions and attitudes of a rentier petro-state, with deeply entrenched clientelistic politics, endemic party-state corruption and a deeply-rooted mass psychology based on consumerism. Yet Chavez largely succeeded where other petro-regimes failed. The Chavez Administration first began with constitutional and institutional changes to create a new political framework; then he implemented social impact programs, which deepened political commitments among an active majority, which, in turn, bravely defended the regime from a violent US backed business-military coup d’état. Mass mobilization and popular support, in turn, radicalized the Chavez government and made way for a deeper socialization of the economy and the implementation of radical agrarian reform. The petrol industry was socialized; royalty and tax payments were raised to provide funds for massively expanded social expenditures benefiting the majority of Venezuelans. Almost every day Chavez prepared clearly understandable educational speeches on social, ethical and political topics related to his regime’s redistributive policies by emphasizing social solidarity over individualistic acquisitive consumerism. Mass organizations and community and trade union movements flourished – a new social consciousness emerged ready and willing to advance social change and confront the wealthy and powerful. Chavez’ defeat of the US-backed coup and bosses’ lockout and his affirmation of the Bolivarian tradition and sovereign identity of Venezuela created a powerful nationalist consciousness which eroded the rentier mentality and strengthened the pursuit of a diversified ‘balanced economy’. This new political will and national productive consciousness was a great leap forward, even as the main features of a rentier-oil dependent economy persist. This extremely difficult transition has begun and is an ongoing process. Overseas leftist theorists, who criticize Venezuela (‘corruption’, ‘bureaucracy’) have profoundly ignored the enormous difficulties of transitioning from a rentier state to a socialized economy and the enormous progress achieved by Chavez. Economic Crisis Without Capitalist Austerity Throughout the crisis-wracked capitalist world, ruling labor, social democratic, liberal and conservative regimes have imposed regressive ‘austerity programs’ involving brutal reductions of social welfare, health and education expenditures and mass layoffs of workers and employees while handing our generous state subsidies and bailouts to failing banks and capitalist enterprises. Chanting their Thacherite slogan, ‘there is no alternative’, capitalist economists justify imposing the burden of ‘capitalist recovery’ onto the working class while allowing capital to recover its profits in order to invest. Chavez’ policy was the direct opposite: In the midst of crisis, he retained all the social programs, rejected mass firings and increased social spending. The Venezuelan economy rode out of the worldwide crisis and recovered with a healthy 5.8% growth rate in 2012. In other words, Chavez demonstrated that mass impoverishment was a product of the specific capitalist ‘formula’ for recovery. He showed another, positive alternative approach to economic crisis, which taxed the rich, promoted public investments and maintained social expenditures. Social Transformation in a ‘Globalized Economy’ Many commentators, left, right and center, have argued that the advent of a ‘globalized economy’ ruled out a radical social transformation. Yet Venezuela , which is profoundly globalized and integrated into the world market via trade and investments, has made major advances in social reform. What really matters in relation to a globalized economy is the nature of the political economic regime and its policies, which dictate how the gains and costs of international trade and investment are distributed. In a word, what is decisive is the ‘class character of the regime’ managing its place in the world economy. Chavez certainly did not ‘de-link’ from the world economy; rather he has re-linked Venezuela in a new way. He shifted Venezuelan trade and investment toward Latin America, Asia and the Middle East – especially to countries which do not intervene or impose reactionary conditions on economic transactions. Anti-Imperialism in a Time of an Imperialist Offensive In a time of a virulent US—EU imperialist offensive involving ‘pre-emptive’ military invasions, mercenary interventions, torture, assassinations and drone warfare in Iraq, Mali, Syria, Yemen, Libya, and Afghanistan and brutal economic sanctions and sabotage against Iran; Israeli colonial expulsions of thousands of Palestinians financed by the US; US-backed military coups in Honduras and Paraguay and aborted revolutions via puppets in Egypt and Tunisia, President Chavez, alone, stood as the principled defender of anti-imperialist politics. Chavez deep commitment to anti-imperialism stands in marked contrast to the capitulation of Western self-styled ‘Marxist’ intellectuals who mouthed crude justifications for their support of NATO bombing Yugoslavia and Libya, the French invasion of Mali and the Saudi-French (‘Monarcho-Socialist’) funding and arming of Islamist mercenaries against Syria. These same London, New York and Paris-based ‘intellectuals’ who patronized Chavez as a mere ‘populist’ or ‘nationalist’ and claimed he should have listened to their lectures and read their books, had crassly capitulated under the