Category,Article Title,Article Content Continents,Continent,"A continent is any of several large geographical regions. Continents are generally identified by convention rather than any strict criteria. A continent could be a single landmass or a part of a very large landmass, as in the case of Asia or Europe. Due to this, the number of continents varies; up to seven or as few as four geographical regions are commonly regarded as continents. Most English-speaking countries recognize seven regions as continents. In order from largest to smallest in area, these seven regions are Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Antarctica, Europe, and Australia. Different variations with fewer continents merge some of these regions; examples of this are merging North America and South America into America, Asia and Europe into Eurasia, and Africa, Asia, and Europe into Afro-Eurasia. Oceanic islands are frequently grouped with a nearby continent to divide all the world's land into geographical regions. Under this scheme, most of the island countries and territories in the Pacific Ocean are grouped together with the continent of Australia to form the geographical region Oceania.In geology, a continent is defined as ""one of Earth's major landmasses, including both dry land and continental shelves"". The geological continents correspond to seven large areas of continental crust that are found on the tectonic plates, but exclude small continental fragments such as Madagascar that are generally referred to as microcontinents. Continental crust is only known to exist on Earth.The idea of continental drift gained recognition in the 20th century. It postulates that the current continents formed from the breaking up of a supercontinent (Pangaea) that formed hundreds of millions of years ago. == Definitions and application == By convention, continents ""are understood to be large, continuous, discrete masses of land, ideally separated by expanses of water"". In modern schemes with five or more recognized continents, at least one pair of continents is joined by land in some fashion. The criterion ""large"" leads to arbitrary classification: Greenland, with a surface area of 2,166,086 square kilometres (836,330 sq mi), is only considered the world's largest island, while Australia, at 7,617,930 square kilometres (2,941,300 sq mi), is deemed the smallest continent. Earth's major landmasses all have coasts on a single, continuous World Ocean, which is divided into a number of principal oceanic components by the continents and various geographic criteria. === Extent === The most restricted meaning of continent is that of a continuous area of land or mainland, with the coastline and any land boundaries forming the edge of the continent. In this sense, the term continental Europe (sometimes referred to in Britain as ""the Continent"") is used to refer to mainland Europe, excluding islands such as Great Britain, Iceland, Ireland, and Malta while the term continent of Australia may refer to the mainland of Australia, excluding New Guinea, Tasmania, and other nearby islands. Similarly, the continental United States refers to ""the 49 States (including Alaska but excluding Hawaii) located on the continent of North America, and the District of Columbia.""From the perspective of geology or physical geography, continent may be extended beyond the confines of continuous dry land to include the shallow, submerged adjacent area (the continental shelf) and the islands on the shelf (continental islands), as they are structurally part of the continent.From this perspective, the edge of the continental shelf is the true edge of the continent, as shorelines vary with changes in sea level. In this sense the islands of Great Britain and Ireland are part of Europe, while Australia and the island of New Guinea together form a continent. As a cultural construct, the concept of a continent may go beyond the continental shelf to include oceanic islands and continental fragments. In this way, Iceland is considered a part of Europe, and Madagascar a part of Africa. Extrapolating the concept to its extreme, some geographers group the Australian continental landmass with other islands in the Pacific Ocean into one ""quasi-continent"" called Oceania. This divides the entire land surface of Earth into continents or quasi-continents. === Separation === The criterion that each continent is a discrete landmass is commonly relaxed due to historical conventions and practical use. Of the seven most globally recognized continents, only Antarctica and Australia are completely separated from other continents by the ocean. Several continents are defined not as absolutely distinct bodies but as ""more or less discrete masses of land"". Africa and Asia are joined by the Isthmus of Suez, and North America and South America by the Isthmus of Panama. In both cases, there is no complete separation of these landmasses by water (disregarding the Suez Canal and the Panama Canal, which are both narrow and shallow, as well as human-made). Both of these isthmuses are very narrow compared to the bulk of the landmasses they unite. North America and South America are treated as separate continents in the seven-continent model. However, they may also be viewed as a single continent known as America. This viewpoint was common in the United States until World War II, and remains prevalent in some Asian six-continent models. The single American continent model remains a common view in France, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Malta, Portugal, Spain, and Latin American countries. The criterion of a discrete landmass is completely disregarded if the continuous landmass of Eurasia is classified as two separate continents (Asia and Europe). Physiographically, Europe and the Indian subcontinent are large peninsulas of the Eurasian landmass. However, Europe is considered a continent with its comparatively large land area of 10,180,000 square kilometres (3,930,000 sq mi), while the Indian subcontinent, with less than half that area, is considered a subcontinent. The alternative view—in geology and geography—that Eurasia is a single continent results in a six-continent view of the world. Some view separation of Eurasia into Asia and Europe as a residue of Eurocentrism: ""In physical, cultural and historical diversity, China and India are comparable to the entire European landmass, not to a single European country. [...]."" However, for historical and cultural reasons, the view of Europe as a separate continent continues in almost all categorizations. If continents are defined strictly as discrete landmasses, embracing all the contiguous land of a body, then Africa, Asia, and Europe form a single continent which may be referred to as Afro-Eurasia. Combined with the consolidation of the Americas, this would produce a four-continent model consisting of Afro-Eurasia, America, Antarctica, and Australia. When sea levels were lower during the Pleistocene ice ages, greater areas of continental shelf were exposed as dry land, forming land bridges between Tasmania and the Australian mainland. At those times, Australia and New Guinea were a single, continuous continent known as Sahul. Likewise, Afro-Eurasia and the Americas were joined by the Bering Land Bridge. Other islands, such as Great Britain, were joined to the mainlands of their continents. At that time, there were just three discrete landmasses in the world: Africa-Eurasia-America, Antarctica, and Australia-New Guinea (Sahul). === Number === There are several ways of distinguishing the continents: The seven-continent model is taught in most English-speaking countries, including Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States, and also in Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Japan, Pakistan, the Philippines, Suriname, parts of Europe and Africa. The six-continent combined-Eurasia model is mostly used in Russia and some parts of Eastern Europe. The six-continent combined-America model is taught in Greece and many Romance-speaking countries—including Latin America. The Olympic flag's five rings represent the five inhabited continents of the combined-America model but excludes the uninhabited Antarctica.In the English-speaking countries, geographers often use the term Oceania to denote a geographical region which includes most of the island countries and territories in the Pacific Ocean, as well as the continent of Australia.In some non-English-speaking countries, such as China, Poland, and Russia, Oceania is considered a proper continent because their equivalent word for ""continent"" has a rather different meaning which can be interpreted as ""a major division of land including islands"" (leaning towards a region) rather than ""land associated with a large landmass"" (leaning towards a landmass). == Area and population == The following table provides areas given by Encyclopædia Britannica for each continent in accordance with the seven-continent model, including Australasia along with Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia as parts of Oceania. It also provides populations of continents according to 2021 estimates by the United Nations Statistics Division based on the United Nations geoscheme, which includes all of Egypt (including the Isthmus of Suez and the Sinai Peninsula) as a part of Africa, all of Armenia, Azerbaijan, Cyprus, Georgia, Indonesia, Kazakhstan, and Turkey (including East Thrace) as parts of Asia, all of Russia (including Siberia) as a part of Europe, all of Panama and the United States (including Hawaii) as parts of North America, and all of Chile (including Easter Island) as a part of South America. † Not usually considered a continent in certain countries. == Other divisions == === Supercontinents === Apart from the current continents, the scope and meaning of the term continent includes past geological ones. Supercontinents, largely in evidence earlier in the geological record, are landmasses that comprise most of the world's cratons or continental cores. These have included Vaalbara, Kenorland, Columbia, Rodinia, Pannotia, and Pangaea. Over time, these supercontinents broke apart into large landmasses which formed the present continents. === Subcontinents === Certain parts of continents are recognized as subcontinents, especially the large peninsulas separated from the main continental landmass by geographical features. The most widely recognized example is the Indian subcontinent. The Arabian Peninsula, Southern Africa, the Southern Cone of South America, and Alaska in North America might be considered further examples.In many of these cases, the ""subcontinents"" concerned are on different tectonic plates from the rest of the continent, providing a geological justification for the terminology. Greenland, generally reckoned as the world's largest island on the northeastern periphery of the North American Plate, is sometimes referred to as a subcontinent. This is a significant departure from the more conventional view of a subcontinent as comprising a very large peninsula on the fringe of a continent.Where the Americas are viewed as a single continent (America), it is divided into two subcontinents (North America and South America) or three (Central America being the third). When Eurasia is regarded as a single continent, Asia and Europe are treated as subcontinents. === Submerged continents === Some areas of continental crust are largely covered by the ocean and may be considered submerged continents. Notable examples are Zealandia, emerging from the ocean primarily in New Zealand and New Caledonia, and the almost completely submerged Kerguelen Plateau in the southern Indian Ocean. === Microcontinents === Some islands lie on sections of continental crust that have rifted and drifted apart from a main continental landmass. While not considered continents because of their relatively small size, they may be considered microcontinents. Madagascar, the largest example, is usually considered an island of Africa, but its divergent evolution has caused it to be referred to as ""the eighth continent"" from a biological perspective. === Geological continents === Geologists use four key attributes to define a continent: Elevation – The landmass, whether dry or submerged beneath the ocean, should be elevated above the surrounding ocean crust. Geology – The landmass should contain different types of rock: igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary. Crustal structure – The landmass should consist of the continental crust, which is thicker and has a lower seismic velocity than the oceanic crust. Limits and area – The landmass should have clearly-defined boundaries and an area of more than one million square kilometres.With the addition of Zealandia in 2017, Earth currently has seven recognized geological continents: Africa, Antarctica, Australia, Eurasia, North America, South America, and Zealandia. Due to lacking the presence of Precambrian cratonic rocks, Zealandia's status as a geological continent has been disputed by some geologists. However, a study conducted in 2021 found that part of the submerged continent is indeed Precambrian, twice as old as geologists had previously thought, which is further evidence that supports the idea of Zealandia being a geological continent.All seven geological continents are spatially isolated by geologic features. == History of the concept == === Early concepts of the Old World continents === The term ""continent"" translates the Greek word ἤπειρος, meaning ""landmass, terra firma"", the proper name of Epirus and later especially used for Asia (i.e. Asia Minor).The first distinction between continents was made by ancient Greek mariners who gave the names Europe and Asia to the lands on either side of the waterways of the Aegean Sea, the Dardanelles strait, the Sea of Marmara, the Bosporus strait and the Black Sea. The names were first applied just to lands near the coast and only later extended to include the hinterlands. But the division was only carried through to the end of navigable waterways and ""... beyond that point the Hellenic geographers never succeeded in laying their finger on any inland feature in the physical landscape that could offer any convincing line for partitioning an indivisible Eurasia ...""Ancient Greek thinkers subsequently debated whether Africa (then called Libya) should be considered part of Asia or a third part of the world. Division into three parts eventually came to predominate. From the Greek viewpoint, the Aegean Sea was the center of the world; Asia lay to the east, Europe to the north and west, and Africa to the south. The boundaries between the continents were not fixed. Early on, the Europe–Asia boundary was taken to run from the Black Sea along the Rioni River (known then as the Phasis) in Georgia. Later it was viewed as running from the Black Sea through Kerch Strait, the Sea of Azov and along the Don River (known then as the Tanais) in Russia. The boundary between Asia and Africa was generally taken to be the Nile River. Herodotus in the 5th century BC objected to the whole of Egypt being split between Asia and Africa (""Libya"") and took the boundary to lie along the western border of Egypt, regarding Egypt as part of Asia. He also questioned the division into three of what is really a single landmass, a debate that continues nearly two and a half millennia later. Eratosthenes, in the 3rd century BC, noted that some geographers divided the continents by rivers (the Nile and the Don), thus considering them ""islands"". Others divided the continents by isthmuses, calling the continents ""peninsulas"". These latter geographers set the border between Europe and Asia at the isthmus between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, and the border between Asia and Africa at the isthmus between the Red Sea and the mouth of Lake Bardawil on the Mediterranean Sea. There was no sense of continental identity within the Roman Empire. However, following the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the culture that developed in its place, linked to Latin and the Catholic church, began to associate itself with the concept of ""Europe"". Through the Roman period and the Middle Ages, a few writers took the Isthmus of Suez as the boundary between Asia and Africa, but most writers continued to consider it the Nile or the western border of Egypt (Gibbon). In the Middle Ages, the world was usually portrayed on T and O maps, with the T representing the waters dividing the three continents. By the middle of the 18th century, ""the fashion of dividing Asia and Africa at the Nile, or at the Great Catabathmus [the boundary between Egypt and Libya] farther west, had even then scarcely passed away"". === European arrival in the Americas === Christopher Columbus sailed across the Atlantic Ocean to the Caribbean in 1492, sparking a period of European exploration of the Americas. But despite four voyages to the Americas, Columbus never believed he had reached a new continent—he always thought it was part of Asia. In 1501, Amerigo Vespucci and Gonçalo Coelho attempted to sail around what they considered the southern end of the Asian mainland into the Indian Ocean, passing through Fernando de Noronha. After reaching the coast of Brazil, they sailed along the coast of South America much farther south than Asia was known to extend, confirming that this was a land of continental proportions. On return to Europe, an account of the voyage, called Mundus Novus (""New World""), was published under Vespucci's name in 1502 or 1503, although it seems that it had additions or alterations by another writer. Regardless of who penned the words, Mundus Novus credited Vespucci with saying, ""I have discovered a continent in those southern regions that is inhabited by more numerous people and animals than our Europe, or Asia or Africa"", the first known explicit identification of part of the Americas as a continent like the other three. Within a few years, the name ""New World"" began appearing as a name for South America on world maps, such as the Oliveriana (Pesaro) map of around 1504–1505. Maps of this time, though, still showed North America connected to Asia and showed South America as a separate land. In 1507 Martin Waldseemüller published a world map, Universalis Cosmographia, which was the first to show North and South America as separate from Asia and surrounded by water. A small inset map above the main map explicitly showed for the first time the Americas being east of Asia and separated from Asia by an ocean, as opposed to just placing the Americas on the left end of the map and Asia on the right end. In the accompanying book Cosmographiae Introductio, Waldseemüller noted that the earth is divided into four parts, Europe, Asia, Africa, and the fourth part, which he named ""America"" after Amerigo Vespucci's first name. On the map, the word ""America"" was placed on part of South America. === The word continent === From the 16th century the English noun continent was derived from the term continent land, meaning continuous or connected land and translated from the Latin terra continens. The noun was used to mean ""a connected or continuous tract of land"" or mainland. It was not applied only to very large areas of land—in the 17th century, references were made to the continents (or mainlands) of Isle of Man, Ireland and Wales and in 1745 to Sumatra. The word continent was used in translating Greek and Latin writings about the three ""parts"" of the world, although in the original languages no word of exactly the same meaning as continent was used.While continent was used on the one hand for relatively small areas of continuous land, on the other hand geographers again raised Herodotus's query about why a single large landmass should be divided into separate continents. In the mid-17th century, Peter Heylin wrote in his Cosmographie that ""A Continent is a great quantity of Land, not separated by any Sea from the rest of the World, as the whole Continent of Europe, Asia, Africa."" In 1727, Ephraim Chambers wrote in his Cyclopædia, ""The world is ordinarily divided into two grand continents: the old and the new."" And in his 1752 atlas, Emanuel Bowen defined a continent as ""a large space of dry land comprehending many countries all joined together, without any separation by water. Thus Europe, Asia, and Africa is one great continent, as America is another."" However, the old idea of Europe, Asia and Africa as ""parts"" of the world ultimately persisted with these being regarded as separate continents. === Beyond four continents === From the late 18th century, some geographers started to regard North America and South America as two parts of the world, making five parts in total. Overall though, the fourfold division prevailed well into the 19th century.Europeans discovered Australia in 1606, but for some time it was taken as part of Asia. By the late 18th century, some geographers considered it a continent in its own right, making it the sixth (or fifth for those still taking America as a single continent). In 1813, Samuel Butler wrote of Australia as ""New Holland, an immense island, which some geographers dignify with the appellation of another continent"" and the Oxford English Dictionary was just as equivocal some decades later. It was in the 1950s that the concept of Oceania as a ""great division"" of the world was replaced by the concept of Australia as a continent.Antarctica was sighted in 1820 during the First Russian Antarctic Expedition and described as a continent by Charles Wilkes on the United States Exploring Expedition in 1838, the last continent identified, although a great ""Antarctic"" (antipodean) landmass had been anticipated for millennia. An 1849 atlas labelled Antarctica as a continent but few atlases did so until after World War II.Over time, the western concept of dividing the world into continents spread globally, replacing conceptions in other areas of the world. The idea of continents continued to become imbued with cultural and political meaning. In the 19th century during the Meiji period, Japanese leaders began to self-identify with the concept of being Asian, and renew relations with other ""Asian"" countries while conceiving of the idea of Asian solidarity against western countries. This conception of an Asian identity, as well as the idea of Asian solidarity, was later taken up by others in the region, such as Republican China and Vietnam.From the mid-19th century, atlases published in the United States more commonly treated North and South America as separate continents, while atlases published in Europe usually considered them one continent. However, it was still not uncommon for American atlases to treat them as one continent up until World War II. From the 1950s, most U.S. geographers divided the Americas into two continents. With the addition of Antarctica, this made the seven-continent model. However, this division of the Americas never appealed to Latin Americans, who saw their region spanning an América as a single landmass, and there the conception of six continents remains dominant, as it does in scattered other countries.Some geographers regard Europe and Asia together as a single continent, dubbed Eurasia. In this model, the world is divided into six continents, with North America and South America considered separate continents. == Geology == Geologists use the term continent in a different manner from geographers. In geology, a continent is defined by continental crust, which is a platform of metamorphic and igneous rock, largely of granitic composition. Continental crust is less dense and much thicker than oceanic crust, which causes it to ""float"" higher than oceanic crust on the dense underlying mantle. This explains why the continents form high platforms surrounded by deep ocean basins.Some geologists restrict the term continent to portions of the crust built around stable regions called cratons. Cratons have largely been unaffected by mountain-building events (orogenies) since the Precambrian. A craton typically consists of a continental shield surrounded by a continental platform. The shield is a region where ancient crystalline basement rock (typically 1.5 to 3.8 billion years old) is widely exposed at the surface. The platform surrounding the shield is also composed of ancient basement rock, but with a cover of younger sedimentary rock. The continents are accretionary crustal ""rafts"" that, unlike the denser basaltic crust of the ocean basins, are not subjected to destruction through the plate tectonic process of subduction. This accounts for the great age of the rocks comprising the continental cratons.The margins of geologic continents are either active or passive. An active margin is characterised by mountain building, either through a continent-on continent collision or a subduction zone. Continents grow by accreting lighter volcanic island chains and microcontinents along these active margins, forming orogens. At a passive margin, the continental crust is stretched thin by extension to form a continental shelf, which tapers off with a gradual slope covered in sediment, connecting it directly to the oceanic crust beyond. Most passive margins eventually transition into active margins: where the oceanic plate becomes too heavy due to cooling, it disconnects from the continental crust, and starts subducting below it, forming a new subduction zone. There are many microcontinents, or continental fragments, that are built of continental crust but do not contain a craton. Some of these are fragments of Gondwana or other ancient cratonic continents: Zealandia, which includes New Zealand and New Caledonia; Madagascar; the northern Mascarene Plateau, which includes the Seychelles. Other islands, such as several in the Caribbean Sea, are composed largely of granitic rock as well, but all continents contain both granitic and basaltic crust, and there is no clear boundary as to which islands would be considered microcontinents under such a definition. The Kerguelen Plateau, for example, is largely volcanic, but is associated with the breakup of Gondwanaland and is considered a microcontinent, whereas volcanic Iceland and Hawaii are not. The British Isles, Sri Lanka, Borneo, and Newfoundland were on the margins of the Laurasian continent—only separated from the main continental landmass by inland seas flooding its margins. The movement of plates has caused the continual formation and breakup of continents, and occasionally supercontinents, in a process called the Wilson Cycle. The supercontinent Columbia or Nuna formed during a period of 2.0–1.8 billion years ago and broke up about 1.5–1.3 billion years ago. The supercontinent Rodinia is thought to have formed about 1 billion years ago and to have embodied most or all of Earth's continents, and broken up into eight continents around 600 million years ago. The eight continents later reassembled into another supercontinent called Pangaea; Pangaea broke up into Laurasia (which became North America and Eurasia) and Gondwana (which became the remaining continents). == See also == Boundaries between the continents of Earth Dvipa Forgotten continent List of continent name etymologies List of continents and continental subregions by population List of sovereign states and dependent territories by continent List of transcontinental countries Lists of cities Mainland Australia Subregion == Notes == == References == === Bibliography === Lewis, Martin W.; Wigen, Kären E. (1997). The Myth of Continents: a Critique of Metageography. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-20743-1 – via Google Books. == External links == Continent at the Encyclopædia Britannica ""Continent"" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911. ""What Are Continents?"" on YouTube by CGP Grey Lost continent revealed in new reconstruction of geologic history" Continents,Boundaries between the continents,"Determining the boundaries between the continents is generally a matter of geographical convention. Several slightly different conventions are in use. The number of continents is most commonly considered seven (in English-speaking countries) but may range as low as four when Afro-Eurasia and the Americas are both considered as single continents. An island can be considered to be associated with a given continent by either lying on the continent's adjacent continental shelf (e.g. Singapore, the British Isles) or being a part of a microcontinent on the same principal tectonic plate (e.g. Madagascar and Seychelles). An island can also be entirely oceanic while still being associated with a continent by geology (e.g. Bermuda, the Australian Indian Ocean Territories) or by common geopolitical convention (e.g. Ascension Island, the South Sandwich Islands). Another example is the grouping into Oceania of the Pacific Islands with Australia and Zealandia. There are three overland boundaries subject to definition: between Africa and Asia (dividing Afro-Eurasia into Africa and Eurasia): at the Isthmus of Suez; between Asia and Europe (dividing Eurasia): along the Turkish straits, the Caucasus, and the Urals and the Ural River (historically also north of the Caucasus, along the Kuma–Manych Depression or along the Don River); between North America and South America (dividing the Americas): at some point on the Isthmus of Panama, with the most common demarcation in atlases and other sources following the Darién Mountains watershed along the Colombia–Panama border where the isthmus meets the South American continent (see Darién Gap).While today the isthmus between Asia and Africa is navigable via the Suez Canal, and that between North and South America via the Panama Canal, these artificial channels are not generally accepted as continent-defining boundaries in themselves. The Suez Canal happens to traverse the isthmus between the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea, dividing Africa and Asia. The continental boundaries are considered to be within the very narrow land connections joining the continents. The remaining boundaries concern the association of islands and archipelagos with specific continents, notably: the delineation between Africa, Asia, and Europe in the Mediterranean Sea; the delineation between Asia and Europe in the Arctic Ocean; the delineation between Europe and North America in the North Atlantic Ocean; the delineation between North and South America in the Caribbean Sea; the delineation of Antarctica from Africa, Australia, and South America in the Indian, South Pacific, and South Atlantic oceans, respectively (referred to collectively by some geographers as the Southern Ocean or the Antarctic Ocean); the delineation of Asia from Australia in the Ceram Sea, Arafura Sea, Timor Sea, Halmahera Sea, and the Wallacean region of the Malay Archipelago the delineation of Asia from North America in the North Pacific Ocean. == Africa and Asia == Historically in Greco-Roman geography, ""Africa"" meant Ancient Libya, and its eastern extent was taken to be around Marmarica, at the Catabathmus Magnus This was not considered to be a continent. As wider knowledge of geography developed, the shape of the African landmass (and Egypt's ""natural"" inclusion in that landmass) became apparent. In 1806, William George Browne still titled his travelogue Travels in Africa, Egypt, and Syria. Similarly, James Bruce in 1835 published Travels through part of Africa, Syria, Egypt, and Arabia. On the other hand, as early as 1670 John Ogilby under the title Africa published ""an accurate Description of the Regions of Egypt, Barbary, Libya, and Billedulgerid, the Land of Negroes, Guinea, Æthiopia, and the Abyssines, with all the adjacent Islands, either in the Mediterranean, Atlantic, Southern, or Oriental Seas, belonging thereunto"". The usual line taken to divide Africa from Asia today is at the Isthmus of Suez, the narrowest gap between the Mediterranean Sea and the Gulf of Suez, the route today followed by the Suez Canal. This makes the Sinai Peninsula geographically Asian, and Egypt a transcontinental country. Less than 2% of the Egyptian population live on the Sinai Peninsula, and hence Egypt, even though technically transcontinental, is usually considered an African country entirely and not partly Asian. But when discussing the geopolitical region of the Middle East and North Africa, Egypt is usually grouped with the Western Asian countries as part of the Middle East, while Egypt's western neighbor Libya is grouped with the remaining North African countries as the Maghreb. Both are members of the African Union. The Comoros, Madagascar, Mauritius, and Seychelles are island countries in the Indian Ocean which are nominally associated with Africa. The Socotra Archipelago may be considered African as it lies on its continental shelf; however, it is politically a part of Yemen, an Asian country. == Africa and Europe == The African and European mainlands are non-contiguous, and the delineation between these continents is thus merely a question of which islands are to be associated with which continent. The Portuguese Atlantic island possession of the Azores is 1,368 km (850 mi) from Europe and 1,507 km (936 mi) from Africa, and is sometimes grouped with Europe. By contrast, the Canary Islands and the Madeira islands (the latter of which also include the Desertas Islands and the Savage Islands) off the Atlantic coast of Morocco are much closer to, and usually grouped with, Africa; the Canary Islands are only 100 km (62 mi) from the African mainland at their closest point but 945 km (587 mi) from the European mainland, while Madeira is 520 km (320 mi) from the African mainland and 1,000 km (620 mi) from the European mainland. In his 1895 book Africa: Volume 2, author Augustus Henry Keane remarked, ""In the North Atlantic there are four insular groups — Madeira, the Canaries, Cape Verde and Azores — which are usually assigned to Africa, although the Canaries and Cape Verde alone belong geographically to that continent, the Azores are lost, so to say, in mid-Atlantic.""The Mediterranean island country of Malta is about 81 km (50 mi) from the coast of Sicily — much closer than the 288 km (179 mi) distance to the African mainland. The nearby Italian island of Lampedusa (principal island of the Pelagie Islands) is 207 km (129 mi) from Sicily while just 127 km (79 mi) from the African mainland; similarly, Pantelleria is 100 km (62 mi) from Sicily and just 71 km (44 mi) from the African mainland. All of these Mediterranean islands, including Malta and Sicily, are actually located on the African Plate, and could be considered part of the African continent geologically. However, for political and cultural reasons, maps generally display them as part of Europe instead.A single Spanish islet, known as Alboran Island, is also debatably located on either the African Plate or the Eurasian Plate. This island is located in the Alboran Sea, 50 km (31 mi) north of the Moroccan coast and 90 km (56 mi) south of Spain. === European-governed territories in Africa === There are six definitive occurrences of territories unequivocally being a part of the African continent, but legally being administered by a European state. Three of these are administered by France, and the other three by Spain. The existence of these territories further blurs the line between the borders of Africa and Europe, in particular with regard to the Spanish territories which lie immediately adjacent to and/or connected to the African mainland. The French territories lie within the Indian Ocean, and, consequently, are more dislocated from the principal boundary between the two continents. The uninhabited Spanish unincorporated overseas minor territories, known as the plazas de soberanía (""Localities of Sovereignty""), are small islands that lie immediately adjacent to the North African coastline, with the exception of Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera, which was originally an island like the other 'localities' but has subsequently become directly connected to the Moroccan (African) mainland. The two other Spanish territories are the exclaves of Ceuta and Melilla, which are two populated coastal cities located directly on the African mainland, both bordering only Morocco. Two of the French territories are the inhabited overseas departments and regions of Mayotte and Réunion. Mayotte is an island territory located west of the island country of Madagascar within the Mozambique Channel. Réunion is an island territory located near the island country of Mauritius and to the east of Madagascar (both nominally considered part of the African continent). The final territory is the Scattered Islands in the Indian Ocean, administratively a part of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands. This French territory consists of a range of minor uninhabited atolls in the Indian Ocean, located in the deep sea surrounding Madagascar. == Antarctica == Antarctica along with its outlying islands have no permanent population. All land claims south of 60°S latitude are held in abeyance by the Antarctic Treaty System. Australia's Heard Island and McDonald Islands (an external territory) and the French Kerguelen Islands are located on the Kerguelen Plateau, on the Antarctic continental plate. Both are still within the bounds of the Indian Ocean. The United Nations categorizes Heard Island and McDonald Islands, which are politically affiliated with Australia, as being part of Oceania. The islands are 4,000 km from Perth in Australia, and have never been inhabited by indigenous peoples of Oceania or any other humans. Heard Island has only been visited 240 times throughout its entire history, and the McDonald Islands have only ever been visited twice, in 1971 and 1980. The World Factbook categorizes these islands as part of Antarctica rather than Oceania.The French Crozet Islands, Île Amsterdam, Île Saint-Paul, and the Norwegian Bouvet Island are also located on the Antarctic continental plate, and are not often associated with other continents. The United Nations categorize Bouvet Island as part of South America, while the World Factbook categorizes it as part of Antarctica.South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands are closer to Antarctica than to any other continent. However, they are politically associated with the Falkland Islands, which are less geographically isolated from South America. Furthermore, Argentina, a South American country, maintains its irredentist claims on all of these islands, which are administered by the United Kingdom. The United Nations consider them to be part of South America. Definitions of South America that exclude the Galápagos Islands and Juan Fernández Islands (both oceanic in nature) still generally include the Falklands, which share biographical affinities to Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego, and which are located on the South American continental shelf. The Falkland Islands and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands were uninhabited when discovered by Europeans, with some theorizing that the Falklands were visited by Indigenous peoples of the Americas during prehistoric times. These theories are usually considered dubious, as there is no archaeological evidence indicating prehistoric human inhabitation on the Falklands. South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands do not have any permanent residents. The Falkland Islands have historically had a British population, with a culture distinct from that of mainland South America. There was a violent war between Argentina and the United Kingdom regarding ownership of the islands in 1982, and the residents of the Falklands do not currently wish to be associated with South America, despite their geographical proximity.The Prince Edward Islands are located between Africa and Antarctica, and are the territory of South Africa, an African country. Macquarie Island and the Antipodes Islands, Auckland Islands, and Campbell Islands are all uninhabited, and are located between Australia and New Zealand and Antarctica. The Antipodes Islands, Auckland Islands and Campbell Islands are politically part of New Zealand, while Macquarie Island has been integrated into the Australian state of Tasmania. None are discrete political entities like Heard Island and McDonald Islands. As such, they are likely considered by the United Nations also to be part of Oceania. The Auckland Islands could be considered part of Oceania on cultural grounds rather than mere political grounds, as they are believed to be the southernmost island group to have been settled by Polynesians during prehistoric times. The islands were uninhabited when discovered by Europeans, but archaeological traces have since been found to indicate Polynesian settlement, dating to the 13th century, on Enderby Island. Macquarie Island is theorized to have possibly had contact with Polynesians, although there is no archaeological evidence to support this. == Asia and Australia == The continental boundary between Asia and Australia is somewhere in the Wallacean region of the Malay Archipelago. The boundary is frequently divided along the anthropologic Melanesian Line or the biogeographic Weber's Line. Two provinces of Indonesia are located at the western half of New Guinea, geologically a part of the Australian continent. The eastern half of the island is a part of Papua New Guinea which is considered to be a part of Oceania. Indonesia is commonly referred to as one of the Southeast Asian countries. Indonesia's current ownership of Western New Guinea makes it a transcontinental country; Western New Guinea is often considered part of Oceania because of its Indigenous Melanesian inhabitants and geological association with the Australian continental landmass. East Timor, an independent state that was formerly a part of Indonesia, is classified by the United Nations as a part of the South-eastern Asia subregion. It is expected to join the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, having been involved as an ASEAN Regional Forum member since independence, and has participated in the Southeast Asian Games since 2003.Occasionally, all of the Malay Archipelago is included in Oceania, although this is extremely rare, especially as most of the archipelago lies on the Asian continental shelf. The Malay Archipelago was more frequently associated with Oceania during the 19th century, when the term was first coined. Many inhabitants in the Malay Archipelago are Austronesians, sharing genetic and linguistic affinities to the Melanesian, Micronesian and Polynesian inhabitants of Oceania, who also fall under the Austronesian umbrella. However, the Austronesians of the Malay Archipelago had significant contact with mainland Asia during prehistoric times, unlike with the Austronesians and Indigenous Australians of Oceania, who were isolated from the culture of Asia and the eastern world. Epeli Hauʻofa, a scholar of Tongan and Fijian descent, considered the Malay Archipelago separate from Oceania for this very reason. He wrote, ""Before the advent of Europeans into the Pacific, our cultures were truly oceanic, in the sense that the sea barrier shielded us for millennia from the great cultural influences that raged through continental land masses and adjacent islands. This prolonged period of isolation allowed for the emergence of distinctive oceanic cultures with the only non-oceanic influences being the original cultures that the earliest settlers brought with them when they entered the vast, uninhabited region. Scholars of antiquity may raise the issue of continental cultural influences on the western and northwestern border islands of Oceania, but these are exceptions, and the Asian mainland influences were largely absent until the modern era. On the eastern extremity of the region there were some influences from the Americas, but these were minimal. It is for these reasons that Pacific Ocean islands from Japan, through the Philippines and Indonesia, which are adjacent to the Asian mainland, do not have oceanic cultures, and are therefore not part of Oceania. This definition of our region delineates us clearly from Asia and the pre-Columbian Americas and is based on our own historical developments, rather than on other people’s perceptions of us.""The United Nations and The World Factbook categorize the Australian Indian Ocean external territories of Christmas Island and Cocos (Keeling) Islands (both geographically adjacent to Java) as being part of Oceania, rather than Asia. The islands lie within the bounds of the Australian Plate, and were uninhabited prior to European discovery in the 17th century. They have oceanic geology, making them distinct from both mainland Asia and mainland Australia.Japan possesses the Bonin Islands (also known as the Ogasawara Islands), the Volcano Islands, and three remote islets (Nishinoshima, Minami-Tori-shima and Okinotorishima), all governed collectively as Ogasawara Village, which is an administrative division consisting of scattered island atolls located in the Pacific Ocean. These mostly uninhabited islands are located at some distance southeast of the Japanese archipelago. Owing to the location and oceanic nature of these islands, they are sometimes considered to be a part of Oceania as well. The islands are within the Oceanian biogeographical realm, unlike the rest of Japan, and may have been inhabited by Micronesians around 2,000 years ago. Their official discovery came much later in the 16th century, through Europeans. The most remote island within this group, Minami-Tori-shima (also known as Marcus Island) is nearly 2,000 km removed from Tokyo, and is geographically closer to the Micronesian territories of Guam and Northern Mariana Islands. Inhabitants of the Ryukyu Islands, on the periphery of the main Japanese archipelago, are sometimes associated with Austronesians. The islands are geologically and historically linked with Asia, and are excluded from most definitions of Oceania, along with the similarly non-oceanic Japanese archipelago, which is not associated with Austronesians. To the north of Japan is the disputed Kuril Islands, currently administered by Russia. Usually, these islands are associated with the Russian Far East. This is primarily as a result of their non-tropical biogeography, and their inhabitants, who are mostly white Russian mainlanders.Australia has a more developed economy than neighboring Pacific Island nations, and is occasionally associated with mainland Asia as a result of this, despite being geologically distinct and having no cultural links to it prior to European discovery. It has historically been included in definitions of Oceania, ever since the term was first coined in the early 1810s. In the 19th century, many geographers divided up Oceania into mostly racially-based subdivisions; Australasia, Malaysia (encompassing the Malay Archipelago), Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia. Australia, Guam and Northern Mariana Islands currently compete in the Asian Football Confederation (AFC), with Australia and Northern Mariana Islands having originally been part of the Oceania Football Confederation (OFC). Guam was never an official OFC member, although they exclusively played against teams from Oceania prior to joining the AFC. The presence of these teams in the AFC is not necessarily related to geography or politics, but rather because the Asian Football Confederation have far more resources than the Oceania Football Confederation. All three are members of the Pacific Islands Forum, the major governing body for the Oceania region, with Australia being a founding member in 1971. Guam and Northern Mariana Islands have had similar histories to the rest of Micronesia, and are biogeographically and geologically distinct from mainland Asia. Palau made an unsuccessful attempt to join the Asian Football Confederation in 2009. They too share much of the same history as the rest of Micronesia, and are a member of the Pacific Islands Forum.Taiwan has at times been associated with Oceania, not only because of their loose status as a Pacific Island, but also because of their indigenous population, who are related to the natives of Oceania. In 2010, Australian historian Bronwen Douglas claimed in The Journal of Pacific History that ""a strong case could be made for extending Oceania to at least Taiwan, the homeland of the Austronesian language family whose speakers colonized significant parts of the region about 6,000 years ago."" Definitions of Oceania which include Taiwan are extremely rare because Taiwan has historical ties to mainland Asia, Taiwan is close to China (being 180 km away), and Taiwan lies on the continental shelf of Asia. Taiwan was formerly a member of the Oceania Football Confederation; this was for political reasons: It was forced to compete against teams from Oceania because China, its political administrator, did not recognize its sovereignty and would not compete against them. It was a member from 1975 to 1989, but now competes as part of the Asian Football Confederation. Taiwan, Japan and most of the nations in the Malay Archipelago are dialogue partners of the Pacific Islands Forum, but none have full membership, only Australia, New Zealand and the island states in Polynesia, Melanesia and Micronesia do. == Asia and Europe == The boundary between Asia and Europe is unusual among continental boundaries because of its largely mountain-and-river-based characteristics north and east of the Black Sea. Asia and Europe are considered separate continents for historical reasons; the division between the two goes back to the early Greek geographers. In the modern sense of the term ""continent"", Eurasia is more readily identifiable as a ""continent"", and Europe has occasionally been described as a subcontinent of Eurasia. === Mainland === ==== History ==== The threefold division of the Old World into Africa, Asia, and Europe has been in use since the 6th century BC by early Greek geographers such as Anaximander and Hecataeus.Anaximander placed the boundary between Asia and Europe along the Phasis River (the modern Rioni in Georgia in the Caucasus Mountains), from Rioni mouth in Poti on the Black Sea coast, through the Surami Pass and along the Kura River to the Caspian Sea, a convention still followed by Herodotus in the 5th century BC. As geographic knowledge of the Greeks increased during the Hellenistic period, this archaic convention was revised, and the boundary between Asia and Europe was now considered to be the Tanais (the modern Don River). This is the convention used by Roman era authors such as Posidonius, Strabo and Ptolemy.Throughout the Middle Ages and into the 18th century, the traditional division of the landmass of Eurasia into two continents, Asia and Europe, followed Ptolemy, with the boundary following the Turkish Straits, the Black Sea, the Kerch Strait, the Sea of Azov and the Don (known in antiquity as the Tanais). But maps produced during the 16th to 18th centuries tended to differ in how to continue the boundary beyond the Don bend at Kalach-na-Donu (where it is closest to the Volga, now joined with it by the Volga–Don Canal), into territory not described in any detail by the ancient geographers. Philip Johan von Strahlenberg in 1725 was the first to depart from the classical Don boundary by drawing the line along the Volga, following the Volga north until the Samara Bend, along Obshchy Syrt (the drainage divide between the Ural and Volga rivers) and then north along the Ural Mountains. The mapmakers continued to differ on the boundary between the lower Don and Samara well into the 19th century. The 1745 atlas published by the Russian Academy of Sciences has the boundary follow the Don beyond Kalach as far as Serafimovich before cutting north towards Arkhangelsk, while other 18th- to 19th-century mapmakers such as John Cary followed Strahlenberg's prescription. To the south, the Kuma–Manych Depression was identified circa 1773 by a German naturalist, Peter Simon Pallas, as a valley that, once upon a time, connected the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, and subsequently was proposed as a natural boundary between continents. By the mid-19th century, there were three main conventions, one following the Don, the Volga–Don Canal and the Volga, the other following the Kuma–Manych Depression to the Caspian and then the Ural River, and the third abandoning the Don altogether, following the Greater Caucasus watershed to the Caspian. The question was still treated as a controversy in geographical literature of the 1860s, with Douglas Freshfield advocating the Caucasus crest boundary as the best possible, citing support from various modern geographers.In Russia and the Soviet Union, the boundary along the Kuma–Manych Depression was the most commonly used as early as 1906. In 1958, the Soviet Geographical Society formally recommended that the boundary between Asia and Europe be drawn in textbooks from Baydaratskaya Bay, on the Kara Sea, along the eastern foot of the Ural Mountains, then following the Ural River until the Mugodzhar Hills, and then the Emba River; and Kuma–Manych Depression, thus placing the Caucasus entirely in Asia and the Urals entirely in Europe. However, most geographers in the Soviet Union favoured the boundary along the Caucasus crest and this became the standard convention in the latter 20th century, although the Kuma–Manych boundary remained in use in some 20th-century maps. ==== Modern definition ==== The modern border between Asia and Europe is a historical and cultural construct, and for that reason, its definition has varied. One commonly accepted border follows the Aegean Sea, the Dardanelles–Sea of Marmara–Bosporus (together known as the Turkish Straits), the Black Sea, along the watershed of the Greater Caucasus, the northwestern portion of the Caspian Sea, and along the Ural River and Ural Mountains to the Kara Sea, as mapped and listed in most atlases including that of the National Geographic Society and as described in The World Factbook. According to this particular definition, Georgia is a transcontinental country with some of its northern portions (such as Kazbegi Municipality, Khevsureti, and Tusheti) geographically located in Eastern Europe, north of the Greater Caucasus Watershed, whereas the country's south is arguably in Asia. For historical, cultural, religious, and political reasons, the country is regarded as a European country. Similarly, according to this one particular definition, Azerbaijan is a transcontinental country with some northern portions (e.g. Khachmaz, Quba, Qusar, Shabran, and Siazan) located north of the Greater Caucasus Watershed and thus geographically in Europe, whereas the rest arguably falls under Asia.However, the international geographic community has never reached a universal agreement on continental borders, especially with regard to the Caucasus region between the Black and Caspian seas. As Encyclopædia Britannica explains: “The watershed of the Greater Caucasus, the backbone of the system, traditionally has been part of the line dividing Europe and Asia, but Europe's eastern boundary has been the subject of much debate. One widely accepted scheme draws the dividing line along the crest of the Greater Caucasus range, putting the portion of the region north of the line in Europe and the portion south of it in Asia. Another puts the western portion of the Caucasus region in Europe and the eastern part (the bulk of Azerbaijan and small portions of Armenia, Georgia, and Russia's Caspian Sea coast) in Asia. Still another scheme identifies the Aras River and the Turkish border as the line of continental demarcation, thereby locating Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia in Europe” Russia and Turkey are transcontinental states with territory in both Asia and Europe. Russia is historically, culturally, and politically a European state, with a history of imperial conquests in Asia. Kazakhstan is also a transcontinental state by this definition, with its West Kazakhstan and Atyrau provinces extending on either side of the Ural River. The Turkish city Istanbul is a transcontinental city because it lies on both sides of the Bosporus (one of the Turkish Straits). The Russian and Kazakhstani cities of Magnitogorsk, Orenburg, and Atyrau fall on the Ural River, making them transcontinental cities as well.This Ural River delineation is the only segment not to follow a major mountain range or wide water body, both of which often truly separate populations. However, the Ural River is the most common division used by authorities, is the most prominent natural feature in the region, and is the ""most satisfactory of those (options) proposed"" which include the Emba River, a much smaller stream cutting further into Central Asian Kazakhstan. The Ural River bridges in Atyrau and Orenburg are even labeled with permanent monuments carved with the word ""Europe"" on one side, ""Asia"" on the other.Because the Kazakhs are an Asian people, after the collapse of the USSR, the option according to which the border of Europe runs from the Caspian Sea along the state border between Russia and Kazakhstan to the Ural River has also gained popularity.The Kuma–Manych Depression (more precisely, the Manych River, the Kuma–Manych Canal, and the Kuma River) remains cited less commonly as one possible natural boundary in contemporary sources. This definition peaked in prominence in the 19th century; however, it has declined in usage over time, because it included traditionally European areas of Russia, such as Stavropol, Krasnodar, and even areas just south of Rostov-on-Don, in Asia. One formal means by which states are grouped into one specified continental area or another is by using the definition used for statistical purposes by the United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD): According to UNSD,""assignment of countries or areas to specific groupings is for statistical convenience and does not imply any assumption regarding political or other affiliation of countries or territories"". Furthermore, the UNSD classification often differs from those of other United Nations organizations. For instance, while UNSD includes Georgia and Cyprus in Western Asia, the United Nations Industrial Development Organization and UNESCO include both states in Europe.The Council of Europe includes transcontinental or Eurasian states, such as Armenia, Azerbaijan, Cyprus, Georgia, and Turkey as members. Cyprus is a member of the European Union, whereas Georgia has been explicitly told that it is eligible to apply for EU membership “like any other European state”. The EU reiterated its stance with regard to Georgia in 2022, expressing readiness to grant Georgia candidate status once certain reforms are implemented. === Islands === Cyprus is an island of the Mediterranean located on the Asian continental shelf, geologically a part of the Anatolian Plate and adjacent to Asia Minor, by which it