pressure of the capitalist state and mass media into supporting ‘humanitarian interventions’ (aka NATO bombing)… and justified their opportunism in the language of obscure leftists sects. Chavez confronted NATO pressures and threats, as well as the destabilizing subversion of his domestic opponents and courageously articulated the most profound and significant principles of 20th and 21st Marxism: the inviolate right to self-determination of oppressed nations and unconditional opposition to imperial wars. While Chavez spoke and acted in defense of anti-imperialist principles, many in the European and US left acquiesced in imperial wars: There were virtually no mass protests, the ‘anti-war’ movements were co-opted or moribund, the British ‘Socialist’ Workers Party defended the massive NATO bombing of Libya, the French ‘Socialists’ invaded Mali- with the support of the ‘Anti-Capitalist’ Party. Meanwhile, the ‘populist’ Chavez had articulated a far more profound and principled understanding of Marxist practice, certainly than his self-appointed overseas Marxist ‘tutors’. No other political leader or for that matter, leftist academic, developed, deepened and extended the central tenets of anti-imperialist politics in the era of global imperialist warfare with greater acuity than Hugo Chavez. Transition from a Failed Neo-Liberal to a Dynamic Welfare State Chavez’ programmatic and comprehensive reconfiguration of Venezuela from a disastrous and failed neo-liberal regime to a dynamic welfare state stands as a landmark in 20th and 21st century political economy. Chavez’ successful reversal of neo-liberal institutions and policies, as well as his re-nationalization of the ‘commanding heights of the economy’ demolished the reigning neo-liberal dogma derived from the Thatcher-Reagan era enshrined in the slogan: ‘There is no alternative’ to brutal neo-liberal policies, or TINA. Chavez rejected privatization – he re-nationalized key oil related industries, socialized hundreds of capitalist firms and carried out a vast agrarian reform program, including land distribution to 300,000 families. He encouraged trade union organizations and worker control of factories – even bucking public managers and even his own cabinet ministers. In Latin America , Chavez led the way in defining with greater depth and with more comprehensive social changes, the post neo-liberal era. Chavez envisioned the transition from neo-liberalism to a new socialized welfare state as an international process and provided financing and political support for new regional organizations like ALBA, PetroCaribe, and UNASUR. He rejected the idea of building a welfare state in one country and formulated a theory of post-neo-liberal transitions based on international solidarity. Chavez’ original ideas and policies regarding the post-neo-liberal transition escaped the armchair Marxists and the globetrotting Social Forum NGO pundits whose inconsequential ‘global alternatives’ succeeded primarily in securing imperial foundation funding. Chavez demonstrated through theory and practice that neo-liberalism was indeed reversible – a major political breakthrough of the 21st century. Beyond Social Liberalism: The Radical Definition of Post-Neo-Liberalism The US-EU promoted neo-liberal regimes have collapsed under the weight of the deepest economic crisis since the Great Depression. Massive unemployment led to popular uprisings, new elections and the advent of center-left regimes in most of Latin America , which rejected or at least claimed to repudiate ‘neo-liberalism’. Most of these regimes promulgated legislation and executive directives to fund poverty programs, implement financial controls and make productive investments, while raising minimum wages and stimulating employment. However few lucrative enterprises were actually re-nationalized. Addressing inequalities and the concentration of wealth were not part of their agenda. They formulated their strategy of working with Wall Street investors, local agro-mineral exporters and co-opted trade unions. Chavez posed a profoundly different alternative to this form of ‘post-neoliberalism’. He nationalized resource industries, excluded Wall Street speculators and limited the role of the agro-mineral elites. He posed a socialized welfare state as an alternative to the reigning social-liberal orthodoxy of the center-left regimes, even as he worked with these regimes in promoting Latin American integration and opposing US backed coups. Chavez was both a leader defining a more socialized alternative to social liberation and the conscience pressuring his allies to advance further. Socialism and Democracy Chavez opened a new and extraordinarily original and complex path to socialism based on free elections, re-educating the military to uphold democratic and constitutional principals, and the development of mass and community media. He ended the capitalist mass media monopolies and strengthened civil society as a counter-weight to US-sponsored para-military and fifth column elites intent on destabilizing the democratic state. No other democratic-socialist president had successfully resisted imperial destabilization campaigns – neither Jagan in Guyana , Manley in Jamaica , nor Allende in Chile . From the very outset Chavez saw the importance of creating a solid legal-political framework to facilitate executive leadership, promote popular civil society organizations and end US penetration of the state