is sometimes associated with Asia (Western Asia), as in the United Nations geoscheme. Despite differences regarding its geographic affiliation, the Republic of Cyprus was nevertheless admitted to the Council of Europe in 1961 and joined the EU in 2004. The northern part of the island functions as the unrecognized (except by Turkey) Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus. The Greek North Aegean islands and the Dodecanese lie on the coast of the Asian part of Turkey (on the Asian continental shelf). Thus, generally, these island groups could be considered part of Asia. More specifically, the small islands of Kastellorizo, Strongyli Megistis, and Ro (all these islands are still in the Dodecanese group) are directly to the south of the Turkish Anatolia coastline, of which they are directly adjacent. Additionally, they lie at some distance to the east of the rest of the Dodecanese group in the direction of Cyprus and the Turkish city of Antalya. Akin to Cyprus, these small islets would nominally be considered Asian if only the continental shelf were used to define the boundary, but for history and cultural influences they are considered a part of Europe. Russia's Vaygach Island and Novaya Zemlya extend northward from the northern end of the Ural Mountains and are a continuation of that chain into the Arctic Ocean. While Novaya Zemlya was variously grouped with Europe or with Asia in 19th-century maps it is now usually grouped with Europe, the continental boundary considered to join the Arctic Ocean along the southern shore of the Kara Sea. The Russian Arctic archipelago of Franz Josef Land farther north is also associated with Europe. == Asia and North America == The Bering Strait and Bering Sea separate the landmasses of Asia and North America, as well as forming the international boundary between Russia and the United States. This national and continental boundary separates the Diomede Islands in the Bering Strait, with Big Diomede in Russia and Little Diomede in the U.S. The Aleutian Islands are an island chain extending westward from the Alaskan Peninsula toward Russia's Komandorski Islands and Kamchatka Peninsula. Most of them are always associated with North America, except for the westernmost Near Islands group, which is on Asia's continental shelf beyond the North Aleutians Basin and on rare occasions could be associated with Asia, which could then allow the U.S. state of Alaska to be considered a transcontinental state. The Aleutian Islands are sometimes associated with Oceania, owing to their status as remote Pacific islands, and their proximity to the Pacific Plate. This is extremely rare however, because of their non-tropical biogeography and because their inhabitants have historically been related to Indigenous Americans.St. Lawrence Island in the northern Bering Sea belongs to Alaska and may be associated with either continent but is almost always considered part of North America, as with the Rat Islands in the Aleutian chain. At their nearest points, Alaska and Russia are separated by only 4 kilometres (2.5 miles). == Europe and North America == The geographical notion of a continent stands in opposition to islands and archipelagos. Nevertheless, there are some islands that are considered part of Europe in a political sense. This most notably includes the British Isles (part of the European continental shelf and during the Ice Age of the continent itself); the islands of the North Sea, the Baltic Sea, and the Mediterranean that are part of the territory of a country situated on the European mainland; the Azores on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, part of Portugal; and usually also the island states of Iceland (part of Norway and/or Denmark from 13th to early 20th centuries) and Malta. The Norwegian islands of Jan Mayen and Svalbard in the Arctic Ocean are usually associated with Europe. South of the Arctic, Europe and North America are separated by the North Atlantic. In terms of associating its oceanic islands with either continent, the boundary is usually drawn between Greenland and Iceland and between Bermuda and the Azores' Grupo Ocidental (Western Group)—all other North Atlantic islands are continental. Iceland and the Azores are protrusions of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and are associated with and peopled from Europe, even though they have areas on the North American Plate. (Definitions of ""continents"" are a physical and cultural construct dating back centuries, long before the advent or even knowledge of plate tectonics; thus, defining a ""continent"" falls into the realm of physical and cultural geography (i.e. geopolitics), while continental plate definitions fall under plate tectonics in the realm of geology.) Some definitions of the Europe – America continental boundary place it on (the northern half of) the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which would make Iceland a transcontinental country. Greenland is geographically part of North America. Politically, however, it is more associated with Europe as it is part of the Kingdom of Denmark, although it has extensive home rule and EU law no longer applies there. The United Nations consider Greenland to be part of North America; this is unusual, as the United Nations categorize many nations and territories purely on political convention rather than geographical or cultural convention. The Greenland national football team, while not officially part of any confederation, has historically competed against teams from Europe, rather than North America. Three islands in the Caribbean are legally a direct part of the Netherlands, that is the Caribbean Netherlands (Bonaire, Saba and Sint Eustatius). Two islands in the Caribbean are legally a direct part of France, Guadeloupe and Martinique. == North America and South America == === Mainland === The border between North America and South America is at some point on the Darién Mountains watershed that divides along the Colombia–Panama border where the isthmus meets the South American continent (see Darién Gap). Virtually all atlases list Panama as a state falling entirely within North America and/or Central America. === Islands === Often the Caribbean islands are considered part of North America, but Aruba, Bonaire, Curaçao (ABC islands), and Trinidad and Tobago lie on the continental shelf of South America. On the other hand, the Venezuelan Isla Aves and the Colombian San Andrés and Providencia lie on the North American shelf. Additionally, the adjacent Venezuelan islands of Nueva Esparta and the islands of the Venezuelan Federal Dependencies can be considered to be a part of the Caribbean instead of part of South America. The circumstance of these islands is akin to that of the ABC islands, as both the ABC islands and the Venezuelan islands are at an equivalent range from the Venezuelan mainland. Thus, these Venezuelan lands could consequently be placed in North America instead. == Oceania and the Americas == The Galápagos Islands and Malpelo Island in the southeastern Pacific Ocean are possessions of Ecuador and Colombia, respectively. Malpelo Island, located 500 km from Colombia, is nominally associated with South America, while the Galápagos Islands, 1,000 km from Ecuador, are also sometimes associated with Oceania. The Galápagos Islands lie on the Nazca Plate and are thought of as part of Oceania because of their geographical distance from South America in the Pacific Ocean and their oceanic geology. Malpelo is one of only two islands on the Cocos Plate (with the other being Costa Rica's Cocos Island). It is among the easternmost and least remote of the oceanic island groups in the southeastern Pacific. The French possession of Clipperton Island lies on the Pacific Plate, about 1,000 km off the Mexican coast, and roughly 300 km to the south of Mexico's oceanic Revillagigedo Islands, which are also on the Pacific Plate. It is associated with North America, as well as with Oceania. Oceanic southeastern Pacific islands such as Clipperton and Galápagos were never inhabited by Indigenous peoples of the Americas, unlike with the Atlantic Ocean's Caribbean Islands. Clipperton remains uninhabited, and its marine fauna maintains interconnectivity to the marine fauna of Hawaii and Kiribati's Line Islands, with the island being labelled as a stepping stone between the south central Pacific and the southeastern Pacific. The Galápagos Islands similarly share interconnectivity with French Polynesia. Until 2007, Clipperton was administratively part of French Polynesia (formerly French Oceania). It has historically had very little contact with the Americas.Easter Island, also known by its endonym Rapa Nui, is a territory located on the Nazca Plate, and is roughly 3,500 km off the Chilean coast. Because of its original inhabitants, It is culturally part of the Oceania subregion Polynesia, though politically it came to be associated with South America. Easter Island was annexed by Chile in 1888, but their first major contact with South America came during the 1860s, when islanders were kidnapped by Peruvians for slavery. This was also the case with other Polynesian islands, including Cook Islands, Niue and Tokelau, who lost significant amounts of their populations through the Peruvian kidnappings. Easter Island under Chilean rule has still made attempts to become politically involved with the rest of the South Pacific, and has considered gaining representation in the Pacific Islands Forum, which includes Australia, New Zealand and most of the Pacific Island nations/territories. Similar to Easter Island, and just to the northeast of it, is the nearby uninhabited Salas y Gómez Island of Chile, which is also considered to be geographically in Oceania while associated with South America politically. The island was never inhabited, yet it was known about by the natives of Easter Island during prehistoric times. The name for the island in their language was Motu Motiro Hiva. Additionally, Chile has the oceanic Desventuradas Islands, 850 km removed from the country, and the Juan Fernández Islands, which are 650 km removed. Both are located on the Nazca Plate and to the east of Salas y Gómez and Easter Island. Akin to Clipperton and Galápagos, the Desventuradas Islands and the Juan Fernández Islands were uninhabited prior to European discovery. They too are associated with both the American continent and Oceania. The marine fauna of the Desventuradas Islands and Juan Fernández Islands shares great similarity with the south central Pacific, more so than with the nearing South America. Some consider the islands to be the easternmost areas of the Oceanian biogeographical realm. Scientific journal PLOS One describe Easter Island, the Desventurudas Islands, the Juan Fernández Islands and Salas y Gómez (collectively titled Insular Chile) as having ""cultural and ecological connections to the broader insular Pacific."" == See also == List of countries bordering on two or more oceans List of transcontinental countries List of former transcontinental countries The empire on which the sun never sets Tricontinental Chile Pluricontinentalism List of sovereign states and dependent territories by continent Continental divide Borders of the oceans == References == == Further reading == Rossi, Pietro (2015). The Boundaries of Europe: From the Fall of the Ancient World to the Age of Decolonisation. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. ISBN 978-3-11-042072-2." Continents,Supercontinent,"In geology, a supercontinent is the assembly of most or all of Earth's continental blocks or cratons to form a single large landmass. However, some geologists use a different definition, ""a grouping of formerly dispersed continents"", which leaves room for interpretation and is easier to apply to Precambrian times. To separate supercontinents from other groupings, a limit has been proposed in which a continent must include at least about 75% of the continental crust then in existence in order to qualify as a supercontinent.Supercontinents have assembled and dispersed multiple times in the geologic past (see table). According to modern definitions, a supercontinent does not exist today; the closest in existence to a supercontinent is the current Afro-Eurasian landmass, which covers approx. 57% of Earth's total land area. The last time the continental landmasses were near to one another was 336 to 175 million years ago as the supercontinent, Pangaea. The positions of continents have been accurately determined back to the early Jurassic, shortly before the breakup of Pangaea. The earlier continent Gondwana is not considered a supercontinent under the first definition since the landmasses of Baltica, Laurentia and Siberia were separate at the time. == Supercontinents throughout geologic history == The following table names reconstructed ancient supercontinents, using Bradley's 2011 looser definition, with an approximate timescale of millions of years ago (Ma). == General chronology == There are two contrasting models for supercontinent evolution through geological time. The first model theorizes that at least two separate supercontinents existed comprising Vaalbara (from ~3636 to 2803 Ma) and Kenorland (from ~2720 to 2450 Ma). The Neoarchean supercontinent consisted of Superia and Sclavia. These parts of Neoarchean age broke off at ~2480 and 2312 Ma and portions of them later collided to form Nuna (Northern Europe North America) (~1820 Ma). Nuna continued to develop during the Mesoproterozoic, primarily by lateral accretion of juvenile arcs, and in ~1000 Ma Nuna collided with other land masses, forming Rodinia. Between ~825 and 750 Ma Rodinia broke apart. However, before completely breaking up, some fragments of Rodinia had already come together to form Gondwana (also known as Gondwanaland) by ~608 Ma. Pangaea formed by ~336 Ma through the collision of Gondwana, Laurasia (Laurentia and Baltica), and Siberia. The second model (Kenorland-Arctica) is based on both palaeomagnetic and geological evidence and proposes that the continental crust comprised a single supercontinent from ~2.72 Ga until break-up during the Ediacaran Period after ~0.573 Ga. The reconstruction is derived from the observation that palaeomagnetic poles converge to quasi-static positions for long intervals between ~2.72–2.115, 1.35–1.13, and 0.75–0.573 Ga with only small peripheral modifications to the reconstruction. During the intervening periods, the poles conform to a unified apparent polar wander path. Although it contrasts the first model, the first phase (Protopangea) essentially incorporates Vaalbara and Kenorland of the first model. The explanation for the prolonged duration of the Protopangea-Paleopangea supercontinent appears to be that lid tectonics (comparable to the tectonics operating on Mars and Venus) prevailed during Precambrian times. According to this theory, plate tectonics as seen on the contemporary Earth became dominant only during the latter part of geological times. This approach was widely criticized by many researchers as it uses incorrect application of paleomagnetic data.The Phanerozoic supercontinent Pangaea began to break up 215 Ma and is still doing so today. Because Pangaea is the most recent of Earth's supercontinents, it is the most well-known and understood. Contributing to Pangaea's popularity in the classroom is the fact that its reconstruction is almost as simple as fitting the present continents bordering the Atlantic-type oceans like puzzle pieces. == Supercontinent cycles == A supercontinent cycle is the break-up of one supercontinent and the development of another, which takes place on a global scale. Supercontinent cycles are not the same as the Wilson cycle, which is the opening and closing of an individual oceanic basin. The Wilson cycle rarely synchronizes with the timing of a supercontinent cycle. However, supercontinent cycles and Wilson cycles were both involved in the creation of Pangaea and Rodinia.Secular trends such as carbonatites, granulites, eclogites, and greenstone belt deformation events are all possible indicators of Precambrian supercontinent cyclicity, although the Protopangea-Paleopangea solution implies that Phanerozoic style of supercontinent cycles did not operate during these times. Also, there are instances where these secular trends have a weak, uneven, or absent imprint on the supercontinent cycle; secular methods for supercontinent reconstruction will produce results that have only one explanation, and each explanation for a trend must fit in with the rest. == Supercontinents and volcanism == The causes of supercontinent assembly and dispersal are thought to be driven by convection processes in Earth's mantle. Approximately 660 km into the mantle, a discontinuity occurs, affecting the surface crust through processes involving plumes and superplumes (aka large low-shear-velocity provinces). When a slab of the subducted crust is denser than the surrounding mantle, it sinks to discontinuity. Once the slabs build up, they will sink through to the lower mantle in what is known as a ""slab avalanche"". This displacement at the discontinuity will cause the lower mantle to compensate and rise elsewhere. The rising mantle can form a plume or superplume.Besides having compositional effects on the upper mantle by replenishing the large-ion lithophile elements, volcanism affects plate movement. The plates will be moved towards a geoidal low perhaps where the slab avalanche occurred and pushed away from the geoidal high that can be caused by the plumes or superplumes. This causes the continents to push together to form supercontinents and was evidently the process that operated to cause the early continental crust to aggregate into Protopangea. Dispersal of supercontinents is caused by the accumulation of heat underneath the crust due to the rising of very large convection cells or plumes, and a massive heat release resulted in the final break-up of Paleopangea. Accretion occurs over geoidal lows that can be caused by avalanche slabs or the downgoing limbs of convection cells. Evidence of the accretion and dispersion of supercontinents is seen in the geological rock record. The influence of known volcanic eruptions does not compare to that of flood basalts. The timing of flood basalts has corresponded with a large-scale continental break-up. However, due to a lack of data on the time required to produce flood basalts, the climatic impact is difficult to quantify. The timing of a single lava flow is also undetermined. These are important factors on how flood basalts influenced paleoclimate. == Supercontinents and plate tectonics == Global paleogeography and plate interactions as far back as Pangaea are relatively well understood today. However, the evidence becomes more sparse further back in geologic history. Marine magnetic anomalies, passive margin match-ups, geologic interpretation of orogenic belts, paleomagnetism, paleobiogeography of fossils, and distribution of climatically sensitive strata are all methods to obtain evidence for continent locality and indicators of the environment throughout time.Phanerozoic (541 Ma to present) and Precambrian (4.6 Ga to 541 Ma) had primarily passive margins and detrital zircons (and orogenic granites), whereas the tenure of Pangaea contained few. Matching edges of continents are where passive margins form. The edges of these continents may rift. At this point, seafloor spreading becomes the driving force. Passive margins are therefore born during the break-up of supercontinents and die during supercontinent assembly. Pangaea's supercontinent cycle is a good example of the efficiency of using the presence or lack of, these entities to record the development, tenure, and break-up of supercontinents. There is a sharp decrease in passive margins between 500 and 350 Ma during the timing of Pangaea's assembly. The tenure of Pangaea is marked by a low number of passive margins during 336 to 275 Ma, and its break-up is indicated accurately by an increase in passive margins.Orogenic belts can form during the assembly of continents and supercontinents. The orogenic belts present on continental blocks are classified into three different categories and have implications for interpreting geologic bodies. Intercratonic orogenic belts are characteristic of ocean basin closure. Clear indicators of intracratonic activity contain ophiolites and other oceanic materials that are present in the suture zone. Intracratonic orogenic belts occur as thrust belts and do not contain any oceanic material. However, the absence of ophiolites is not strong evidence for intracratonic belts, because the oceanic material can be squeezed out and eroded away in an intracratonic environment. The third kind of orogenic belt is a confined orogenic belt which is the closure of small basins. The assembly of a supercontinent would have to show intracratonic orogenic belts. However, interpretation of orogenic belts can be difficult. The collision of Gondwana and Laurasia occurred in the late Palaeozoic. By this collision, the Variscan mountain range was created, along the equator. This 6000-km-long mountain range is usually referred to in two parts: the Hercynian mountain range of the late Carboniferous makes up the eastern part, and the western part is called the Appalachians, uplifted in the early Permian. (The existence of a flat elevated plateau-like the Tibetan Plateau is under much debate.) The locality of the Variscan range made it influential to both the northern and southern hemispheres. The elevation of the Appalachians would greatly influence global atmospheric circulation. == Supercontinental climate == Continents affect the climate of the planet drastically, with supercontinents having a larger, more prevalent influence. Continents modify global wind patterns, control ocean current paths, and have a higher albedo than the oceans. Winds are redirected by mountains, and albedo differences cause shifts in onshore winds. Higher elevation in continental interiors produces a cooler, drier climate, the phenomenon of continentality. This is seen today in Eurasia, and rock record shows evidence of continentality in the middle of Pangaea. === Glacial === The term glacial-epoch refers to a long episode of glaciation on Earth over millions of years. Glaciers have major implications on the climate, particularly through sea level change. Changes in the position and elevation of the continents, the paleolatitude and ocean circulation affect the glacial epochs. There is an association between the rifting and breakup of continents and supercontinents and glacial-epochs. According to the first model for Precambrian supercontinents described above the breakup of Kenorland and Rodinia was associated with the Paleoproterozoic and Neoproterozoic glacial-epochs, respectively. In contrast, the second solution described above shows that these glaciations correlated with periods of low continental velocity and it is concluded that a fall in tectonic and corresponding volcanic activity was responsible for these intervals of global frigidity. During the accumulation of supercontinents with times of regional uplift, glacial-epochs seem to be rare with little supporting evidence. However, the lack of evidence does not allow for the conclusion that glacial-epochs are not associated with the collisional assembly of supercontinents. This could just represent a preservation bias. During the late Ordovician (~458.4 Ma), the particular configuration of Gondwana may have allowed for glaciation and high CO2 levels to occur at the same time. However, some geologists disagree and think that there was a temperature increase at this time. This increase may have been strongly influenced by the movement of Gondwana across the South Pole, which may have prevented lengthy snow accumulation. Although late Ordovician temperatures at the South Pole may have reached freezing, there were no ice sheets during the early Silurian (~443.8 Ma) through the late Mississippian (~330.9 Ma). Agreement can be met with the theory that continental snow can occur when the edge of a continent is near the pole. Therefore, Gondwana, although located tangent to the South Pole, may have experienced glaciation along its coast. === Precipitation === Though precipitation rates during monsoonal circulations are difficult to predict, there is evidence for a large orographic barrier within the interior of Pangaea during the late Paleozoic (~251.9 Ma). The possibility of the SW-NE trending Appalachian-Hercynian Mountains makes the region's monsoonal circulations potentially relatable to present-day monsoonal circulations surrounding the Tibetan Plateau, which is known to positively influence the magnitude of monsoonal periods within Eurasia. It is therefore somewhat expected that lower topography in other regions of the supercontinent during the Jurassic would negatively influence precipitation variations. The breakup of supercontinents may have affected local precipitation. When any supercontinent breaks up, there will be an increase in precipitation runoff over the surface of the continental landmasses, increasing silicate weathering and the consumption of CO2. === Temperature === Even though during the Archaean solar radiation was reduced by 30 percent and the Cambrian-Precambrian boundary by six percent, the Earth has only experienced three ice ages throughout the Precambrian. Erroneous conclusions are more likely to be made when models are limited to one climatic configuration (which is usually present-day).Cold winters in continental interiors are due to rate ratios of radiative cooling (greater) and heat transport from continental rims. To raise winter temperatures within continental interiors, the rate of heat transport must increase to become greater than the rate of radiative cooling. Through climate models, alterations in atmospheric CO2 content and ocean heat transport are not comparatively effective.CO2 models suggest that values were low in the late Cenozoic and Carboniferous-Permian glaciations. Although early Paleozoic values are much larger (more than ten percent higher than that of today). This may be due to high seafloor spreading rates after the breakup of Precambrian supercontinents and the lack of land plants as a carbon sink.During the late Permian, it is expected that seasonal Pangaean temperatures varied drastically. Subtropic summer temperatures were warmer than that of today by as much as 6–10 degrees and mid-latitudes in the winter were less than −30 degrees Celsius. These seasonal changes within the supercontinent were influenced by the large size of Pangaea. And, just like today, coastal regions experienced much less variation.During the Jurassic, summer temperatures did not rise above zero degrees Celsius along the northern rim of Laurasia, which was the northernmost part of Pangaea (the southernmost portion of Pangaea was Gondwana). Ice-rafted dropstones sourced from Russia are indicators of this northern boundary. The Jurassic is thought to have been approximately 10 degrees Celsius warmer along 90 degrees East paleolongitude compared to the present temperature of today's central Eurasia. === Milankovitch cycles === Many studies of the Milankovitch cycles during supercontinent time periods have focused on the Mid-Cretaceous. Present amplitudes of Milankovitch cycles over present-day Eurasia may be mirrored in both the southern and northern hemispheres of the supercontinent Pangaea. Climate modeling shows that summer fluctuations varied 14–16 degrees Celsius on Pangaea, which is similar or slightly higher than summer temperatures of Eurasia during the Pleistocene. The largest-amplitude Milankovitch cycles are expected to have been at mid-to high-latitudes during the Triassic and Jurassic. == Proxies == Granites and detrital zircons have notably similar and episodic appearances in the rock record. Their fluctuations correlate with Precambrian supercontinent cycles. The U–Pb zircon dates from orogenic granites are among the most reliable aging determinants. Some issues exist with relying on granite sourced zircons, such as a lack of evenly globally sourced data and the loss of granite zircons by sedimentary coverage or plutonic consumption. Where granite zircons are less adequate, detrital zircons from sandstones appear and make up for the gaps. These detrital zircons are taken from the sands of major modern rivers and their drainage basins. Oceanic magnetic anomalies and paleomagnetic data are the primary resources used for reconstructing continent and supercontinent locations back to roughly 150 Ma. == Supercontinents and atmospheric gases == Plate tectonics and the chemical composition of the atmosphere (specifically greenhouse gases) are the two most prevailing factors present within the geologic time scale. Continental drift influences both cold and warm climatic episodes. Atmospheric circulation and climate are strongly influenced by the location and formation of continents and mega continents. Therefore, continental drift influences mean global temperature.Oxygen levels of the Archaean Eon were negligible and today they are roughly 21 percent. It is thought that the Earth's oxygen content has risen in stages: six or seven steps that are timed very closely to the development of Earth's supercontinents. Continents collide Supermountains form Erosion of super mountains Large quantities of minerals and nutrients wash out to open ocean Explosion of marine algae life (partly sourced from noted nutrients) Mass amounts of oxygen produced during photosynthesisThe process of Earth's increase in atmospheric oxygen content is theorized to have started with the continent-continent collision of huge landmasses forming supercontinents, and therefore possibly supercontinent mountain ranges (super mountains). These super mountains would have eroded, and the mass amounts of nutrients, including iron and phosphorus, would have washed into oceans, just as we see happening today. The oceans would then be rich in nutrients essential to photosynthetic organisms, which would then be able to respire mass amounts of oxygen. There is an apparent direct relationship between orogeny and the atmospheric oxygen content. There is also evidence for increased sedimentation concurrent with the timing of these mass oxygenation events, meaning that the organic carbon and pyrite at these times were more likely to be buried beneath sediment and therefore unable to react with the free oxygen. This sustained the atmospheric oxygen increases.During this time, 2.65 Ga there was an increase in molybdenum isotope fractionation. It was temporary but supports the increase in atmospheric oxygen because molybdenum isotopes require free oxygen to fractionate. Between 2.45 and 2.32 Ga, the second period of oxygenation occurred, it has been called the 'great oxygenation event.' Many pieces of evidence support the existence of this event, including red beds appearance 2.3 Ga (meaning that Fe3+ was being produced and became an important component in soils). The third oxygenation stage approximately 1.8 Ga is indicated by the disappearance of iron formations. Neodymium isotopic studies suggest that iron formations are usually from continental sources, meaning that dissolved Fe and Fe2+ had to be transported during continental erosion. A rise in atmospheric oxygen prevents Fe transport, so the lack of iron formations may have been due to an increase in oxygen. The fourth oxygenation event, roughly 0.6 Ga, is based on modeled rates of sulfur isotopes from marine carbonate-associated sulfates. An increase (near doubled concentration) of sulfur isotopes, which is suggested by these models, would require an increase in the oxygen content of the deep oceans. Between 650 and 550 Ma there were three increases in ocean oxygen levels, this period is the fifth oxygenation stage. One of the reasons indicating this period to be an oxygenation event is the increase in redox-sensitive molybdenum in black shales. The sixth event occurred between 360 and 260 Ma and was identified by models suggesting shifts in the balance of 34S in sulfates and 13C in carbonates, which were strongly influenced by an increase in atmospheric oxygen. == See also == List of paleocontinents Superocean == References == == Further reading == Nield, Ted, Supercontinent: Ten Billion Years in the Life of Our Planet, Harvard University Press, 2009, ISBN 978-0674032453 == External links == The Paleomap Project – Christopher R. Scotese" Continents,Africa,"Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent, after Asia in both aspects. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 20% of Earth's land area and 6% of its total surface area. With 1.4 billion people as of 2021, it accounts for about 18% of the world's human population. Africa's population is the youngest amongst all the continents; the median age in 2012 was 19.7, when the worldwide median age was 30.4. Despite a wide range of natural resources, Africa is the least wealthy continent per capita and second-least wealthy by total wealth, behind Oceania. Scholars have attributed this to different factors including geography, climate, tribalism, colonialism, the Cold War, neocolonialism, lack of democracy, and corruption. Despite this low concentration of wealth, recent economic expansion and the large and young population make Africa an important economic market in the broader global context. The continent is surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, the Isthmus of Suez and the Red Sea to the northeast, the Indian Ocean to the southeast and the Atlantic Ocean to the west. The continent includes Madagascar and various archipelagos. It contains 54 fully recognised sovereign states, eight cities and islands that are part of non-African states, and two de facto independent states with limited or no recognition. This count does not include Malta and Sicily, which are geologically part of the African continent. Algeria is Africa's largest country by area, and Nigeria is its largest by population. African nations cooperate through the establishment of the African Union, which is headquartered in Addis Ababa. Africa straddles the equator and the prime meridian. It is the only continent to stretch from the northern temperate to the southern temperate zones. The majority of the continent and its countries are in the Northern Hemisphere, with a substantial portion and a number of countries in the Southern Hemisphere. Most of the continent lies in the tropics, except for a large part of Western Sahara, Algeria, Libya and Egypt, the northern tip of Mauritania, and the entire territories of Morocco, Ceuta, Melilla, and Tunisia which in turn are located above the tropic of Cancer, in the northern temperate zone. In the other extreme of the continent, southern Namibia, southern Botswana, great parts of South Africa, the entire territories of Lesotho and Eswatini and the southern tips of Mozambique and Madagascar are located below the tropic of Capricorn, in the southern temperate zone. Africa is highly biodiverse; it is the continent with the largest number of megafauna species, as it was least affected by the extinction of the Pleistocene megafauna. However, Africa also is heavily affected by a wide range of environmental issues, including desertification, deforestation, water scarcity and pollution. These entrenched environmental concerns are expected to worsen as climate change impacts Africa. The UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has identified Africa as the continent most vulnerable to climate change.The history of Africa is long, complex, and has often been under-appreciated by the global historical community. Africa, particularly Eastern Africa, is widely accepted as the place of origin of humans and the Hominidae clade (great apes). The earliest hominids and their ancestors have been dated to around 7 million years ago, including Sahelanthropus tchadensis, Australopithecus africanus, A. afarensis, Homo erectus, H. habilis and H. ergaster—the earliest Homo sapiens (modern human) remains, found in Ethiopia, South Africa, and Morocco, date to circa 233,000, 259,000, and 300,000 years ago, respectively, and Homo sapiens is believed to have originated in Africa around 350,000–260,000 years ago. Africa is also considered by anthropologists to be the most genetically diverse continent as a result of being the longest inhabited.Early human civilizations, such as Ancient Egypt and Carthage emerged in North Africa. Following a subsequent long and complex history of civilizations, migration and trade, Africa hosts a large diversity of ethnicities, cultures and languages. The last 400 years have witnessed an increasing European influence on the continent. Starting in the 16th century, this was driven by trade, including the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, which created large African diaspora populations in the Americas. From the late 19th century to the early 20th century, European nations colonized almost all of Africa, reaching a point when only Ethiopia and Liberia were independent polities. Most present states in Africa emerged from a process of decolonisation following World War II. == Etymology == Afri was a Latin name used to refer to the inhabitants of then-known northern Africa to the west of the Nile river, and in its widest sense referred to all lands south of the Mediterranean (Ancient Libya). This name seems to have originally referred to a native Libyan tribe, an ancestor of modern Berbers; see Terence for discussion. The name had usually been connected with the Phoenician word ʿafar meaning ""dust"", but a 1981 hypothesis has asserted that it stems from the Berber word ifri (plural ifran) meaning ""cave"", in reference to cave dwellers. The same word may be found in the name of the Banu Ifran from Algeria and Tripolitania, a Berber tribe originally from Yafran (also known as Ifrane) in northwestern Libya, as well as the city of Ifrane in Morocco. Under Roman rule, Carthage became the capital of the province it then named Africa Proconsularis, following its defeat of the Carthaginians in the Third Punic War in 146 BC, which also included the coastal part of modern Libya. The Latin suffix -ica can sometimes be used to denote a land (e.g., in Celtica from Celtae, as used by Julius Caesar). The later Muslim region of Ifriqiya, following its conquest of the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire's Exarchatus Africae, also preserved a form of the name. According to the Romans, Africa lies to the west of Egypt, while ""Asia"" was used to refer to Anatolia and lands to the east. A definite line was drawn between the two continents by the geographer Ptolemy (85–165 CE), indicating Alexandria along the Prime Meridian and making the isthmus of Suez and the Red Sea the boundary between Asia and Africa. As Europeans came to understand the real extent of the continent, the idea of ""Africa"" expanded with their knowledge. Other etymological hypotheses have been postulated for the ancient name ""Africa"": The 1st-century Jewish historian Flavius Josephus (Ant. 1.15) asserted that it was named for Epher, grandson of Abraham according to Gen. 25:4, whose descendants, he claimed, had invaded Libya. Isidore of Seville in his 7th-century Etymologiae XIV.5.2. suggests ""Africa comes from the Latin aprica, meaning ""sunny"". Massey, in 1881, stated that Africa is derived from the Egyptian af-rui-ka, meaning ""to turn toward the opening of the Ka."" The Ka is the energetic double of every person and the ""opening of the Ka"" refers to a womb or birthplace. Africa would be, for the Egyptians, ""the birthplace."" Michèle Fruyt in 1976 proposed linking the Latin word with africus ""south wind"", which would be of Umbrian origin and mean originally ""rainy wind"". Robert R. Stieglitz of Rutgers University in 1984 proposed: ""The name Africa, derived from the Latin *Aphir-ic-a, is cognate to Hebrew Ophir ['rich']."" Ibn Khallikan and some other historians claim that the name of Africa came from a Himyarite king called Afrikin ibn Kais ibn Saifi also called ""Afrikus son of Abraham"" who subdued Ifriqiya. Arabic afrīqā (feminine noun) and ifrīqiyā, now usually pronounced afrīqiyā (feminine) 'Africa', from ‘afara [‘ = ‘ain, not ’alif] 'to be dusty' from ‘afar 'dust, powder' and ‘afir 'dried, dried up by the sun, withered' and ‘affara 'to dry in the sun on hot sand' or 'to sprinkle with dust'. Possibly Phoenician faraqa in the sense of 'colony, separation'. == History == === Prehistory === Africa is considered by most paleoanthropologists to be the oldest inhabited territory on Earth, with the Human species originating from the continent. During the mid-20th century, anthropologists discovered many fossils and evidence of human occupation perhaps as early as 7 million years ago (Before present, BP). Fossil remains of several species of early apelike humans thought to have evolved into modern man, such as Australopithecus afarensis radiometrically dated to approximately 3.9–3.0 million years BP, Paranthropus boisei (c. 2.3–1.4 million years BP) and Homo ergaster (c. 1.9 million–600,000 years BP) have been discovered.After the evolution of Homo sapiens approximately 350,000 to 260,000 years BP in Africa, the continent was mainly populated by groups of hunter-gatherers. These first modern humans left Africa and populated the rest of the globe during the Out of Africa II migration dated to approximately 50,000 years BP, exiting the continent either across Bab-el-Mandeb over the Red Sea, the Strait of Gibraltar in Morocco, or the Isthmus of Suez in Egypt.Other migrations of modern humans within the African continent have been dated to that time, with evidence of early human settlement found in Southern Africa, Southeast Africa, North Africa, and the Sahara. === Emergence of civilization === The size of the Sahara has historically been extremely variable, with its area rapidly fluctuating and at times disappearing depending on global climatic conditions. At the end of the Ice ages, estimated to have been around 10,500 BCE, the Sahara had again become a green fertile valley, and its African populations returned from the interior and coastal highlands in sub-Saharan Africa, with rock art paintings depicting a fertile Sahara and large populations discovered in Tassili n'Ajjer dating back perhaps 10 millennia. However, the warming and drying climate meant that by 5000 BC, the Sahara region was becoming increasingly dry and hostile. Around 3500 BC, due to a tilt in the earth's orbit, the Sahara experienced a period of rapid desertification. The population trekked out of the Sahara region towards the Nile Valley below the Second Cataract where they made permanent or semi-permanent settlements. A major climatic recession occurred, lessening the heavy and persistent rains in Central and Eastern Africa. Since this time, dry conditions have prevailed in Eastern Africa and, increasingly during the last 200 years, in Ethiopia. The domestication of cattle in Africa preceded agriculture and seems to have existed alongside hunter-gatherer cultures. It is speculated that by 6000 BC, cattle were domesticated in North Africa. In the Sahara-Nile complex, people domesticated many animals, including the donkey and a small screw-horned goat which was common from Algeria to Nubia. Between 10,000 and 9,000 BC, pottery was independently invented in the region of Mali in the savannah of West Africa.In the steppes and savannahs of the Sahara and Sahel in Northern West Africa, people possibly ancestral to modern Nilo-Saharan and Mandé cultures started to collect wild millet, around 8000 to 6000 BCE. Later, gourds, watermelons, castor beans, and cotton were also collected. Sorghum was first domesticated in Eastern Sudan around 4000 BC, in one of the earliest instances of agriculture in human history. Its cultivation would gradually spread across Africa, before spreading to India around 2000 BC. Sorghum was first domesticated in the Sudan region of the African continent. They also started making pottery and built stone settlements (e.g., Tichitt, Oualata). Fishing, using bone-tipped harpoons, became a major activity in the numerous streams and lakes formed from the increased rains. In West Africa, the wet phase ushered in an expanding rainforest and wooded savanna from Senegal to Cameroon. Between 9,000 and 5,000 BC, Niger–Congo speakers domesticated the oil palm and raffia palm. Black-eyed peas and voandzeia (African groundnuts), were domesticated, followed by okra and kola nuts. Since most of the plants grew in the forest, the Niger–Congo speakers invented polished stone axes for clearing forest.Around 4000 BC, the Saharan climate started to become drier at an exceedingly fast pace. This climate change caused lakes and rivers to shrink significantly and caused increasing desertification. This, in turn, decreased the amount of land conducive to settlements and encouraged migrations of farming communities to the more tropical climate of West Africa. During the first millennium BC, a reduction in wild grain populations related to changing climate conditions facilitated the expansion of farming communities and the rapid adoption of rice cultivation around the Niger River.By the first millennium BC, ironworking had been introduced in Northern Africa. Around that time it also became established in parts of sub-Saharan Africa, either through independent invention there or diffusion from the north and vanished under unknown circumstances around 500 AD, having lasted approximately 2,000 years, and by 500 BC, metalworking began to become commonplace in West Africa. Ironworking was fully established by roughly 500 BC in many areas of East and West Africa, although other regions did not begin ironworking until the early centuries CE. Copper objects from Egypt, North Africa, Nubia, and Ethiopia dating from around 500 BC have been excavated in West Africa, suggesting that Trans-Saharan trade networks had been established by this date. === Early civilizations === At about 3300 BC, the historical record opens in Northern Africa with the rise of literacy in the Pharaonic civilization of ancient Egypt. One of the world's earliest and longest-lasting civilizations, the Egyptian state continued, with varying levels of influence over other areas, until 343 BC. Egyptian influence reached deep into modern-day Libya and Nubia, and, according to Martin Bernal, as far north as Crete.An independent centre of civilization with trading links to Phoenicia was established by Phoenicians from Tyre on the north-west African coast at Carthage.European exploration of Africa began with the ancient Greeks and Romans. In 332 BC, Alexander the Great was welcomed as a liberator in Persian-occupied Egypt. He founded Alexandria in Egypt, which would become the prosperous capital of the Ptolemaic dynasty after his death. Following the conquest of North Africa's Mediterranean coastline by the Roman Empire, the area was integrated economically and culturally into the Roman system. Roman settlement occurred in modern Tunisia and elsewhere along the coast. The first Roman emperor native to North Africa was Septimius Severus, born in Leptis Magna in present-day Libya – his mother was Italian Roman and his father was Punic.Christianity spread across these areas at an early date, from Judaea via Egypt and beyond the borders of the Roman world into Nubia; by 340 AD at the latest, it had become the state religion of the Aksumite Empire. Syro-Greek missionaries, who arrived by way of the Red Sea, were responsible for this theological development.In the early 7th century, the newly formed Arabian Islamic Caliphate expanded into Egypt, and then into North Africa. In a short while, the local Berber elite had been integrated into Muslim Arab tribes. When the Umayyad capital Damascus fell in the 8th century, the Islamic centre of the Mediterranean shifted from Syria to Qayrawan in North Africa. Islamic North Africa had become diverse, and a hub for mystics, scholars, jurists, and philosophers. During the above-mentioned period, Islam spread to sub-Saharan Africa, mainly through trade routes and migration.In West Africa, Dhar Tichitt and Oualata in present-day Mauritania figure prominently among the early urban centers, dated to 2,000 BC. About 500 stone settlements litter the region in the former savannah of the Sahara. Its inhabitants fished and grew millet. It has been found by Augustin Holl that the Soninke of the Mandé peoples were likely responsible for constructing such settlements. Around 300 BCE, the region became more desiccated and the settlements began to decline, most likely relocating to Koumbi Saleh. Architectural evidence and the comparison of pottery styles suggest that Dhar Tichitt was related to the subsequent Ghana Empire. Djenné-Djenno (in present-day Mali) was settled around 300 BC, and the town grew to house a sizable Iron Age population, as evidenced by crowded cemeteries. Living structures were made of sun-dried mud. By 250 BCE, Djenné-Djenno had become a large, thriving market town.Further south, in central Nigeria, around 1,500 BC, the Nok culture developed on the Jos Plateau. It was a highly centralized community. The Nok people produced lifelike representations in terracotta, including human heads and human figures, elephants, and other animals. By 500 BC, and possibly earlier, they were smelting iron. By 200 AD, the Nok culture had vanished. and vanished under unknown circumstances around 500 AD, having lasted approximately 2,000 years. Based on stylistic similarities with the Nok terracottas, the bronze figurines of the Yoruba kingdom of Ife and those of the Bini kingdom of Benin are suggested to be continuations of the traditions of the earlier Nok culture. === Ninth to eighteenth centuries === Pre-colonial Africa possessed perhaps as many as 10,000 different states and polities characterized by many different sorts of political organization and rule. These included small family groups of hunter-gatherers such as the San people of southern Africa; larger, more structured groups such as the family clan groupings of the Bantu-speaking peoples of central, southern, and eastern Africa; heavily structured clan groups in the Horn of Africa; the large Sahelian kingdoms; and autonomous city-states and kingdoms such as those of the Akan; Edo, Yoruba, and Igbo people in West Africa; and the Swahili coastal trading towns of Southeast Africa. By the ninth century AD, a string of dynastic states, including the earliest Hausa states, stretched across the sub-Saharan savannah from the western regions to central Sudan. The most powerful of these states were Ghana, Gao, and the Kanem-Bornu Empire. Ghana declined in the eleventh century, but was succeeded by the Mali Empire which consolidated much of western Sudan in the thirteenth century. Kanem accepted Islam in the eleventh century. In the forested regions of the West African coast, independent kingdoms grew with little influence from the Muslim north. The Kingdom of Nri was established around the ninth century and was one of the first. It is also one of the oldest kingdoms in present-day Nigeria and was ruled by the Eze Nri. The Nri kingdom is famous for its elaborate bronzes, found at the town of Igbo-Ukwu. The bronzes have been dated from as far back as the ninth century.The Kingdom of Ife, historically the first of these Yoruba city-states or kingdoms, established government under a priestly oba ('king' or 'ruler' in the Yoruba language), called the Ooni of Ife. Ife was noted as a major religious and cultural centre in West Africa, and for its unique naturalistic tradition of bronze sculpture. The Ife model of government was adapted at the Oyo Empire, where its obas or kings, called the Alaafins of Oyo, once controlled a large number of other Yoruba and non-Yoruba city-states and kingdoms; the Fon Kingdom of Dahomey was one of the non-Yoruba domains under Oyo control. The Almoravids were a Berber dynasty from the Sahara that spread over a wide area of northwestern Africa and the Iberian peninsula during the eleventh century. The Banu Hilal and Banu Ma'qil were a collection of Arab Bedouin tribes from the Arabian Peninsula who migrated westwards via Egypt between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries. Their migration resulted in the fusion of the Arabs and Berbers, where the locals were Arabized, and Arab culture absorbed elements of the local culture, under the unifying framework of Islam.Following the breakup of Mali, a local leader named Sonni Ali (1464–1492) founded the Songhai Empire in the region of middle Niger and the western Sudan and took control of the trans-Saharan trade. Sonni Ali seized Timbuktu in 1468 and Jenne in 1473, building his regime on trade revenues and the cooperation of Muslim merchants. His successor Askia Mohammad I (1493–1528) made Islam the official religion, built mosques, and brought to Gao Muslim scholars, including al-Maghili (d.1504), the founder of an important tradition of Sudanic African Muslim scholarship. By the eleventh century, some Hausa states – such as Kano, jigawa, Katsina, and Gobir – had developed into walled towns engaging in trade, servicing caravans, and the manufacture of goods. Until the fifteenth century, these small states were on the periphery of the major Sudanic empires of the era, paying tribute to Songhai to the west and Kanem-Borno to the east. === Height of the slave trade === Slavery had long been practiced in Africa. Between the 15th and the 19th centuries, the Atlantic slave trade took an estimated 7–12 million slaves to the New World. In addition, more than 1 million Europeans were captured by Barbary pirates and sold as slaves in North Africa between the 16th and 19th centuries.In West Africa, the decline of the Atlantic slave trade in the 1820s caused dramatic economic shifts in local polities. The gradual decline of slave-trading, prompted by a lack of demand for slaves in the New World, increasing anti-slavery legislation in Europe and America, and the British Royal Navy's increasing presence off the West African coast, obliged African states to adopt new economies. Between 1808 and 1860, the British West Africa Squadron seized approximately 1,600 slave ships and freed 150,000 Africans who were aboard.Action was also taken against African leaders who refused to agree to British treaties to outlaw the trade, for example against ""the usurping King of Lagos"", deposed in 1851. Anti-slavery treaties were signed with over 50 African rulers. The largest powers of West Africa (the Asante Confederacy, the Kingdom of Dahomey, and the Oyo Empire) adopted different ways of adapting to the shift. Asante and Dahomey concentrated on the development of ""legitimate commerce"" in the form of palm oil, cocoa, timber and gold, forming the bedrock of West Africa's modern export trade. The Oyo Empire, unable to adapt, collapsed into civil wars. === Colonialism === === Independence struggles === Imperial rule by Europeans would continue until after the conclusion of World War II, when almost all remaining colonial territories gradually obtained formal independence. Independence movements in Africa gained momentum following World War II, which left the major European powers weakened. In 1951, Libya, a former Italian colony, gained independence. In 1956, Tunisia and Morocco won their independence from France. Ghana followed suit the next year (March 1957), becoming the first of the sub-Saharan colonies to be granted independence. Most of the rest of the continent became independent over the next decade. Portugal's overseas presence in sub-Saharan Africa (most notably in Angola, Cape Verde, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe) lasted from the 16th century to 1975, after the Estado Novo regime was overthrown in a military coup in Lisbon. Rhodesia unilaterally declared independence from the United Kingdom in 1965, under the white minority government of Ian Smith, but was not internationally recognized as an independent state (as Zimbabwe) until 1980, when black nationalists gained power after a bitter guerrilla war. Although South Africa was one of the first African countries to gain independence, the state remained under the control of the country's white minority through a system of racial segregation known as apartheid until 1994. === Post-colonial Africa === Today, Africa contains 54 sovereign countries, most of which have borders that were drawn during the era of European colonialism. Since independence, African states have frequently been hampered by instability, corruption, violence, and authoritarianism. The vast majority of African states are republics that operate under some form of the presidential system of rule. However, few of them have been able to sustain democratic governments on a permanent basis – per the criteria laid out by Lührmann et al. (2018), only Botswana and Mauritius have been consistently democratic for the entirety of their post-colonial history. Most African countries have experienced several coups or periods of military dictatorship. Between 1990 and 2018, though, the continent as a whole has trended towards more democratic governance.Upon independence an overwhelming majority of Africans lived in extreme poverty. The continent suffered from the lack of infrastructural or industrial development under colonial rule, along with political instability. With limited financial resources or access to global markets, relatively stable countries such as Kenya still experienced only very slow economic development. Only a handful of African countries succeeded in obtaining rapid economic growth prior to 1990. Exceptions include Libya and Equatorial Guinea, both of which possess large oil reserves. Instability throughout the continent after decolonization resulted primarily from marginalization of ethnic groups, and corruption. In pursuit of personal political gain, many leaders deliberately promoted ethnic conflicts, some of which had originated during the colonial period, such as from the grouping of multiple unrelated ethnic groups into a single colony, the splitting of a distinct ethnic group between multiple colonies, or existing conflicts being exacerbated by colonial rule (for instance, the preferential treatment given to ethnic Hutus over Tutsis in Rwanda during German and Belgian rule). Faced with increasingly frequent and severe violence, military rule was widely accepted by the population of many countries as means to maintain order, and during the 1970s and 1980s a majority of African countries were controlled by military dictatorships. Territorial disputes between nations and rebellions by groups seeking independence were also common in independent African states. The most devastating of these was the Nigerian Civil War, fought between government forces and an Igbo separatist republic, which resulted in a famine that killed 1–2 million people. Two civil wars in Sudan, the first lasting from 1955 to 1972 and the second from 1983 to 2005, collectively