apparatus (military and police). Chavez implemented radical social impact programs that ensured the loyalty and active allegiance of popular majorities and weakened the economic levers of political power long held by the capitalist class. As a result Venezuela ’s political leaders, soldiers and officers loyal to its constitution and the popular masses crushed a bloody rightwing coup, a crippling bosses’ lockout and a US-financed referendum and proceeded to implement further radical socio-economic reforms in a prolonged process of cumulative socialization. Chavez’s originality, in part the result of trial and error, was his ‘experimental method’: His profound understanding and response to popular attitudes and behavior was deeply rooted in Venezuela ’s history of racial and class in justice and popular rebelliousness. More than any previous socialist leader, Chavez traveled, spoke and listened to Venezuela ’s popular classes on questions of everyday life. His ‘method’ was to translate micro based knowledge into macro programed changes. In practice he was the anti-thesis of the overseas and local intellectual know-it-alls who literally spoke down to the people and who saw themselves as the ‘masters of the world’ …at least, in the micro-world of left academia, ingrown socialist conferences and self-centered monologues. The death of Hugo Chavez was profoundly mourned by millions in Venezuela and hundreds of million around the world because his transition to socialism was their path; he listened to their demands and he acted upon them effectively. Social Democracy and National Security Chavez was a socialist president for over 13 years in the face of large-scale, long-term violent opposition and financial sabotage from Washington , the local economic elite and mass media moguls. Chavez created the political consciousness that motivated millions of workers and secured the constitutional loyalty of the military to defeat a bloody US-backed business-military coup in 2002. Chavez tempered social changes in accordance with a realistic assessment of what the political and legal order could support. First and foremost, Chavez secured the loyalty of the military by ending US ‘advisory’ missions and overseas imperial indoctrination while substituting intensive courses on Venezuelan history, civic responsibility and the critical link between the popular classes and the military in a common national mission.. Chavez’ national security policies were based on democratic principles as well as a clear recognition of the serious threats to Venezuelan sovereignty. He successfully safeguarded both national security and the democratic rights and political freedoms of its citizens, a feat which has earned Venezuela the admiration and envy of constitutional lawyers and citizens of the US and the EU. In stark contrast, US President Obama has assumed the power to assassinate US citizens based on secret information and without trial both in and out of the US . His Administration has murdered ‘targeted’ US citizens and their children, jailed others without trial and maintains secret ‘files’ on over 40 million Americans. Chavez never assumed those powers and never assassinated or tortured a single Venezuelan. In Venezuela , the dozen or so prisoners convicted of violent acts of subversion after open trials in Venezuelan courts, stand in sharp contrast to the tens of thousands of jailed and secretly framed Muslims and Latin American immigrants in the US . Chavez rejected state terror; while Obama has special assassination teams on the ground in over 70 countries. Obama supports arbitrary police invasions of ‘suspect’ homes and workplaces based on ‘secret evidence’ while. Chavez even tolerated the activities of known foreign (CIA)-funded opposition parties. In a word, Obama uses ‘national security’ to destroy democratic freedoms while Chavez upheld democratic freedoms and imposed constitutional limits on the national security apparatus. Chavez sought peaceful diplomatic resolution of conflicts with hostile neighbors, such as Colombia which hosts seven US military bases – potential springboards for US intervention. On the other hand, Obama has engaged in open war with at least seven countries and has been pursuing covert hostile action against dozens of others. Chavez’s legacy is multi-faceted. His contributions are original, theoretical and practical and universally relevant. He demonstrated in ‘theory and practice’ how a small country can defend itself against imperialism, maintain democratic principles and implement advanced social programs. His pursuit of regional integration and promotion of ethical standards in the governance of a nation – provide examples profoundly relevant in a capitalist world awash in corrupt politicians slashing living standards while enriching the plutocrats. Chavez’ rejection of the Bush-Obama doctrine of using ‘state terror to fight terror’, his affirmation that the roots of violence are social in justice , economic pillage and political oppression and his belief that resolving these underlying issues is the road to peace, stands as the ethical-political guide for humanity’s survival. Faced with a violent world of imperial counter-revolution, and resolved to stand with the oppressed of the world, Hugo Chavez enters world history as a complete political leader, with the stature of the most humane and multi-faceted leader of our epoch: the Renaissance figure for the 21st century.