killed around 3 million. Both were fought primarily on ethnic and religious lines. Cold War conflicts between the United States and the Soviet Union also contributed to instability. Both the Soviet Union and the United States offered considerable incentives to African political and military leaders who aligned themselves with the superpowers' foreign policy. As an example, during the Angolan Civil War, the Soviet and Cuban aligned MPLA and the American aligned UNITA received the vast majority of their military and political support from these countries. Many African countries became highly dependent on foreign aid. The sudden loss of both Soviet and American aid at the end of the Cold War and fall of the USSR resulted in severe economic and political turmoil in the countries most dependent on foreign support. There was a major famine in Ethiopia between 1983 and 1985, killing up to 1.2 million people, which most historians attribute primarily to the forced relocation of farmworkers and seizure of grain by communist Derg government, further exacerbated by the civil war. In 1994 a genocide in Rwanda resulted in up to 800,000 deaths, added to a severe refugee crisis and fueled the rise of militia groups in neighboring countries. This contributed to the outbreak of the first and second Congo Wars, which were the most devastating military conflicts in modern Africa, with up to 5.5 million deaths, making it by far the deadliest conflict in modern African history and one of the costliest wars in human history. Various conflicts between various insurgent groups and governments continue. Since 2003 there has been an ongoing conflict in Darfur (Sudan) which peaked in intensity from 2003 to 2005 with notable spikes in violence in 2007 and 2013–15, killing around 300,000 people total. The Boko Haram Insurgency primarily within Nigeria (with considerable fighting in Niger, Chad, and Cameroon as well) has killed around 350,000 people since 2009. Most African conflicts have been reduced to low-intensity conflicts as of 2022. However, the Tigray War which began in 2020 has killed an estimated 300,000–500,000 people, primarily due to famine. Overall though, violence across Africa has greatly declined in the 21st century, with the end of civil wars in Angola, Sierra Leone, and Algeria in 2002, Liberia in 2003, and Sudan and Burundi in 2005. The Second Congo War, which involved 9 countries and several insurgent groups, ended in 2003. This decline in violence coincided with many countries abandoning communist-style command economies and opening up for market reforms, which over the course of the 1990s and 2000s promoted the establishment of permanent, peaceful trade between neighboring countries (see Capitalist peace). Improved stability and economic reforms have led to a great increase in foreign investment into many African nations, mainly from China, which further spurred economic growth. Between 2000 and 2014, annual GDP growth in sub-Saharan Africa averaged 5.02%, doubling its total GDP from $811 Billion to $1.63 Trillion (Constant 2015 USD). North Africa experienced comparable growth rates. A significant part of this growth can also be attributed to the facilitated diffusion of information technologies and specifically the mobile telephone. While several individual countries have maintained high growth rates, since 2014 overall growth has considerably slowed, primarily as a result of falling commodity prices, continued lack of industrialization, and epidemics of Ebola and COVID-19. == Geology, geography, ecology, and environment == Africa is the largest of the three great southward projections from the largest landmass of the Earth. Separated from Europe by the Mediterranean Sea, it is joined to Asia at its northeast extremity by the Isthmus of Suez (transected by the Suez Canal), 163 km (101 mi) wide. (Geopolitically, Egypt's Sinai Peninsula east of the Suez Canal is often considered part of Africa, as well.)The coastline is 26,000 km (16,000 mi) long, and the absence of deep indentations of the shore is illustrated by the fact that Europe, which covers only 10,400,000 km2 (4,000,000 sq mi) – about a third of the surface of Africa – has a coastline of 32,000 km (20,000 mi). From the most northerly point, Ras ben Sakka in Tunisia (37°21' N), to the most southerly point, Cape Agulhas in South Africa (34°51'15"" S), is a distance of approximately 8,000 km (5,000 mi). Cape Verde, 17°33'22"" W, the westernmost point, is a distance of approximately 7,400 km (4,600 mi) to Ras Hafun, 51°27'52"" E, the most easterly projection that neighbours Cape Guardafui, the tip of the Horn of Africa.Africa's largest country is Algeria, and its smallest country is Seychelles, an archipelago off the east coast. The smallest nation on the continental mainland is The Gambia. === African plate === === Climate === The climate of Africa ranges from tropical to subarctic on its highest peaks. Its northern half is primarily desert, or arid, while its central and southern areas contain both savanna plains and dense jungle (rainforest) regions. In between, there is a convergence, where vegetation patterns such as sahel and steppe dominate. Africa is the hottest continent on Earth and 60% of the entire land surface consists of drylands and deserts. The record for the highest-ever recorded temperature, in Libya in 1922 (58 °C (136 °F)), was discredited in 2013. === Ecology and biodiversity === Africa has over 3,000 protected areas, with 198 marine protected areas, 50 biosphere reserves, and 80 wetlands reserves. Significant habitat destruction, increases in human population and poaching are reducing Africa's biological diversity and arable land. Human encroachment, civil unrest and the introduction of non-native species threaten biodiversity in Africa. This has been exacerbated by administrative problems, inadequate personnel and funding problems.Deforestation is affecting Africa at twice the world rate, according to the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). According to the University of Pennsylvania African Studies Center, 31% of Africa's pasture lands and 19% of its forests and woodlands are classified as degraded, and Africa is losing over four million hectares of forest per year, which is twice the average deforestation rate for the rest of the world. Some sources claim that approximately 90% of the original, virgin forests in West Africa have been destroyed. Over 90% of Madagascar's original forests have been destroyed since the arrival of humans 2000 years ago. About 65% of Africa's agricultural land suffers from soil degradation. === Environmental issues === === Water === === Climate change === === Fauna === Africa boasts perhaps the world's largest combination of density and ""range of freedom"" of wild animal populations and diversity, with wild populations of large carnivores (such as lions, hyenas, and cheetahs) and herbivores (such as buffalo, elephants, camels, and giraffes) ranging freely on primarily open non-private plains. It is also home to a variety of ""jungle"" animals including snakes and primates and aquatic life such as crocodiles and amphibians. In addition, Africa has the largest number of megafauna species, as it was least affected by the extinction of the Pleistocene megafauna. == Politics == === African Union === The African Union (AU) is a continental union consisting of 55 member states. The union was formed, with Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, as its headquarters, on 26 June 2001. The union was officially established on 9 July 2002 as a successor to the Organisation of African Unity (OAU). In July 2004, the African Union's Pan-African Parliament (PAP) was relocated to Midrand, in South Africa, but the African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights remained in Addis Ababa. The African Union, not to be confused with the AU Commission, is formed by the Constitutive Act of the African Union, which aims to transform the African Economic Community, a federated commonwealth, into a state under established international conventions. The African Union has a parliamentary government, known as the African Union Government, consisting of legislative, judicial and executive organs. It is led by the African Union President and Head of State, who is also the President of the Pan-African Parliament. A person becomes AU President by being elected to the PAP, and subsequently gaining majority support in the PAP. The powers and authority of the President of the African Parliament derive from the Constitutive Act and the Protocol of the Pan-African Parliament, as well as the inheritance of presidential authority stipulated by African treaties and by international treaties, including those subordinating the Secretary General of the OAU Secretariat (AU Commission) to the PAP. The government of the AU consists of all-union, regional, state, and municipal authorities, as well as hundreds of institutions, that together manage the day-to-day affairs of the institution. Extensive human rights abuses still occur in several parts of Africa, often under the oversight of the state. Most of such violations occur for political reasons, often as a side effect of civil war. Countries where major human rights violations have been reported in recent times include the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Sudan, Zimbabwe, and Ivory Coast. === Boundary conflicts === == Economy == Although it has abundant natural resources, Africa remains the world's poorest and least-developed continent (other than Antarctica), the result of a variety of causes that may include corrupt governments that have often committed serious human rights violations, failed central planning, high levels of illiteracy, low self-esteem, lack of access to foreign capital, legacies of colonialism, the slave trade, and the Cold War, and frequent tribal and military conflict (ranging from guerrilla warfare to genocide). Its total nominal GDP remains behind that of the United States, China, Japan, Germany, the United Kingdom, India and France. According to the United Nations' Human Development Report in 2003, the bottom 24 ranked nations (151st to 175th) were all African.Poverty, illiteracy, malnutrition and inadequate water supply and sanitation, as well as poor health, affect a large proportion of the people who reside in the African continent. In August 2008, the World Bank announced revised global poverty estimates based on a new international poverty line of $1.25 per day (versus the previous measure of $1.00). Eighty-one percent of the sub-Saharan African population was living on less than $2.50 (PPP) per day in 2005, compared with 86% for India.Sub-Saharan Africa is the least successful region of the world in reducing poverty ($1.25 per day); some 50% of the population living in poverty in 1981 (200 million people), a figure that rose to 58% in 1996 before dropping to 50% in 2005 (380 million people). The average poor person in sub-Saharan Africa is estimated to live on only 70 cents per day, and was poorer in 2003 than in 1973, indicating increasing poverty in some areas. Some of it is attributed to unsuccessful economic liberalization programmes spearheaded by foreign companies and governments, but other studies have cited bad domestic government policies more than external factors.Africa is now at risk of being in debt once again, particularly in sub-Saharan African countries. The last debt crisis in 2005 was resolved with help from the heavily indebted poor countries scheme (HIPC). The HIPC resulted in some positive and negative effects on the economy in Africa. About ten years after the 2005 debt crisis in sub-Saharan Africa was resolved, Zambia fell back into debt. A small reason was due to the fall in copper prices in 2011, but the bigger reason was that a large amount of the money Zambia borrowed was wasted or pocketed by the elite.From 1995 to 2005, Africa's rate of economic growth increased, averaging 5% in 2005. Some countries experienced still higher growth rates, notably Angola, Sudan and Equatorial Guinea, all of which had recently begun extracting their petroleum reserves or had expanded their oil extraction capacity. In a recently published analysis based on World Values Survey data, the Austrian political scientist Arno Tausch maintained that several African countries, most notably Ghana, perform quite well on scales of mass support for democracy and the market economy. Tausch's global value comparison based on the World Values Survey derived the following factor analytical scales: 1. The non-violent and law-abiding society 2. Democracy movement 3. Climate of personal non-violence 4. Trust in institutions 5. Happiness, good health 6. No redistributive religious fundamentalism 7. Accepting the market 8. Feminism 9. Involvement in politics 10. Optimism and engagement 11. No welfare mentality, acceptancy of the Calvinist work ethics. The spread in the performance of African countries with complete data, Tausch concluded ""is really amazing"". While one should be especially hopeful about the development of future democracy and the market economy in Ghana, the article suggests pessimistic tendencies for Egypt and Algeria, and especially for Africa's leading economy, South Africa. High Human Inequality, as measured by the UNDP's Human Development Report's Index of Human Inequality, further impairs the development of human security. Tausch also maintains that the certain recent optimism, corresponding to economic and human rights data, emerging from Africa, is reflected in the development of a civil society. The continent is believed to hold 90% of the world's cobalt, 90% of its platinum, 50% of its gold, 98% of its chromium, 70% of its tantalite, 64% of its manganese and one-third of its uranium. The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) has 70% of the world's coltan, a mineral used in the production of tantalum capacitors for electronic devices such as cell phones. The DRC also has more than 30% of the world's diamond reserves. Guinea is the world's largest exporter of bauxite. As the growth in Africa has been driven mainly by services and not manufacturing or agriculture, it has been growth without jobs and without reduction in poverty levels. In fact, the food security crisis of 2008 which took place on the heels of the global financial crisis pushed 100 million people into food insecurity.In recent years, the People's Republic of China has built increasingly stronger ties with African nations and is Africa's largest trading partner. In 2007, Chinese companies invested a total of US$1 billion in Africa.A Harvard University study led by professor Calestous Juma showed that Africa could feed itself by making the transition from importer to self-sufficiency. ""African agriculture is at the crossroads; we have come to the end of a century of policies that favoured Africa's export of raw materials and importation of food. Africa is starting to focus on agricultural innovation as its new engine for regional trade and prosperity."" == Demographics == Africa's population has rapidly increased over the last 40 years, and is consequently relatively young. In some African states, more than half the population is under 25 years of age. The total number of people in Africa increased from 229 million in 1950 to 630 million in 1990. As of 2021, the population of Africa is estimated at 1.4 billion . Africa's total population surpassing other continents is fairly recent; African population surpassed Europe in the 1990s, while the Americas was overtaken sometime around the year 2000; Africa's rapid population growth is expected to overtake the only two nations currently larger than its population, at roughly the same time – India and China's 1.4 billion people each will swap ranking around the year 2022. This increase in number of babies born in Africa compared to the rest of the world is expected to reach approximately 37% in the year 2050; while in 1990 sub-Saharan Africa accounted for only 16% of the world's births.The total fertility rate (children per woman) for Sub-Saharan Africa is 4.7 as of 2018, the highest in the world. All countries in sub-Saharan Africa had TFRs (average number of children) above replacement level in 2019 and accounted for 27.1% of global livebirths. In 2021, sub-Saharan Africa accounted for 29% of global births.Speakers of Bantu languages (part of the Niger–Congo family) are the majority in southern, central and southeast Africa. The Bantu-speaking peoples from the Sahel progressively expanded over most of sub-Saharan Africa. But there are also several Nilotic groups in South Sudan and East Africa, the mixed Swahili people on the Swahili Coast, and a few remaining indigenous Khoisan (""San"" or ""Bushmen"") and Pygmy peoples in Southern and Central Africa, respectively. Bantu-speaking Africans also predominate in Gabon and Equatorial Guinea, and are found in parts of southern Cameroon. In the Kalahari Desert of Southern Africa, the distinct people known as the Bushmen (also ""San"", closely related to, but distinct from ""Hottentots"") have long been present. The San are physically distinct from other Africans and are the indigenous people of southern Africa. Pygmies are the pre-Bantu indigenous peoples of central Africa.The peoples of West Africa primarily speak Niger–Congo languages, belonging mostly to its non-Bantu branches, though some Nilo-Saharan and Afro-Asiatic speaking groups are also found. The Niger–Congo-speaking Yoruba, Igbo, Fulani, Akan, and Wolof ethnic groups are the largest and most influential. In the central Sahara, Mandinka or Mande groups are most significant. Chadic-speaking groups, including the Hausa, are found in more northerly parts of the region nearest to the Sahara, and Nilo-Saharan communities, such as the Songhai, Kanuri and Zarma, are found in the eastern parts of West Africa bordering Central Africa. The peoples of North Africa consist of three main indigenous groups: Berbers in the northwest, Egyptians in the northeast, and Nilo-Saharan-speaking peoples in the east. The Arabs who arrived in the 7th century CE introduced the Arabic language and Islam to North Africa. The Semitic Phoenicians (who founded Carthage) and Hyksos, the Indo-Iranian Alans, the Indo- European Greeks, Romans, and Vandals settled in North Africa as well. Significant Berber communities remain within Morocco and Algeria in the 21st century, while, to a lesser extent, Berber speakers are also present in some regions of Tunisia and Libya. The Berber-speaking Tuareg and other often-nomadic peoples are the principal inhabitants of the Saharan interior of North Africa. In Mauritania, there is a small but near-extinct Berber community in the north and Niger–Congo-speaking peoples in the south, though in both regions Arabic and Arab culture predominates. In Sudan, although Arabic and Arab culture predominate, it is mostly inhabited by groups that originally spoke Nilo-Saharan, such as the Nubians, Fur, Masalit and Zaghawa, who, over the centuries, have variously intermixed with migrants from the Arabian peninsula. Small communities of Afro-Asiatic-speaking Beja nomads can also be found in Egypt and Sudan.In the Horn of Africa, some Ethiopian and Eritrean groups (like the Amhara and Tigrayans, collectively known as Habesha) speak languages from the Semitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family, while the Oromo and Somali speak languages from the Cushitic branch of Afro-Asiatic. Prior to the decolonization movements of the post-World War II era, Europeans were represented in every part of Africa. Decolonization during the 1960s and 1970s often resulted in the mass emigration of white settlers – especially from Algeria and Morocco (1.6 million pieds-noirs in North Africa), Kenya, Congo, Rhodesia, Mozambique and Angola. Between 1975 and 1977, over a million colonials returned to Portugal alone. Nevertheless, white Africans remain an important minority in many African states, particularly Zimbabwe, Namibia, Réunion, and South Africa. The country with the largest white African population is South Africa. Dutch and British diasporas represent the largest communities of European ancestry on the continent today.European colonization also brought sizable groups of Asians, particularly from the Indian subcontinent, to British colonies. Large Indian communities are found in South Africa, and smaller ones are present in Kenya, Tanzania, and some other southern and southeast African countries. The large Indian community in Uganda was expelled by the dictator Idi Amin in 1972, though many have since returned. The islands in the Indian Ocean are also populated primarily by people of Asian origin, often mixed with Africans and Europeans. The Malagasy people of Madagascar are an Austronesian people, but those along the coast are generally mixed with Bantu, Arab, Indian and European origins. Malay and Indian ancestries are also important components in the group of people known in South Africa as Cape Coloureds (people with origins in two or more races and continents). During the 20th century, small but economically important communities of Lebanese and Chinese have also developed in the larger coastal cities of West and East Africa, respectively. === Alternative Estimates of African Population, 0–2018 AD (in thousands) === Source: Maddison and others. (University of Groningen). === Shares of Africa and World Population, 0–2020 AD (% of world total) === Source: Maddison and others (University of Groningen). === Religion === While Africans profess a wide variety of religious beliefs, the majority of the people respect African religions or parts of them. However, in formal surveys or census, most people will identify with major religions that came from outside the continent, mainly through colonisation. There are several reasons for this, the main one being the colonial idea that African religious beliefs and practices are not good enough. Religious beliefs and statistics on religious affiliation are difficult to come by since they are often a sensitive topic for governments with mixed religious populations. According to the World Book Encyclopedia, Islam and Christianity are the two largest religions in Africa. According to Encyclopædia Britannica, 45% of the population are Christians, 40% are Muslims, and 10% follow traditional religions. A small number of Africans are Hindu, Buddhist, Confucianist, Baháʼí, or Jewish. There is also a minority of people in Africa who are irreligious. === Languages === By most estimates, well over a thousand languages (UNESCO has estimated around two thousand) are spoken in Africa. Most are of African origin, though some are of European or Asian origin. Africa is the most multilingual continent in the world, and it is not rare for individuals to fluently speak not only multiple African languages, but one or more European ones as well. There are four major language families indigenous to Africa: The Afroasiatic languages are a language family of about 240 languages and 285 million people widespread throughout the Horn of Africa, North Africa, the Sahel, and Southwest Asia. The Nilo-Saharan language family consists of more than a hundred languages spoken by 30 million people. Nilo-Saharan languages are spoken by ethnic groups in Chad, Ethiopia, Kenya, Nigeria, Sudan, South Sudan, Uganda, and northern Tanzania. The Niger-Congo language family covers much of sub-Saharan Africa. In terms of number of languages, it is the largest language family in Africa and perhaps one of the largest in the world. The Khoisan languages number about fifty and are spoken in Southern Africa by approximately 400,000 people. Many of the Khoisan languages are endangered. The Khoi and San peoples are considered the original inhabitants of this part of Africa.Following the end of colonialism, nearly all African countries adopted official languages that originated outside the continent, although several countries also granted legal recognition to indigenous languages (such as Swahili, Yoruba, Igbo and Hausa). In numerous countries, English and French (see African French) are used for communication in the public sphere such as government, commerce, education and the media. Arabic, Portuguese, Afrikaans and Spanish are examples of languages that trace their origin to outside of Africa, and that are used by millions of Africans today, both in the public and private spheres. Italian is spoken by some in former Italian colonies in Africa. German is spoken in Namibia, as it was a former German protectorate. === Health === More than 85% of individuals in Africa use traditional medicine as an alternative to often expensive allopathic medical health care and costly pharmaceutical products. The Organization of African Unity (OAU) Heads of State and Government declared the 2000s decade as the African Decade on African traditional medicine in an effort to promote The WHO African Region's adopted resolution for institutionalizing traditional medicine in health care systems across the continent. Public policy makers in the region are challenged with consideration of the importance of traditional/indigenous health systems and whether their coexistence with the modern medical and health sub-sector would improve the equitability and accessibility of health care distribution, the health status of populations, and the social-economic development of nations within sub-Saharan Africa.AIDS in post-colonial Africa is a prevalent issue. Although the continent is home to about 15.2 percent of the world's population, more than two-thirds of the total infected worldwide – some 35 million people – were Africans, of whom 15 million have already died. Sub-Saharan Africa alone accounted for an estimated 69 percent of all people living with HIV and 70 percent of all AIDS deaths in 2011. In the countries of sub-Saharan Africa most affected, AIDS has raised death rates and lowered life expectancy among adults between the ages of 20 and 49 by about twenty years. Furthermore, the life expectancy in many parts of Africa has declined, largely as a result of the HIV/AIDS epidemic with life-expectancy in some countries reaching as low as thirty-four years. == Culture == Some aspects of traditional African cultures have become less practised in recent years as a result of neglect and suppression by colonial and post-colonial regimes. For example, African customs were discouraged, and African languages were prohibited in mission schools. Leopold II of Belgium attempted to ""civilize"" Africans by discouraging polygamy and witchcraft.Obidoh Freeborn posits that colonialism is one element that has created the character of modern African art. According to authors Douglas Fraser and Herbert M. Cole, ""The precipitous alterations in the power structure wrought by colonialism were quickly followed by drastic iconographic changes in the art."" Fraser and Cole assert that, in Igboland, some art objects ""lack the vigor and careful craftsmanship of the earlier art objects that served traditional functions. Author Chika Okeke-Agulu states that ""the racist infrastructure of British imperial enterprise forced upon the political and cultural guardians of empire a denial and suppression of an emergent sovereign Africa and modernist art."" Editors F. Abiola Irele and Simon Gikandi comment that the current identity of African literature had its genesis in the ""traumatic encounter between Africa and Europe."" On the other hand, Mhoze Chikowero believes that Africans deployed music, dance, spirituality, and other performative cultures to (re)assert themselves as active agents and indigenous intellectuals, to unmake their colonial marginalization and reshape their own destinies.""There is now a resurgence in the attempts to rediscover and revalue African traditional cultures, under such movements as the African Renaissance, led by Thabo Mbeki, Afrocentrism, led by a group of scholars, including Molefi Asante, as well as the increasing recognition of traditional spiritualism through decriminalization of Vodou and other forms of spirituality. As of March 2023, 98 African properties are listed by UNESCO as World Heritage Sites. Among these proprieties, 54 are cultural sites, 39 are natural sites and 5 are mixed sites. The List Of World Heritage in Danger includes 15 African sites. === Visual art === === Architecture === === Cinema === === Music === === Dance === === Sports === Fifty-four African countries have football teams in the Confederation of African Football. Egypt has won the African Cup seven times, and a record-making three times in a row. Cameroon, Nigeria, Morocco, Senegal, Ghana, and Algeria have advanced to the knockout stage of recent FIFA World Cups. Morocco made history at the 2022 World Cup in Qatar as the first African nation to reach the semi-finals of the FIFA Men's World Cup. South Africa hosted the 2010 World Cup tournament, becoming the first African country to do so. The top clubs in each African football league play the CAF Champions League, while lower-ranked clubs compete in CAF Confederation Cup. In recent years, the continent has made major progress in terms of state-of-the-art basketball facilities which have been built in cites as diverse as Cairo, Dakar, Johannesburg, Kigali, Luanda and Rades. The number of African basketball players who drafted into the NBA has experienced major growth in the 2010s.Cricket is popular in some African nations. South Africa and Zimbabwe have Test status, while Kenya is the leading non-test team and previously had One-Day International cricket (ODI) status (from 10 October 1997, until 30 January 2014). The three countries jointly hosted the 2003 Cricket World Cup. Namibia is the other African country to have played in a World Cup. Morocco in northern Africa has also hosted the 2002 Morocco Cup, but the national team has never qualified for a major tournament. Rugby is popular in several southern African nations. Namibia and Zimbabwe both have appeared on multiple occasions at the Rugby World Cup, while South Africa is the joint-most successful national team (alongside New Zealand) at the Rugby World Cup, having won the tournament on 3 occasions, in 1995, 2007, and 2019. == Territories and regions == The countries in this table are categorized according to the scheme for geographic subregions used by the United Nations, and data included are per sources in cross-referenced articles. Where they differ, provisos are clearly indicated. == See also == Index of Africa-related articles African historiography Outline of Africa == Notes == == References == == Sources == Malone, Jacqui (1996). Steppin' on the Blues: the Visible Rhythms of African American Dance. University of Illinois Press. OCLC 891842452. Welsh-Asante, Kariamu (2009). African Dance. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4381-2427-8. Shillington, Kevin (2005). History of Africa. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-333-59957-0. == Further reading == == External links == General information Africa web resources provided by GovPubs at the University of Colorado Boulder Libraries Africa at the Encyclopædia Britannica Africa at Curlie Africa: Human Geography at the National Geographic Society African & Middle Eastern Reading Room from the United States Library of Congress Africa South of the Sahara from Stanford University Aluka, digital library of scholarly resources from and about Africa Africa Interactive Map from the United States Army AfricaHistory The Story of Africa from BBC World Service ""Africa"" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 1 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 320–358. Africa Policy Information Center (APIC) Hungarian military forces in Africa Archived 3 November 2013 at the Wayback MachineNews media allAfrica.com current news, events and statistics Focus on Africa magazine from BBC World Service" Continents,Americas,"The Americas, sometimes collectively called America, are a landmass comprising the totality of North and South America. The Americas make up most of the land in Earth's Western Hemisphere and comprise the New World.Along with their associated islands, the Americas cover 8% of Earth's total surface area and 28.4% of its land area. The topography is dominated by the American Cordillera, a long chain of mountains that runs the length of the west coast. The flatter eastern side of the Americas is dominated by large river basins, such as the Amazon, St. Lawrence River–Great Lakes basin, Mississippi, and La Plata. Since the Americas extend 14,000 km (8,700 mi) from north to south, the climate and ecology vary widely, from the arctic tundra of Northern Canada, Greenland, and Alaska, to the tropical rain forests in Central America and South America. Humans first settled the Americas from Asia between 20,000 and 16,000 years ago. A second migration of Na-Dene speakers followed later from Asia. The subsequent migration of the Inuit into the neoarctic around 3500 BCE completed what is generally regarded as the settlement by the indigenous peoples of the Americas. The first known European settlement in the Americas was by the Norse explorer Leif Erikson. However, the colonization never became permanent and was later abandoned. The Spanish voyages of Christopher Columbus from 1492 to 1504 resulted in permanent contact with European (and subsequently, other Old World) powers, which eventually led to the Columbian exchange and inaugurated a period of exploration, conquest, and colonization whose effects and consequences persist to the present. The Spanish presence involved the enslavement of large numbers of the indigenous population of America.Diseases introduced from Europe and West Africa devastated the indigenous peoples, and the European powers colonized the Americas. Mass emigration from Europe, including large numbers of indentured servants, and importation of African slaves largely replaced the indigenous peoples. Decolonization of the Americas began with the American Revolution in the 1770s and largely ended with the Spanish–American War in the late 1890s. Currently, almost all of the population of the Americas resides in independent countries; however, the legacy of the colonization and settlement by Europeans is that the Americas share many common cultural traits, most notably Christianity and the use of West European languages: primarily Spanish, English, Portuguese, French, and, to a lesser extent, Dutch. The Americas are home to nearly a billion inhabitants, two-thirds of whom reside in the United States, Brazil, and Mexico. It is home to eight megacities (metropolitan areas with ten million inhabitants or more): Greater Mexico City (21.2 million), São Paulo (21.2 million), New York City (19.7 million), Los Angeles (18.8 million), Buenos Aires (15.6 million), Rio de Janeiro (13.0 million), Bogotá (10.4 million), and Lima (10.1 million). == Etymology and naming == The name ""America"" was first recorded in 1507. A two-dimensional globe created by Martin Waldseemüller was the earliest recorded use of the term. The name was also used (together with the related term Amerigen) in the Cosmographiae Introductio, apparently written by Matthias Ringmann, in reference to South America. It was applied to both North and South America by Gerardus Mercator in 1538. ""America"" derives from Americus, the Latin version of Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci's first name. The feminine form America accorded with the feminine names of Asia, Africa, and Europa.In modern English, North and South America are generally considered separate continents, and taken together are called the Americas, or more rarely America. When conceived as a unitary continent, the form is generally the continent of America in the singular. However, without a clarifying context, singular America in English commonly refers to the United States of America. == History == === Pre-Columbian era === The pre-Columbian era incorporates all period subdivisions in the history and prehistory of the Americas before the appearance of significant European influences on the American continents, spanning the time of the original settlement in the Upper Paleolithic to European colonization during the Early Modern period. The term Pre-Columbian is used especially often in the context of the great indigenous civilizations of the Americas, such as those of Mesoamerica (the Olmec, the Toltec, the Teotihuacano, the Zapotec, the Mixtec, the Aztec, and the Maya) and the Andes (Inca, Moche, Muisca, Cañaris). Many pre-Columbian civilizations established characteristics and hallmarks which included permanent or urban settlements, agriculture, civic and monumental architecture, and complex societal hierarchies. Some of these civilizations had long faded by the time of the first permanent European arrivals (c. late 15th–early 16th centuries), and are known only through archeological investigations. Others were contemporary with this period, and are also known from historical accounts of the time. A few, such as the Maya, had their own written records. However, most Europeans of the time viewed such texts as pagan, and much was destroyed in Christian pyres. Only a few hidden documents remain today, leaving modern historians with glimpses of ancient culture and knowledge. ==== Settlement ==== The first inhabitants migrated into the Americas from Asia. Habitation sites are known in Alaska and Yukon from at least 20,000 years ago, with suggested ages of up to 40,000 years. Beyond that, the specifics of the Paleo-Indian migration to and throughout the Americas, including the dates and routes traveled, are subject to ongoing research and discussion. Widespread habitation of the Americas occurred after the Late Glacial Maximum, from 16,000 to 13,000 years ago. The traditional theory has been that these early migrants moved into the Beringia land bridge between eastern Siberia and present-day Alaska around 40,000–17,000 years ago, when sea levels were significantly lowered during the Quaternary glaciation. These people are believed to have followed herds of now-extinct pleistocene megafauna along ice-free corridors that stretched between the Laurentide and Cordilleran ice sheets. Another route proposed is that, either on foot or using primitive boats, they migrated down the Pacific coast to South America. Evidence of the latter would since have been covered by a sea level rise of hundreds of meters following the last ice age. Both routes may have been taken, although the genetic evidences suggests a single founding population. The micro-satellite diversity and distributions specific to South American Indigenous people indicates that certain populations have been isolated since the initial colonization of the region.A second migration occurred after the initial peopling of the Americas; Na Dene speakers found predominantly in North American groups at varying genetic rates with the highest frequency found among the Athabaskans at 42% derive from this second wave. Linguists and biologists have reached a similar conclusion based on analysis of Amerindian language groups and ABO blood group system distributions. Then the people of the Arctic small tool tradition, a broad cultural entity that developed along the Alaska Peninsula, around Bristol Bay, and on the eastern shores of the Bering Strait c. 2,500 BCE moved into North America. The Arctic small tool tradition, a Paleo-Eskimo culture branched off into two cultural variants, including the Pre-Dorset, and the Independence traditions of Greenland. The descendants of the Pre-Dorset cultural group, the Dorset culture was displaced by the final migrants from the Bering sea coast line, the Thule people (the ancestors of modern Inuit), by 1000 Common Era (CE). ==== Norse colonization ==== Around the same time as the Inuit migrated into Greenland, Viking settlers began arriving in Greenland in 982 and Vinland shortly thereafter, establishing a settlement at L'Anse aux Meadows, near the northernmost tip of Newfoundland. Contact between the Norse colonies and Europe was maintained, as James Watson Curran states:From 985 to 1410, Greenland was in touch with the world. Then silence. In 1492 the Vatican noted that no news of that country ""at the end of the world"" had been received for 80 years, and the bishopric of the colony was offered to a certain ecclesiastic if he would go and ""restore Christianity"" there. He didn't go. === Large-scale European colonization === Although there had been previous trans-oceanic contact, large-scale European colonization of the Americas began with the first voyage of Christopher Columbus in 1492. The first Spanish settlement in the Americas was La Isabela in northern Hispaniola. This town was abandoned shortly after in favor of Santo Domingo de Guzmán, founded in 1496, the oldest American city of European foundation. This was the base from which the Spanish monarchy administered its new colonies and their expansion. Santo Domingo was subject to frequent raids by English and French pirates. During most of the 18th century, however, privateers from Santo Domingo were the scourge of the Antilles, with Dutch, British, French and Danish vessels as their prizes.On the continent, Panama City on the Pacific coast of Central America, founded on August 15, 1519, played an important role, being the base for the Spanish conquest of South America. Conquistador Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón established San Miguel de Guadalupe, the first European settlement in what is now the United States, on the Pee Dee River in South Carolina. During the first half of the 16th century, Spanish colonists conducted raids throughout the Caribbean Basin, bringing captives from Central America, northern South America, and Florida back to Hispaniola and other Spanish settlements.France, led by Jacques Cartier and Giovanni da Verrazano, focused primarily on North America. English explorations of the Americas were led by Giovanni Caboto and Sir Walter Raleigh. The Dutch in New Netherland confined their operations to Manhattan Island, Long Island, the Hudson River Valley, and what later became New Jersey. The spread of new diseases brought by Europeans and African slaves killed many of the inhabitants of North America and South America, with a general population crash of Native Americans occurring in the mid-16th century, often well ahead of European contact. One of the most devastating diseases was smallpox.European immigrants were often part of state-sponsored attempts to found colonies in the Americas. Migration continued as people moved to the Americas fleeing religious persecution or seeking economic opportunities. Millions of individuals were forcibly transported to the Americas as slaves, prisoners or indentured servants. Decolonization of the Americas began with the American Revolution and the Haitian Revolution in the late 1700s. This was followed by numerous Latin American wars of independence in the early 1800s. Between 1811 and 1825, Paraguay, Argentina, Chile, Gran Colombia, the United Provinces of Central America, Mexico, Brazil, Peru, and Bolivia gained independence from Spain and Portugal in armed revolutions. After the Dominican Republic won independence from Haiti, it was re-annexed by Spain in 1861, but reclaimed its independence in 1865 at the conclusion of the Dominican Restoration War. The last violent episode of decolonization was the Cuban War of Independence which became the Spanish–American War, which resulted in the independence of Cuba in 1898, and the transfer of sovereignty over Puerto Rico from Spain to the United States. Peaceful decolonization began with the United States's purchase of Louisiana from France in 1803, Florida from Spain in 1819, of Alaska from Russia in 1867, and the Danish West Indies from Denmark in 1916. Canada became independent of the United Kingdom, starting with the Balfour Declaration of 1926, Statute of Westminster 1931, and ending with the patriation of the Canadian Constitution in 1982. The Dominion of Newfoundland similarly achieved independence under the Balfour Declaration and Statute of Westminster, but relinquished self-rule in 1934. It was subsequently confederated with Canada in 1949. The remaining European colonies in the Caribbean began to achieve peaceful independence well after World War II. Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago became independent in 1962, and Guyana and Barbados both achieved independence in 1966. In the 1970s, the Bahamas, Grenada, Dominica, St. Lucia, and St. Vincent and the Grenadines all became independent of the United Kingdom, and Suriname became independent of the Netherlands. Belize, Antigua and Barbuda, and Saint Kitts and Nevis achieved independence from the United Kingdom in the 1980s. == Geography == === Extent === The Americas make up most of the land in Earth's Western Hemisphere. The northernmost point of the Americas is Kaffeklubben Island, which is the most northerly point of land on Earth. The southernmost point is the islands of Southern Thule, although they are sometimes considered part of Antarctica. The mainland of the Americas is the world's longest north-to-south landmass. The distance between its two polar extremities, Murchison Promontory on the Boothia Peninsula in northern Canada and Cape Froward in Chilean Patagonia, is roughly 14,000 km (8,700 mi). The mainland's most westerly point is the end of the Seward Peninsula in Alaska; Attu Island, further off the Alaskan coast to the west, is considered the westernmost point of the Americas. Ponta do Seixas in northeastern Brazil forms the easternmost extremity of the mainland, while Nordostrundingen, in Greenland, is the most easterly point of the continental shelf. === Geology === South America broke off from the west of the supercontinent Gondwana around 135 million years ago, forming its own continent. Around 15 million years ago, the collision of the Caribbean Plate and the Pacific Plate resulted in the emergence of a series of volcanoes along the border that created a number of islands. The gaps in the archipelago of Central America filled in with material eroded off North America and South America, plus new land created by continued volcanism. By three million years ago, the continents of North America and South America were linked by the Isthmus of Panama, thereby forming the single landmass of the Americas. The Great American Interchange resulted in many species being spread across the Americas, such as the cougar, porcupine, opossums, armadillos and hummingbirds. === Topography === The geography of the western Americas is dominated by the American Cordillera, with the Andes running along the west coast of South America and the Rocky Mountains and other North American Cordillera ranges running along the western side of North America. The 2,300-kilometer-long (1,400 mi) Appalachian Mountains run along the east coast of North America from Alabama to Newfoundland. North of the Appalachians, the Arctic Cordillera runs along the eastern coast of Canada.The largest mountain ranges are the Andes and Rocky Mountains. The Sierra Nevada and the Cascade Range reach similar altitudes as the Rocky Mountains, but are significantly smaller. In North America, the greatest number of fourteeners are in the United States, and more specifically in the U.S. state of Colorado. The highest peaks of the Americas are located in the Andes, with Aconcagua of Argentina being the highest; in North America Denali (Mount McKinley) in the U.S. state of Alaska is the tallest. Between its coastal mountain ranges, North America has vast flat areas. The Interior Plains spread over much of the continent, with low relief. The Canadian Shield covers almost 5 million km2 of North America and is generally quite flat. Similarly, the north-east of South America is covered by the flat Amazon basin. The Brazilian Highlands on the east coast are fairly smooth but show some variations in landform, while farther south the Gran Chaco and Pampas are broad lowlands. === Climate === The climate of the Americas varies significantly from region to region. Tropical rainforest climate occurs in the latitudes of the Amazon, American cloud forests, southeastern Florida and Darién Gap. In the Rocky Mountains and Andes, dry and continental climates are observed. Often the higher altitudes of these mountains are snow-capped. Southeastern North America is well known for its occurrence of tornadoes and hurricanes, of which the vast majority of tornadoes occur in the United States' Tornado Alley, as well as in the southerly Dixie Alley in the North American late-winter and early spring seasons. Often parts of the Caribbean are exposed to the violent effects of hurricanes. These weather systems are formed by the collision of dry, cool air from Canada and wet, warm air from the Atlantic. === Hydrology === With coastal mountains and interior plains, the Americas have several large river basins that drain the continents. The largest river basin in North America is that of the Mississippi, covering the second largest watershed on the planet. The Mississippi-Missouri river system drains most of 31 states of the U.S., most of the Great Plains, and large areas between the Rocky and Appalachian mountains. This river is the fourth longest in the world and tenth most powerful in the world. In North America, to the east of the Appalachian Mountains, there are no major rivers but rather a series of rivers and streams that flow east with their terminus in the Atlantic Ocean, such as the Hudson River, Saint John River, and Savannah River. A similar instance arises with central Canadian rivers that drain into Hudson Bay; the largest being the Churchill River. On the west coast of North America, the main rivers are the Colorado River, Columbia River, Yukon River, Fraser River, and Sacramento River. The Colorado River drains much of the Southern Rockies and parts of the Basin and Range Province. The river flows approximately 1,450 miles (2,330 km) into the Gulf of California, during which over time it has carved out natural phenomena such as the Grand Canyon and created phenomena such as the Salton Sea. The Columbia is a large river, 1,243 miles (2,000 km) long, in central western North America and is the most powerful river on the West Coast of the Americas. In the far northwest of North America, the Yukon drains much of the Alaskan peninsula and flows 1,980 miles (3,190 km) from parts of Yukon and the Northwest Territory to the Pacific. Draining to the Arctic Ocean of Canada, the Mackenzie River drains waters from the Arctic Great Lakes of Arctic Canada, as opposed to the Saint-Lawrence River that drains the Great Lakes of Southern Canada into the Atlantic Ocean. The Mackenzie River is the largest in Canada and drains 1,805,200 square kilometers (697,000 sq mi).The largest river basin in South America is that of the Amazon, which has the highest volume flow of any river on Earth. The second largest watershed of South America is that of the Paraná River, which covers about 2.5 million km2. === Ecology === North America and South America began to develop a shared population of flora and fauna around 2.5 million years ago, when continental drift brought the two continents into contact via the Isthmus of Panama. Initially, the exchange of biota was roughly equal, with North American genera migrating into South America in about the same proportions as South American genera migrated into North America. This exchange is known as the Great American Interchange. The exchange became lopsided after roughly a million years, with the total spread of South American genera into North America far more limited in scope than the spread on North American genera into South America. == Countries and territories == There are 35 sovereign states in the Americas, as well as an autonomous country of Denmark, three overseas departments of France, three overseas collectivities of France, and one uninhabited territory of France, eight overseas territories of the United Kingdom, three constituent countries of the Netherlands, three public bodies of the Netherlands, two unincorporated territories of the United States, and one uninhabited territory of the United States. == Demography == === Population === In 2021 the total population of the Americas was about 1.03 billion people, divided as follows: North America: 596.6 million (includes Central America and the Caribbean) South America: 434.3 million === Largest urban centers === There are three urban centers that each hold titles for being the largest population area based on the three main demographic concepts: City properA city proper is the locality with legally fixed boundaries and an administratively recognized urban status that is usually characterized by some form of local government.Urban areaAn urban area is characterized by higher population density and vast human features in comparison to areas surrounding it. Urban areas may be cities, towns or conurbations, but the term is not commonly extended to rural settlements such as villages and hamlets. Urban areas are created and further developed by the process of urbanization and do not include large swaths of rural land, as do metropolitan areas.Metropolitan areaUnlike an urban area, a metropolitan area includes not only the urban area, but also satellite cities plus intervening rural land that is socio-economically connected to the urban core city, typically by employment ties through commuting, with the urban core city being the primary labor market.In accordance with these definitions, the three largest population centers in the Americas are: Mexico City, anchor to the largest metropolitan area in the Americas; New York City, anchor to the largest urban area in the Americas; and São Paulo, the largest city proper in the Americas. All three cities maintain Alpha classification and large scale influence. Urban centers within the Americas === Ethnology === The population of the Americas is made up of the descendants of four large ethnic groups and their combinations. The Indigenous peoples of the Americas, being Amerindians and Inuit-Yupik-Unangan. Those of European ancestry, mainly Spanish, English, Irish, Portuguese, German, Italian, French, and Dutch. Those of African ancestry, mainly of West African descent. Asians, that is, those of East Asian, South Asian, and Southeast Asian ancestry. Mestizos (Métis people in Canada), those of mixed European and Amerindian ancestry. Mulattoes, people of mixed African and European ancestry. Zambos (Spanish) or Cafuzos (Portuguese), those of mixed African and Indigenous ancestry.The majority of the population live in Latin America, named for its predominant cultures, rooted in Latin Europe (including the two dominant languages, Spanish and Portuguese, both Romance languages), more specifically in the Iberian nations of Portugal and Spain (hence the use of the term Ibero-America as a synonym). Latin America is typically contrasted with Anglo-America, where English, a Germanic language, is prevalent, and which comprises Canada (with the exception of Francophone Canada rooted in Latin Europe [France]—see Quebec and Acadia) and the United States. Both countries are located in North America, with cultures deriving predominantly from Anglo-Saxon and other Germanic roots. === Religion === The most prevalent faiths in the Americas are as follows: Christianity (86 percent)Roman Catholicism: Practiced by 69 percent of the Latin American population (61 percent in Brazil whose Roman Catholic population of 134 million is the greatest of any nation's), approximately 24 percent of the United States' population and about 39 percent of Canada's. Protestantism: Practiced mostly in the United States, where half of the population are Protestant, Canada, with slightly more than a quarter of the population, and Greenland; there is a growing contingent of Evangelical and Pentecostal movements in predominantly Catholic Latin America. Eastern Orthodoxy: Found mostly in the United States (1 percent) and Canada; this Christian group is growing faster than many other Christian groups in Canada and now represents roughly 3 percent of the Canadian population. Non-denominational Christians and other Christians (some 1,000 different Christian denominations and sects practiced in the Americas). Irreligion: About 12 percent, including atheists and agnostics, as well as those who profess some form of spirituality but do not identify themselves as members of any organized religion. Islam: Together, Muslims constitute about 1 percent of the North American population and 0.3 percent of all Latin Americans. It is practiced by 3 percent of Canadians and 0.6 percent of the U.S. population. Argentina has the largest Muslim population in Latin America with up to 600,000 persons, or 1.5 percent of the population. Judaism (practiced by 2 percent of North Americans—approximately 2.5 percent of the U.S. population and 1.2 percent of Canadians—and 0.23 percent of Latin Americans—Argentina has the largest Jewish population in Latin America with 200,000 members)Other faiths include Buddhism; Hinduism; Sikhism; Baháʼí Faith; a wide variety of indigenous religions, many of which can be categorized as animistic; new age religions and many African and African-derived religions. Syncretic faiths can also be found throughout the Americas. === Languages === Various languages are spoken in the Americas. Some are of European origin, others are spoken by indigenous peoples or are the mixture of various languages like the different creoles.The most widely spoken first language in the Americas is Spanish, followed by English and Brazilian Portuguese. The dominant language of Latin America is Spanish, though the most populous nation in Latin America, Brazil, speaks Portuguese. Small enclaves of French-, Dutch- and English-speaking regions also exist in Latin America, notably in French Guiana, Suriname, and Belize and Guyana respectively. Haitian Creole is dominant in the nation of Haiti, where French is also spoken. Native languages are more prominent in Latin America than in Anglo-America, with Nahuatl, Quechua, Aymara, and Guaraní as the most common. Various other native languages are spoken with less frequency across both Anglo-America and Latin America. Creole languages other than Haitian Creole are also spoken in parts of Latin America. The dominant language of Anglo-America is English. French is also official in Canada, where it is the predominant language in Quebec and an official language in New Brunswick along with English. It is also an important language in Louisiana, and in parts of New Hampshire, Maine, and Vermont. Spanish has kept an ongoing presence in the Southwestern United States, which formed part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain, especially in California and New Mexico, where a distinct variety of Spanish spoken since the 17th century has survived. It has more recently become widely spoken in other parts of the United States because of heavy immigration from Latin America. High levels of immigration