http://www.globalresearch.ca/president-hugo-chavez-a-21st-century-renaissance-man/5326842

Politics

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Air traffic control (ATC) is a service provided by ground-based controllers who direct aircraft through controlled airspace using aviation technology. The primary purpose of the air traffic control technology worldwide, including Nigeria, is to prevent aircraft collisions. Air traffic controllers are people trained to maintain safe, orderly and expeditious flow of air traffic in the global air traffic control system. The position of air traffic controller is one that requires highly specialised knowledge, skills, and abilities. Air Traffic Control: How do they work? With the aid of modern communication technology, controllers guide aircraft as they take off or land and taxi to or from the gate. Their primary function is to separate aircraft on the airport surface. Such control takes place from air traffic control towers at airports. Controllers from the take-off facilities guide airplanes flying at high altitudes through large sections of airspace. As aircraft fly across the country, pilots talk to controllers in successive en route facilities. In Nigeria, there are presently 275 trained Air Traffic Controllers, working with Nigerian Airspace Management Agency (NAMA) in many areas of Air Traffic Control, according to information by the government aviation agency. In Nigeria, these Traffic Controllers man the nation’s airspace with 25 other retired Air Traffic Controllers engaged on contract basis. According to National Bureau of Statistics (NBS), the Nigerian aviation industry carried 3,810,758 air traffic passengers in the last quarter of 2015. We can now imagine how many lives these air traffic controllers save every year just with the aid of this communication technology system. Air Traffic Control Services: - Air traffic advisory service. A service provided within advisory airspace to ensure separation, in so far as practical, between aircraft which are operating on Flight Information Region (FIR) flight plans. - Alerting service. A service provided to notify appropriate organisations regarding aircraft in need of search and rescue aid, and assist such organisations as required. - Flight Information service. A service provided for the purpose of giving advice and information useful for the safe and efficient conduct of flights. According to Captain Chesley Sullenberger, a retired U.S. Airways pilot and a Safety and Aviation expert, there are fixed required horizontal and vertical separation distances and heights that air traffic controllers must maintain between aircraft at various stages of their flight. The air traffic controllers make sure that aircraft keep those distances. That is why the controllers need to observe every bit of movement of the aircraft until it is safely landed. The idea behind air traffic control is that of people, technology and system working together to keep the airspace safer. Although with latest technology, every aircraft has a traffic collision avoidance system (TCAS) which monitor the airspace around an aircraft for other aircraft equipped with a corresponding TCAS. This is independent of air traffic controllers and is designed to warn pilots and prevent midair collisions. Air traffic controllers also monitor radar screens to track aircraft as they fly. As aircraft fly over radar sites, the data from those radars are communicated digitally through telecommunications lines to controllers hundreds or even thousands of kilometers away. Even after the landing of the aircraft, the air traffic controllers are busy with safety works. The controllers are responsible for all movements and for making sure that not only aircraft but airport vehicles are doing what they are assigned to do on specific routes. “Much of the risk of collision occurs on the ground, not in the air” Sully says. “It may be an aircraft or an airport vehicle that is not where they’re supposed to be. They may be too close to an active runaway. ATC has to deconflict these movements,” he says. The global aviation industry today has newer technology for air traffic control that uses both radar and satellite-based technology and Nigeria has not been left out in the adoption of this new technology. As part of the Federal government’s effort to move along with the stream of technology, Engineer Emma Anasi, Ag. Managing Director of the Nigerian Airspace Management Agency (NAMA), says the agency wants to ensure a speedy completion of the Aeronautical Information Services (AIS) Automation project. While disclosing this during this year’s World AIS Day celebration, Anasis says that in spite of initial challenges traceable to lack of funding and other technicalities, the project is back on course. According to him, AIS is the “live-wire of any air navigation system, as it ensures the safety, efficiency and regularity of air navigation through the exchange of accurate, timely and reliable information to airspace users.’’ The first phase of automation is to become fully operational at 11 stations nationwide by this year, and the ongoing global migration from terrestrial-based navigation to satellite-based navigation needed a high level of accuracy and integrity of data needed for safety, efficiency and economy of flight operations. Nigerian Airspace Management Agency (NAMA) was established by the Act of Parliament No. 48, commencement date of 29th may 1999, as Air Navigation Service Providers (ANSP) in the country. Its mandate is to provide safe, efficient, effective and economic Air Navigation Services to airspace users, through deployment of new technologies and dedicated workforce.

http://technologytimes.ng/air-traffic-control-aviation-technology/

Travel

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