in general have brought great linguistic diversity to Anglo-America, with over 300 languages known to be spoken in the United States alone, but most languages are spoken only in small enclaves and by relatively small immigrant groups. The nations of Guyana, Suriname, and Belize are generally considered not to fall into either Anglo-America or Latin America because of their language differences from Latin America, geographic differences from Anglo-America, and cultural and historical differences from both regions; English is the primary language of Guyana and Belize, and Dutch is the primary language of Suriname. Most of the non-native languages have, to different degrees, evolved differently from the mother country, but are usually still mutually intelligible. Some have combined, however, which has even resulted in completely new languages, such as Papiamento, which is a combination of Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch (representing the respective colonizers), native Arawak, various African languages, and, more recently English. The lingua franca Portuñol, a mixture of Portuguese and Spanish, is spoken in the border regions of Brazil and neighboring Spanish-speaking countries. More specifically, Riverense Portuñol is spoken by around 100,000 people in the border regions of Brazil and Uruguay. Because of immigration, there are many communities where other languages are spoken from all parts of the world, especially in the United States, Brazil, Argentina, Canada, Chile, Costa Rica, and Uruguay—very important destinations for immigrants. == Terminology == === English === Speakers of English generally refer to the landmasses of North America and South America as the Americas, the Western Hemisphere, or the New World. The adjective American may be used to indicate something pertaining to the Americas, but this term is primarily used in English to indicate something pertaining to the United States. Some non-ambiguous alternatives exist, such as the adjective Pan-American, or New Worlder as a demonym for a resident of the closely related New World. Use of America in the hemispherical sense is sometimes retained, or can occur when translated from other languages. For example, the Association of National Olympic Committees (ANOC) in Paris maintains a single continental association for ""America"", represented by one of the five Olympic rings.American essayist H.L. Mencken said, ""The Latin-Americans use Norteamericano in formal writing, but, save in Panama, prefer nicknames in colloquial speech."" To avoid ""American"" one can use constructed terms in their languages derived from ""United States"" or even ""North America"". In Canada, its southern neighbor is often referred to as ""the United States"", ""the U.S.A."", or (informally) ""the States"", while U.S. citizens are generally referred to as ""Americans"". Most Canadians resent being referred to as ""Americans"". === Spanish === In Spanish, América is a single continent composed of the subcontinents of América del Sur and América del Norte, the land bridge of América Central, and the islands of the Antillas. Americano or americana in Spanish refers to a person from América in a similar way that in which europeo or europea refers to a person from Europa. The terms sudamericano/a, centroamericano/a, antillano/a and norteamericano/a can be used to more specifically refer to the location where a person may live. Citizens of the United States of America are normally referred to by the term estadounidense (rough literal translation: ""United Statesian"") instead of americano or americana which is discouraged, and the country's name itself is officially translated as Estados Unidos de América (United States of America), commonly abbreviated as Estados Unidos (EEUU). Also, the term norteamericano (North American) may refer to a citizen of the United States. This term is primarily used to refer to citizens of the United States, and less commonly to those of other North American countries. === Portuguese === In Portuguese, América is a single continent composed of América do Sul (South America), América Central (Central America) and América do Norte (North America). It can be ambiguous, as América can be used to refer to the United States of America, but is avoided in print and formal environments. === French === In French the word américain may be used for things relating to the Americas; however, similar to English, it is most often used for things relating to the United States, with the term états-unien sometimes used for clarity. Panaméricain may be used as an adjective to refer to the Americas without ambiguity. French speakers may use the noun Amérique to refer to the whole landmass as one continent, or two continents, Amérique du Nord and Amérique du Sud. In French, Amérique is seldom used to refer to the United States, leading to some ambiguity when it is. Similar to English usage, les Amériques or des Amériques is used to refer unambiguously to the Americas. === Dutch === In Dutch, the word Amerika mostly refers to the United States. Although the United States is equally often referred to as de Verenigde Staten (""the United States"") or de VS (""the US""), Amerika relatively rarely refers to the Americas, but it is the only commonly used Dutch word for the Americas. This often leads to ambiguity; and to stress that something concerns the Americas as a whole, Dutch uses a combination, namely Noord- en Zuid-Amerika (North and South America). Latin America and Central America are generally referred to as Latijns Amerika and Midden-Amerika respectively. The adjective Amerikaans is most often used for things or people relating to the United States. There are no alternative words to distinguish between things relating to the United States or to the Americas. Dutch uses the local alternative for things relating to elsewhere in the Americas, such as Argentijns for Argentine, etc. == Multinational organizations == The following is a list of multinational organizations in the Americas. == Economy == In exports and imports, in 2020, the United States was the world's second largest exporter (US$1.64 trillion) and the largest importer (US$2.56 trillion). Mexico was the tenth largest exporter and importer. Canada was the twelfth largest exporter and importer. Brazil was the 24th largest exporter and the 28th largest importer. Chile was the 45th largest exporter and the 47th largest importer. Argentina was the 46th largest exporter and the 52nd largest importer. Colombia was the 54th largest exporter and the 51st largest importer; among others.The agriculture of the continent is very strong and varied. Countries such as United States, Brazil, Canada, Mexico and Argentina are among the largest agricultural producers on the planet. In 2019, the continent dominated the world production of soy (almost 90% of the world total, with Brazil, the United States, Argentina, Paraguay, Canada and Bolivia among the 10 largest on the planet), sugarcane (about 55% of the world total, with Brazil, Mexico, the United States, and Guatemala among the 10 largest on the planet), coffee (about 55% of the world total, with Brazil, Colombia, Honduras, Peru and Guatemala among the 10 largest on the planet) and maize (about 48% of the world total, with the United States, Brazil, Argentina and Mexico among the 10 largest on the planet). The continent also produces almost 40% of world's orange (with Brazil, the US and Mexico among the top 10 producers), about 37% of world's pineapple (with Costa Rica, Brazil, Mexico and Colombia among the 10 largest producers), about 35% of world's lemon (with Mexico, Argentina, Brazil, and the United States among the 10 largest producers) and about 30% of world's cotton (with the US, Brazil, Mexico and Argentina among the top 10 producers), among several other products.In livestock, America also has giant productions. In 2018, the continent produced around 45% of the world's beef (with the US, Brazil, Argentina, Mexico and Canada among the world's 10 largest producers); about 36% of the world's chicken meat (with the US, Brazil and Mexico among the world's 10 largest producers), and about 28% of the world's cow's milk (with the US and Brazil among the 10 largest producers in the world), among other products.In industrial terms, the World Bank lists the top producing countries each year, based on the total value of production. According to the 2019 list, the United States has the second most valuable industry in the world (US$2.3 trillion), Mexico has the 12th most valuable industry in the world (US$217.8 billion), Brazil has the 13th most valuable industry in the world (US$173.6 billion), Canada has the 15th most valuable industry in the world (US$151.7 billion), Venezuela the 30th largest (US$58.2 billion, but depends on the oil to obtain this amount), Argentina was the 31st largest (US$57.7 billion), Colombia the 46th largest (US$35.4 billion), Peru the 50th largest ($28.7 billion), and Chile the 51st largest (US$28.3 billion), among others.In the production of oil, the continent had 8 of the 30 largest world producers in 2020: United States (1st), Canada (4th), Brazil (8th), Mexico (14th), Colombia (20th), Venezuela (26th), Ecuador (27th) and Argentina (28th).In the production of natural gas, the continent had 8 of the 32 largest world producers in 2015: United States (1st), Canada (5th), Argentina (18th), Trinidad and Tobago (20th), Mexico (21st), Venezuela (28th), Bolivia (31st) and Brazil (32nd).In the production of coal, the continent had 5 of the 30 largest world producers in 2018: United States (3rd), Colombia (12th), Canada (13th), Mexico (24th) and Brazil (27th).In the production of vehicles, the continent had 5 of the 30 largest world producers in 2019: United States (2nd), Mexico (7th), Brazil (9th), Canada (12th) and Argentina (28th).In the production of steel, the continent had 5 of the 31 largest world producers in 2019: United States (4th), Brazil (9th), Mexico (15th), Canada (18th) and Argentina (31st).In mining, the continent has large productions of gold (mainly in the United States, Canada, Peru, Mexico, Brazil and Argentina); silver (mainly in Mexico, Peru, Chile, Bolivia, Argentina and the US); copper (mainly in Chile, Peru, US, Mexico and Brazil); platinum (Canada and US); iron ore (Brazil, Canada, US, Peru and Chile); zinc (Peru, US, Mexico, Bolivia, Canada and Brazil); molybdenum (Chile, Peru, Mexico, Canada, US); lithium (Chile, Argentina, Brazil and Canada); lead (Peru, US, Mexico and Bolivia); bauxite (Brazil, Jamaica, Canada, and US); tin (Peru, Bolivia and Brazil); manganese (Brazil and Mexico); antimony (Bolivia, Mexico, Guatemala, Canada and Ecuador); nickel (Canada, Brazil, Dominican Republic, Cuba and US); niobium (Brazil and Canada); rhenium (Chile and US); and iodine (Chile), among others. Dominica, Panama and the Dominican Republic have the fastest-growing economy in the Americas according to the International Monetary Fund (IMF), 16, five to seven countries in the southern part of the Americas had weakening economies in decline, compared to only three countries in the northern part of the Americas. Haiti has the lowest GDP per capita in the Americas, although its economy was growing slightly as of 2016. == See also == == Notes == == References == == Further reading == == External links == United Nations population data by latest available Census: 2008–2009 Organization of American States Council on Hemispheric Affairs Gannett, Henry; Ingersoll, Ernest; Winship, George Parker (1905). ""America and others"" . New International Encyclopedia." Continents,Antarctica,"Antarctica ( (listen)) is Earth's southernmost and least-populated continent. Situated almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle and surrounded by the Southern Ocean (also known as the Antarctic Ocean), it contains the geographic South Pole. Antarctica is the fifth-largest continent, being about 40% larger than Europe, and has an area of 14,200,000 km2 (5,500,000 sq mi). Most of Antarctica is covered by the Antarctic ice sheet, with an average thickness of 1.9 km (1.2 mi). Antarctica is, on average, the coldest, driest, and windiest of the continents, and it has the highest average elevation. It is mainly a polar desert, with annual precipitation of over 200 mm (8 in) along the coast and far less inland. About 70% of the world's freshwater reserves are frozen in Antarctica, which, if melted, would raise global sea levels by almost 60 metres (200 ft). Antarctica holds the record for the lowest measured temperature on Earth, −89.2 °C (−128.6 °F). The coastal regions can reach temperatures over 10 °C (50 °F) in summer. Native species of animals include mites, nematodes, penguins, seals and tardigrades. Where vegetation occurs, it is mostly in the form of lichen or moss. The ice shelves of Antarctica were probably first seen in 1820, during a Russian expedition led by Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev. The decades that followed saw further exploration in French, American, and British expeditions. The first confirmed landing was by a Norwegian team in 1895. In the early 20th century, there were a few expeditions into the interior of the continent. British explorers were the first to reach the magnetic South Pole in 1909, and the geographic South Pole was first reached in 1911 by Norwegian explorers. Antarctica is governed by about 30 countries, all of which are parties of the 1959 Antarctic Treaty System. According to the terms of the treaty, military activity, mining, nuclear explosions, and nuclear waste disposal are all prohibited in Antarctica. Tourism, fishing and research are the main human activities in and around Antarctica. During the summer months, about 5,000 people reside at research stations, a figure that drops to around 1,000 in the winter. Despite its remoteness, human activity has a significant impact on the continent via pollution, ozone depletion, and climate change. == Etymology == The name given to the continent originates from the word antarctic, which comes from Middle French antartique or antarctique ('opposite to the Arctic') and, in turn, the Latin antarcticus ('opposite to the north'). Antarcticus is derived from the Greek ἀντι- ('anti-') and ἀρκτικός ('of the Bear', 'northern'). The Greek philosopher Aristotle wrote in Meteorology about an ""Antarctic region"" in c. 350 BCE. The Greek geographer Marinus of Tyre reportedly used the name in his world map from the second century CE, now lost. The Roman authors Gaius Julius Hyginus and Apuleius used for the South Pole the romanised Greek name polus antarcticus, from which derived the Old French pole antartike (modern pôle antarctique) attested in 1270, and from there the Middle English pol antartik, found first in a treatise written by the English author Geoffrey Chaucer.Belief by Europeans in the existence of a Terra Australis—a vast continent in the far south of the globe to balance the northern lands of Europe, Asia, and North Africa—had existed as an intellectual concept since classical antiquity. The belief in such a land lasted until the European discovery of Australia.During the early 19th century, explorer Matthew Flinders doubted the existence of a detached continent south of Australia (then called New Holland) and thus advocated for the ""Terra Australis"" name to be used for Australia instead. In 1824, the colonial authorities in Sydney officially renamed the continent of New Holland to Australia, leaving the term ""Terra Australis"" unavailable as a reference to Antarctica. Over the following decades, geographers used phrases such as ""the Antarctic Continent"". They searched for a more poetic replacement, suggesting names such as Ultima and Antipodea. Antarctica was adopted in the 1890s, with the first use of the name being attributed to the Scottish cartographer John George Bartholomew. == Geography == Positioned asymmetrically around the South Pole and largely south of the Antarctic Circle (one of the five major circles of latitude that mark maps of the world), Antarctica is surrounded by the Southern Ocean. Rivers exist in Antarctica, the longest is the Onyx. Antarctica covers more than 14.2 million km2 (5,500,000 sq mi), making it the fifth-largest continent, slightly less than 1.5 times the area of the United States. Its coastline is almost 18,000 km (11,200 mi) long: as of 1983, of the four coastal types, 44% of the coast is floating ice in the form of an ice shelf, 38% consists of ice walls that rest on rock, 13% is ice streams or the edge of glaciers, and the remaining 5% is exposed rock.The lakes that lie at the base of the continental ice sheet occur mainly in the McMurdo Dry Valleys or various oases. Lake Vostok, discovered beneath Russia's Vostok Station, is the largest subglacial lake globally and one of the largest lakes in the world. It was once believed that the lake had been sealed off for millions of years, but scientists now estimate its water is replaced by the slow melting and freezing of ice caps every 13,000 years. During the summer, the ice at the edges of the lakes can melt, and liquid moats temporarily form. Antarctica has both saline and freshwater lakes.Antarctica is divided into West Antarctica and East Antarctica by the Transantarctic Mountains, which stretch from Victoria Land to the Ross Sea. The vast majority of Antarctica is covered by the Antarctic ice sheet, which averages 1.9 km (1.2 mi) in thickness. The ice sheet extends to all but a few oases, which, with the exception of the McMurdo Dry Valleys, are located in coastal areas. Several Antarctic ice streams flow to one of the many Antarctic ice shelves, a process described by ice-sheet dynamics. East Antarctica comprises Coats Land, Queen Maud Land, Enderby Land, Mac. Robertson Land, Wilkes Land, and Victoria Land. All but a small portion of the region lies within the Eastern Hemisphere. East Antarctica is largely covered by the East Antarctic Ice Sheet. There are numerous islands surrounding Antarctica, most of which are volcanic and very young by geological standards. The most prominent exceptions to this are the islands of the Kerguelen Plateau, the earliest of which formed around 40 Ma.Vinson Massif, in the Ellsworth Mountains, is the highest peak in Antarctica at 4,892 m (16,050 ft). Mount Erebus on Ross Island is the world's southernmost active volcano and erupts around 10 times each day. Ash from eruptions has been found 300 kilometres (190 mi) from the volcanic crater. There is evidence of a large number of volcanoes under the ice, which could pose a risk to the ice sheet if activity levels were to rise. The ice dome known as Dome Argus in East Antarctica is the highest Antarctic ice feature, at 4,091 metres (13,422 ft). It is one of the world's coldest and driest places—temperatures there may reach as low as −90 °C (−130 °F), and the annual precipitation is 1–3 cm (0.39–1.18 in). == Geologic history == From the end of the Neoproterozoic era to the Cretaceous, Antarctica was part of the supercontinent Gondwana. Modern Antarctica was formed as Gondwana gradually broke apart beginning around 183 Ma. For a large proportion of the Phanerozoic, Antarctica had a tropical or temperate climate, and it was covered in forests. === Palaeozoic era (540–250 Ma) === During the Cambrian period, Gondwana had a mild climate. West Antarctica was partially in the Northern Hemisphere, and during the time, large amounts of sandstones, limestones, and shales were deposited. East Antarctica was at the equator, where seafloor invertebrates and trilobites flourished in the tropical seas. By the start of the Devonian period (416 Ma), Gondwana was in more southern latitudes, and the climate was cooler, though fossils of land plants are known from then. Sand and silts were laid down in what is now the Ellsworth, Horlick and Pensacola Mountains. Antarctica became glaciated during the Late Paleozoic icehouse beginning at the end of the Devonian period (360 Ma), though glaciation would substantially increase during the late Carboniferous. It drifted closer to the South Pole, and the climate cooled, though flora remained. After deglaciation during the latter half of the Early Permian, the land became dominated by glossopterids (an extinct group of seed plants with no close living relatives), most prominently Glossopteris, a tree interpreted as growing in waterlogged soils, which formed extensive coal deposits. Other plants found in Antarctica during the Permian include Cordaitales, sphenopsids, ferns, and lycophytes. At the end of the Permian, the climate became drier and hotter over much of Gondwana, and the glossopterid forest ecosystems collapsed, as part of the End-Permian mass extinction. There is no evidence of any tetrapods having lived in Antarctica during the Paleozoic. === Mesozoic era (250–66 Ma) === The continued warming dried out much of Gondwana. During the Triassic, Antarctica was dominated by seed ferns (pteridosperms) belonging to the genus Dicroidium, which grew as trees. Other associated Triassic flora included ginkgophytes, cycadophytes, conifers, and sphenopsids. Tetrapods first appeared in Antarctica during the early Triassic, with the earliest known fossils found in the Fremouw Formation of the Transantarctic Mountains. Synapsids (also known as ""mammal-like reptiles"") included species such as Lystrosaurus, and were common during the Early Triassic.The Antarctic Peninsula began to form during the Jurassic period (206 to 146 million years ago). Ginkgo trees, conifers, Bennettitales, horsetails, ferns and cycads were plentiful during the time. In West Antarctica, coniferous forests dominated throughout the Cretaceous period (146–66 Ma), though southern beech trees (Nothofagus) became prominent towards the end of the Cretaceous. Ammonites were common in the seas around Antarctica, and dinosaurs were also present, though only a few Antarctic dinosaur genera (Cryolophosaurus and Glacialisaurus, from the Early Jurassic Hanson Formation of the Transantarctic Mountains, and Antarctopelta, Trinisaura, Morrosaurus and Imperobator from Late Cretaceous of the Antarctic Peninsula) have been described. === Gondwana breakup (160–15 Ma) === Africa separated from Antarctica in the Jurassic around 160 Ma, followed by the Indian subcontinent in the early Cretaceous (about 125 Ma). During the early Paleogene, Antarctica remained connected to South America as well as to southeastern Australia. Fauna from the La Meseta Formation in the Antarctic Peninsula, dating to the Eocene, is very similar to equivalent South American faunas; with marsupials, xenarthrans, litoptern, and astrapotherian ungulates, as well as gondwanatheres and possibly meridiolestidans. Marsupials are thought to have dispersed into Australia via Antarctica by the early Eocene.Around 53 Ma, Australia-New Guinea separated from Antarctica, opening the Tasmanian Passage. The Drake Passage opened between Antarctica and South America around 30 Ma, resulting in the creation of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current that completely isolated the continent. Models of Antarctic geography suggest that this current, as well as a feedback loop caused by lowering CO2 levels, caused the creation of small yet permanent polar ice caps. As CO2 levels declined further the ice began to spread rapidly, replacing the forests that until then had covered Antarctica. Tundra ecosystems continued to exist on Antarctica until around 14-10 million years ago, when further cooling lead to their extermination. === Present day === The geology of Antarctica, largely obscured by the continental ice sheet, is being revealed by techniques such as remote sensing, ground-penetrating radar, and satellite imagery. Geologically, West Antarctica closely resembles the South American Andes. The Antarctic Peninsula was formed by geologic uplift and the transformation of sea bed sediments into metamorphic rocks.West Antarctica was formed by the merging of several continental plates, which created a number of mountain ranges in the region, the most prominent being the Ellsworth Mountains. The presence of the West Antarctic Rift System has resulted in volcanism along the border between West and East Antarctica, as well as the creation of the Transantarctic Mountains.East Antarctica is geologically varied. Its formation began during the Archean Eon (4,000 Ma–2,500 Ma), and stopped during the Cambrian Period. It is built on a craton of rock, which is the basis of the Precambrian Shield. On top of the base are coal and sandstones, limestones, and shales that were laid down during the Devonian and Jurassic periods to form the Transantarctic Mountains. In coastal areas such as the Shackleton Range and Victoria Land, some faulting has occurred.Coal was first recorded in Antarctica near the Beardmore Glacier by Frank Wild on the Nimrod Expedition in 1907, and low-grade coal is known to exist across many parts of the Transantarctic Mountains. The Prince Charles Mountains contain deposits of iron ore. There are oil and natural gas fields in the Ross Sea. == Climate == Antarctica is the coldest, windiest, and driest of Earth's continents. The lowest natural air temperature ever recorded on Earth was −89.2 °C (−128.6 °F) at the Russian Vostok Station in Antarctica on 21 July 1983. A lower air temperature of −94.7 °C (−138.5 °F) was recorded in 2010 by satellite—however, it may have been influenced by ground temperatures and was not recorded at a height of 2 m (7 ft) above the surface as required for official air temperature records. Average temperatures can reach a minimum of between −80 °C (−112 °F) in the interior of the continent during winter and a maximum of over 10 °C (50 °F) near the coast in summer.Antarctica is a polar desert with little precipitation; the continent receives an average equivalent to about 150 mm (6 in) of water per year, mostly in the form of snow. The interior is dryer and receives less than 50 mm (2 in) per year, whereas the coastal regions typically receive more than 200 mm (8 in). In a few blue-ice areas, the wind and sublimation remove more snow than is accumulated by precipitation. In the dry valleys, the same effect occurs over a rock base, leading to a barren and desiccated landscape. Antarctica is colder than the Arctic region, as much of Antarctica is over 3,000 m (9,800 ft) above sea level, where air temperatures are colder. The relative warmth of the Arctic Ocean is transferred through the Arctic sea ice and moderates temperatures in the Arctic region. === Regional differences === East Antarctica is colder than its western counterpart because of its higher elevation. Weather fronts rarely penetrate far into the continent, leaving the centre cold and dry, with moderate wind speeds. Heavy snowfalls are common on the coastal portion of Antarctica, where snowfalls of up to 1.22 m (48 in) in 48 hours have been recorded. At the continent's edge, strong katabatic winds off of the polar plateau often blow at storm force. During the summer, more solar radiation reaches the surface at the South Pole than at the equator because of the 24 hours of sunlight received there each day. === Climate change === Over the second half of the 20th century, the Antarctic Peninsula was the fastest-warming place on Earth, closely followed by West Antarctica, but temperatures rose less rapidly during the early 21st century. Conversely, the South Pole, located in East Antarctica, barely warmed during much of the 20th century, but temperatures rose three times the global average between 1990 and 2020. In February 2020, the continent recorded its highest temperature of 18.3 °C (64.9 °F), which was 0.8 °C (1.4 °F) higher than the previous record attained in March 2015.There is some evidence that surface warming in Antarctica is due to human greenhouse gas emissions, but it is difficult to determine due to internal variability. A main component of climate variability in Antarctica is the Southern Annular Mode (a low-frequency mode of atmospheric variability of the Southern Hemisphere), which showed strengthened winds around Antarctica in the summer of the later decades of the 20th century, associated with cooler temperatures over the continent. The trend was at a scale unprecedented over the last 600 years; the most dominant driver of the mode of variability is likely the depletion of ozone above the continent. == Glaciers and floating ice == Precipitation in Antarctica occurs in the form of snow, which accumulates and forms the giant ice sheet that covers the continent. Under the force of gravity, the ice flows towards the coast. The ice then moves into the ocean, often forming vast floating ice shelves. These shelves can melt or form icebergs that eventually disintegrate when they reach warmer ocean waters. === Sea ice and ice shelves === Sea ice extent expands annually during the Antarctic winter, but most of it melts in the summer. The ice is formed from the ocean, and does not contribute to changes in sea level. The average extent of sea ice around Antarctica has changed little since satellites began to observe the Earth's surface in 1978; which is in contrast with the Arctic, where there has been rapid sea ice loss. A possible explanation is that thermohaline circulation transports warmed water to deeper layers in the Southern Ocean so that the surface remains relatively cool.The melting of the ice shelves does not contribute much to sea level rise, as the floating ice displaces its own mass of water, but the ice shelves act to stabilize the land ice. They are vulnerable to warming water, which has caused large ice shelves to collapse into the ocean. The loss of ice shelf ""buttressing"" has been identified as the major cause of ice loss on the West Antarctic ice sheet, but has also been observed around the East Antarctic ice sheet.In 2002 the Antarctic Peninsula's Larsen-B ice shelf collapsed. In early 2008, about 570 km2 (220 sq mi) of ice from the Wilkins Ice Shelf on the southwest part of the peninsula collapsed, putting the remaining 15,000 km2 (5,800 sq mi) of the ice shelf at risk. The ice was being held back by a ""thread"" of ice about 6 km (4 mi) wide, prior to its collapse in 2009. As of 2022, the two most rapidly thinning ice shelves are those in front of the Pine Island and Thwaites glaciers. Both ice shelves act to stabilise the glaciers that feed into them. === Ice sheet loss and sea level rise === Antarctica contains about 90% of the world's ice. If all of this ice were melted, global sea levels would rise about 58 m (190 ft). In addition, Antarctica stores around 70% of global freshwater as ice. The continent is losing mass due to the increased flow of its glaciers toward the ocean. The loss of mass from Antarctica's ice sheets is partially offset by additional snow falling back onto it. A 2018 systematic review study estimated that ice loss across the entire continent was 43 gigatonnes (Gt) per year on average during the period from 1992 to 2002, but accelerated to an average of 220 Gt per year during the five years from 2012 to 2017. Antarctica's total contribution to sea level rise has been estimated to be 8 to 14 mm (0.31 to 0.55 in).Most of the ice loss has taken place on the Antarctic Peninsula and West Antarctica. Estimates of the mass balance of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet as a whole range from slightly positive to slightly negative. Increased ice outflow has been observed in some regions of East Antarctica, particularly at Wilkes Land.Future projections of ice loss depend on the speed of climate change mitigation and are uncertain. Tipping points have been identified in some regions; when a certain threshold warming is reached, these regions may start melting at a significantly faster rate. If average temperatures were to begin to fall, the ice would not immediately be restored. A tipping point for the West Antarctic ice sheet is estimated to be between 1.5 and 2.0 °C (2.7 and 3.6 °F) of global warming. A full collapse would likely not take place unless warming reaches between 2 and 3 °C (3.6 and 5.4 °F), and may occur within centuries under pessimistic assumptions. This full collapse would lead to 2 to 5 meters (6.6 to 16.4 feet) of sea level rise. At 3 °C, parts of the East Antarctic ice sheet are also projected to be fully lost, and total ice loss would lead to around 6 to 12 meters (20 to 39 feet) or more of sea level rise. == Ozone depletion == Scientists have studied the ozone layer in the atmosphere above Antarctica since the 1970s. In 1985, British scientists, working on data they had gathered at Halley Research Station on the Brunt Ice Shelf, discovered a large area of low ozone concentration over Antarctica. The 'ozone hole' covers almost the whole continent and was at its largest in September 2006; the longest-lasting event occurred in 2020. The depletion is caused by the emission of chlorofluorocarbons and halons into the atmosphere, which causes ozone to break down into other gases. The extreme cold conditions of Antarctica allow polar stratospheric clouds to form. The clouds act as catalysts for chemical reactions, which eventually lead to the destruction of ozone. The 1987 Montreal Protocol has restricted the emissions of ozone-depleting substances. The ozone hole above Antarctica is predicted to slowly disappear; by the 2060s, levels of ozone are expected to have returned to values last recorded in the 1980s.The ozone depletion can cause a cooling of around 6 °C (11 °F) in the stratosphere. The cooling strengthens the polar vortex and so prevents the outflow of the cold air near the South Pole, which in turn cools the continental mass of the East Antarctic ice sheet. The peripheral areas of Antarctica, especially the Antarctic Peninsula, are then subjected to higher temperatures, which accelerate the melting of the ice. Models suggest that ozone depletion and the enhanced polar vortex effect may also account for the period of increasing sea ice extent, lasting from when observation started in the late 1970s until 2014. Since then, the coverage of Antarctic sea ice has decreased rapidly. == Biodiversity == Most species in Antarctica seem to be the descendants of species that lived there millions of years ago. As such, they must have survived multiple glacial cycles. The species survived the periods of extremely cold climate in isolated warmer areas, such as those with geothermal heat or areas that remained ice-free throughout the colder climate. === Animals === Invertebrate life of Antarctica includes species of microscopic mites such as Alaskozetes antarcticus, lice, nematodes, tardigrades, rotifers, krill and springtails. The few terrestrial vertebrates are limited to the sub-Antarctic islands. The flightless midge Belgica antarctica, the largest purely terrestrial animal in Antarctica, reaches 6 mm (1⁄4 in) in size.Antarctic krill, which congregates in large schools, is the keystone species of the ecosystem of the Southern Ocean, being an important food organism for whales, seals, leopard seals, fur seals, squid, icefish, and many bird species, such as penguins and albatrosses. Some species of marine animals exist and rely, directly or indirectly, on phytoplankton. Antarctic sea life includes penguins, blue whales, orcas, colossal squids and fur seals. The Antarctic fur seal was very heavily hunted in the 18th and 19th centuries for its pelt by seal hunters from the United States and the United Kingdom. Leopard seals are apex predators in the Antarctic ecosystem and migrate across the Southern Ocean in search of food.There are approximately 40 bird species that breed on or close to Antarctica, including species of petrels, penguins, cormorants, and gulls. Various other bird species visit the ocean around Antarctica, including some that normally reside in the Arctic. The emperor penguin is the only penguin that breeds during the winter in Antarctica; it and the Adélie penguin breed farther south than any other penguin.A Census of Marine Life by some 500 researchers during the International Polar Year was released in 2010. The research found that more than 235 marine organisms live in both polar regions, having bridged the gap of 12,000 km (7,456 mi). Large animals such as some cetaceans and birds make the round trip annually. Smaller forms of life, such as sea cucumbers and free-swimming snails also found in both polar oceans. Factors that may aid in their distribution include temperature differences between the deep ocean at the poles and the equator of no more than 5 °C (9 °F) and the major current systems or marine conveyor belts which are able to transport eggs and larva. === Fungi === About 1,150 species of fungi have been recorded in the Antarctic region, of which about 750 are non-lichen-forming. Some of the species, having evolved under extreme conditions, have colonized structural cavities within porous rocks and have contributed to shaping the rock formations of the McMurdo Dry Valleys and surrounding mountain ridges.The simplified morphology of such fungi, along with their similar biological structures, metabolism systems capable of remaining active at very low temperatures, and reduced life cycles, make them well suited to such environments. Their thick-walled and strongly melanised cells make them resistant to UV radiation.The same features can be observed in algae and cyanobacteria, suggesting that they are adaptations to the conditions prevailing in Antarctica. This has led to speculation that life on Mars might have been similar to Antarctic fungi, such as Cryomyces antarcticus and Cryomyces minteri. Some of the species of fungi, which are apparently endemic to Antarctica, live in bird dung, and have evolved so they can grow inside extremely cold dung, but can also pass through the intestines of warm-blooded animals. === Plants === Throughout its history, Antarctica has seen a wide variety of plant life. In the Cretaceous, it was dominated by a fern-conifer ecosystem, which changed into a temperate rainforest by the end of that period. During the colder Neogene (17–2.5 Ma), a tundra ecosystem replaced the rainforests. The climate of present-day Antarctica does not allow extensive vegetation to form. A combination of freezing temperatures, poor soil quality, and a lack of moisture and sunlight inhibit plant growth, causing low species diversity and limited distribution. The flora largely consists of bryophytes (25 species of liverworts and 100 species of mosses). There are three species of flowering plants, all of which are found in the Antarctic Peninsula: Deschampsia antarctica (Antarctic hair grass), Colobanthus quitensis (Antarctic pearlwort) and the non-native Poa annua (annual bluegrass). === Other organisms === Of the 700 species of algae in Antarctica, around half are marine phytoplankton. Multicoloured snow algae are especially abundant in the coastal regions during the summer. Bacteria have been found as deep as 800 m (0.50 mi) under the ice. It is thought to be likely that there exists a native bacterial community within the subterranean water body of Lake Vostok. The existence of life there is thought to strengthen the argument for the possibility of life on Jupiter's moon Europa, which may have water beneath its water-ice crust. There exists a community of extremophile bacteria in the highly alkaline waters of Lake Untersee. The prevalence of highly resilient creatures in such inhospitable areas could further bolster the argument for extraterrestrial life in cold, methane-rich environments. === Conservation and environmental protection === The first international agreement to protect Antarctica's biodiversity was adopted in 1964. The overfishing of krill (an animal that plays a large role in the Antarctic ecosystem) led officials to enact regulations on fishing. The Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources, an international treaty that came into force in 1980, regulates fisheries, aiming to preserve ecological relationships. Despite these regulations, illegal fishing—particularly of the highly prized Patagonian toothfish which is marketed as Chilean sea bass in the U.S.—remains a problem.In analogy to the 1980 treaty on sustainable fishing, countries led by New Zealand and the United States negotiated a treaty on mining. This Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities was adopted in 1988. After a strong campaign from environmental organisations, first Australia and then France decided not to ratify the treaty. Instead, countries adopted the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty (the Madrid Protocol), which entered into force in 1998. The Madrid Protocol bans all mining, designating the continent as a ""natural reserve devoted to peace and science"".The pressure group Greenpeace established a base on Ross Island from 1987 to 1992 as part of its attempt to establish the continent as a World Park. The Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary was established in 1994 by the International Whaling Commission. It covers 50 million km2 (19 million sq mi) and completely surrounds the Antarctic continent. All commercial whaling is banned in the zone, though Japan has continued to hunt whales in the area, ostensibly for research purposes.Despite these protections, the biodiversity in Antarctica is still at risk from human activities. Specially protected areas cover less than 2% of the area and provide better protection for animals with popular appeal than for less visible animals. There are more terrestrial protected areas than marine protected areas. Ecosystems are impacted by local and global threats, notably pollution, the invasion of non-native species, and the various effects of climate change. == History of exploration == Captain James Cook's ships, HMS Resolution and Adventure, crossed the Antarctic Circle on 17 January 1773, in December 1773, and again in January 1774. Cook came within about 120 km (75 mi) of the Antarctic coast before retreating in the face of field ice in January 1773. In 1775, he called the existence of a polar continent ""probable,"" and in another copy of his journal he wrote: ""[I] firmly believe it and it's more than probable that we have seen a part of it"". === 19th century === Sealers were among the earliest to go closer to the Antarctic landmass, perhaps in the earlier part of the 19th century. The oldest known human remains in the Antarctic region was a skull, dated from 1819 to 1825, that belonged to a young woman on Yamana Beach at the South Shetland Islands. The woman, who was likely to have been part of a sealing expedition, was found in 1985.The first person to see Antarctica or its ice shelf was long thought to have been the British sailor Edward Bransfield, a captain in the Royal Navy, who discovered the tip of the Antarctic peninsula on 30 January 1820. However, a captain in the Imperial Russian Navy, Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen, recorded seeing an ice shelf on 27 January. The American sealer Nathaniel Palmer, whose sealing ship was in the region at this time, may also have been the first to sight the Antarctic Peninsula.The First Russian Antarctic Expedition, led by Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev on the 985-ton sloop-of-war Vostok and the 530-ton support vessel Mirny, reached a point within 32 km (20 mi) of Queen Maud Land and recorded sighting an ice shelf at 69°21′28″S 2°14′50″W, on 27 January 1820. The sighting happened three days before Bransfield sighted the land of the Trinity Peninsula of Antarctica, as opposed to the ice of an ice shelf, and 10 months before Palmer did so in November 1820. The first documented landing on Antarctica was by the American sealer John Davis, apparently at Hughes Bay on 7 February 1821, although some historians dispute this claim, as there is no evidence Davis landed on the Antarctic continent rather than an offshore island.On 22 January 1840, two days after the discovery of the coast west of the Balleny Islands, some members of the crew of the 1837–1840 expedition of the French explorer Jules Dumont d'Urville disembarked on the Dumoulin Islands, off the coast of Adélie Land, where they took some mineral, algae, and animal samples erected the French flag and claimed French sovereignty over the territory. The American captain Charles Wilkes led an expedition in 1838–1839 and was the first to claim he had discovered the continent. The British naval officer James Clark Ross failed to realise that what he referred to as ""the various patches of land recently discovered by the American, French and English navigators on the verge of the Antarctic Circle"" were connected to form a single continent. The American explorer Mercator Cooper landed on East Antarctica on 26 January 1853.The first confirmed landing on the continental mass of Antarctica occurred in 1895 when the Norwegian-Swedish whaling ship Antarctic reached Cape Adare. === 20th century === During the Nimrod Expedition led by the British explorer Ernest Shackleton in 1907, parties led by Edgeworth David became the first to climb Mount Erebus and to reach the south magnetic pole. Douglas Mawson, who assumed the leadership of the Magnetic Pole party on their perilous return, retired in 1931. Between December 1908 and February 1909: Shackleton and three members of his expedition became the first humans to traverse the Ross Ice Shelf, the first to cross the Transantarctic Mountains (via the Beardmore Glacier), and the first to set foot on the south Polar Plateau. On 14 December 1911, an expedition led by Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen from the ship Fram became the first to reach the geographic South Pole, using a route from the Bay of Whales and up the Axel Heiberg Glacier. One month later, the doomed Terra Nova Expedition reached the pole.The American explorer Richard E. Byrd led four expeditions to Antarctica during the 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s, using the first mechanised tractors. His expeditions conducted extensive geographical and scientific research, and he is credited with surveying a larger region of the continent than any other explorer. In 1937, Ingrid Christensen became the first woman to step onto the Antarctic mainland. Caroline Mikkelsen had landed on an island of Antarctica, earlier in 1935.The South Pole was next reached on 31 October 1956, when a U.S. Navy group led by Rear Admiral George J. Dufek successfully landed an aircraft there. Six women were flown to the South Pole as a publicity stunt in 1969. In the summer of 1996–1997, Norwegian explorer Børge Ousland became the first person to cross Antarctica alone from coast to coast, helped by a kite on parts of the journey. Ousland holds the record for the fastest unsupported journey to the South Pole, taking 34 days. == Population == The first semi-permanent inhabitants of regions near Antarctica (areas situated south of the Antarctic Convergence) were British and American sealers who used to spend a year or more on South Georgia, from 1786 onward. During the whaling era, which lasted until 1966, the population of the island varied from over 1,000 in the summer (over 2,000 in some years) to some 200 in the winter. Most of the whalers were Norwegian, with an increasing proportion from Britain. The continent of Antarctica has never had a permanent resident population, although staffed research stations are continuously maintained. The number of people conducting and supporting scientific research and other work on the continent and its nearby islands varies from about 1,000 in winter to about 5,000 in the summer. Some of the research stations are staffed year-round, the winter-over personnel typically arriving from their home countries for a one-year assignment. The Russian Orthodox Holy Trinity Church at the Bellingshausen Station on King George Island opened in 2004; it is manned year-round by one or two priests, who are similarly rotated every year.The first child born in the southern polar region was a Norwegian girl, Solveig Gunbjørg Jacobsen, born in Grytviken on 8 October 1913. Emilio Marcos Palma was the first person born south of the 60th parallel south and the first to be born on the Antarctic mainland at the Esperanza Base of the Argentine Army.The Antarctic Treaty prohibits any military activity in Antarctica, including the establishment of military bases and fortifications, military manoeuvres, and weapons testing. Military personnel or equipment are permitted only for scientific research or other peaceful purposes. Operation 90 by the Argentine military in 1965 was conducted to strengthen Argentina's claim in Antarctica. == Politics == Antarctica's status is regulated by the 1959 Antarctic Treaty and other related agreements, collectively called the Antarctic Treaty System. Antarctica is defined as all land and ice shelves south of 60° S for the purposes of the Treaty System. The treaty was signed by twelve countries, including the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, Argentina, Chile, Australia, and the United States. Since 1959, a further 42 countries have acceded to the treaty. Countries can participate in decision-making if they can demonstrate that they do significant research on Antarctica; as of 2022, 29 countries have this 'consultative status'. Decisions are based on consensus, instead of a vote. The treaty set aside Antarctica as a scientific preserve and established freedom of scientific investigation and environmental protection. === Territorial claims === In 1539, the King of Spain, Charles V, created the Governorate of Terra Australis, which encompassed lands south of the Strait of Magellan and thus theoretically Antarctica, granting this Governorate to Pedro Sancho de la Hoz, who in 1540 transferred the title to the conquistador Pedro de Valdivia. Spain claimed all the territories to the south of the Strait of Magellan until the South Pole, with eastern and western borders to these claims specified in the Treaty of Tordesillas and Zaragoza respectively. In 1555 the claim was incorporated to Chile.In the present, sovereignty over regions of Antarctica is claimed by seven countries. While a few of these countries have mutually recognised each other's claims, the validity of the claims is not recognised universally. New claims on Antarctica have been suspended since 1959, although in 2015, Norway formally defined Queen Maud Land as including the unclaimed area between it and the South Pole.The Argentine, British, and Chilean claims overlap and have caused friction. In 2012, after the British Foreign & Commonwealth Office designated a previously unnamed area Queen Elizabeth Land in tribute to Queen Elizabeth II's Diamond Jubilee, the Argentine government protested against the claim. The UK passed some of the areas it claimed to Australia and New Zealand after they achieved independence. The claims by Britain, Australia, New Zealand, France, and Norway do not overlap and are recognised by each other. Other member nations of the Antarctic Treaty do not recognize any claim, yet have shown some form of territorial interest in the past. Brazil has a designated 'zone of interest' that is not an actual claim. Peru formally reserved its right to make a claim. Russia inherited the Soviet Union's right to claim territory under the original Antarctic Treaty. South Africa formally reserved its right to make a claim. The United States reserved its right to make a claim in the original Antarctic Treaty. == Human activity == === Economic activity and tourism === Deposits of coal, hydrocarbons, iron ore, platinum, copper, chromium, nickel, gold, and other minerals have been found in Antarctica, but not in large enough quantities to extract. The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty, which came into effect in 1998 and is due to be reviewed in 2048, restricts the exploitation of Antarctic resources, including minerals.Tourists have been visiting Antarctica since 1957. Tourism is subject to the provisions of the Antarctic Treaty and Environmental Protocol; the self-regulatory body for the industry is the International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators. Tourists arrive by small or medium ship at specific scenic locations with accessible concentrations of iconic wildlife. Over 74,000 tourists visited the region during the 2019/2020 season, of which 18,500 travelled on cruise ships but did not leave them to explore on land. The numbers of tourists fell rapidly after the start of the COVID-19 pandemic. Some nature conservation groups have expressed concern over the potential adverse effects caused by the influx of visitors and have called for limits on the size of visiting cruise ships and a tourism quota. The primary response by Antarctic Treaty parties has been to develop guidelines that set landing limits and closed or restricted zones on the more frequently visited sites.Overland sightseeing flights operated out of Australia and New Zealand until the Mount Erebus disaster in 1979, when an Air New Zealand plane crashed into Mount Erebus, killing all of the 257 people on board. Qantas resumed commercial overflights to Antarctica from Australia in the mid-1990s. === Research === In 2017, there were more than 4,400 scientists undertaking research in Antarctica, a number that fell to just over 1,100 in the winter. There are over 70 permanent and seasonal research stations on the continent; the largest, United States McMurdo Station, is capable of housing more than 1,000 people. The British Antarctic Survey has five major research stations on Antarctica, one of which is completely portable. The Belgian Princess Elisabeth station is one of the most modern stations and the first to be carbon-neutral. Argentina, Australia, Chile, and Russia also have a large scientific presence on Antarctica. Geologists primarily study plate tectonics, meteorites, and the breakup of Gondwana. Glaciologists study the history and dynamics of floating ice, seasonal snow, glaciers, and ice sheets. Biologists, in addition to researching wildlife, are interested in how low temperatures and the presence of humans affect adaptation and survival strategies in organisms. Biomedical scientists have made discoveries concerning the spreading of viruses and the body's response to extreme seasonal temperatures.The high elevation of the interior, the low temperatures, and the length of polar nights during the winter months all allow for better astronomical observations at Antarctica than anywhere else on Earth. The view of space from Earth is improved by a thinner atmosphere at higher elevations and a lack of water vapour in the atmosphere caused by freezing temperatures. Astrophysicists at the Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station study cosmic microwave background radiation and neutrinos from space. The largest neutrino detector in the world, the IceCube Neutrino Observatory, is at the Amundsen-Scott Station. It consists of around 5,500 digital optical modules, some of which reach a depth of 2,450 m (8,040 ft), that are held in 1 km3 (0.24 cu mi) of ice.Antarctica provides a unique environment for the study of meteorites: the dry polar desert preserves them well, and meteorites older than a million years have been found. They are relatively easy to find, as the dark stone meteorites stand out in a landscape of ice and snow, and the flow of ice accumulates them in certain areas. The Adelie Land meteorite, discovered in 1912, was the first to be found. Meteorites contain clues about the composition of the Solar System and its early development. Most meteorites come from asteroids, but a few meteorites found in Antarctica came from the Moon and Mars. == Notes == == References == == Bibliography == Ainsworth, William Harrison, ed. (1847). ""The Antarctic Voyage of Discovery"". The New Monthly Magazine and Humourist. London: Chapman & Hall. Anderson, John B. (2010). Antarctic Marine Geology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-05211-3-168-1. Baughmann, T. H. (1994). Before the Heroes Came. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-1228-2. Beaglehole, John C. (1968). The Journals of Captain James Cook on his Voyages of Discovery. Vol. 2. Cambridge: Hakluyt Society. ISBN 978-1-4724-5324-2. Cameron-Ash, Margaret (2018). Lying for the Admiralty. Sydney: Rosenberg Publishing. ISBN 978-06480-4-396-6. Campbell, I.B.; Claridge, G.G.C., eds. (1987). ""2: The Geology and Geomorphology of Antarctica"". Antarctica: Soils, Weathering Processes and Environment. Developments in Soil Science. Vol. 16. Amsterdam: Elsevier. doi:10.1016/S0166-2481(08)70150-8. ISBN 978-0-444-42784-7. ISSN 0166-2481. Cantrill, David J.; Poole, Imogen (2012). The Vegetation of Antarctica through Geological Time. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-56028-3. Carroll, Michael; Lopes, Rosaly (2019). Antarctica : Earth's Own Ice World. Cham, Switzerland: Springer Praxis Books. ISBN 978-3-319-74623-4. Cawley, Charles (2015). Colonies in Conflict: The History of the British Overseas Territories. Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. ISBN 978-14438-8-128-9. Crystal, David (2006). The Fight for English. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-920764-0. Day, David (2013). Antarctica: A Biography. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-967055-0. Day, David (2019). Antarctica: What Everyone Needs to know. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-064132-0. Defler, Thomas (2019). History of Terrestrial Mammals in South America. Topics in Geobiology. Cham: Springer International Publishing. ISBN 978-3-319-98448-3. Drewry, D.J., ed. (1983). Antarctica: Glaciological and Geophysical Folio. Cambridge: Scott Polar Research Institute, University of Cambridge. ISBN 978-0-901021-04-5. Edwards, Philip, ed. (1999). The Journals of James Cook. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-192808-1. Headland, Robert (1984). The Island of South Georgia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-25274-4. de Hoog, G.S. (2005). ""Fungi of the Antarctic: evolution under extreme conditions"" (PDF). Studies in Mycology. Elsevier. 51. ISBN 9789070351557. Hund, Andrew J., ed. (2014). Antarctica And The Arctic Circle: A Geographic Encyclopedia of the Earth's Polar Regions. Vol. 1. ABC-CLIO, LLC. ISBN 978-1-61069-392-9. Hyginus, Caius Julius (1992) [1482]. Viré, Ghislaine (ed.). Hygini de astronomia (in Latin). Stuttgart: Bibliotheca Teubneriana. ISBN 978-35190-1-438-6. Jasinoski, Sandra C.; et al. (2013). ""Anatomical Plasticity in the Snout of Lystrosaurus"". In Kammerer, Christian F.; Frobisch, Jörg; Angielczyk, Kenneth D. (eds.). Early Evolutionary History of the Synapsida. Springer Netherlands. ISBN 978-94-007-6841-3. Joyner, Christopher C. (1992). Antarctica and the Law of the Sea. Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7923-1823-1. Lettinck, Paul (2021). Aristotle's Meteorology and Its Reception in the Arab World. Leiden; Boston (Massachusetts): Brill Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-44917-6. McCrone, David; McPherson, Gayle, eds. (2009). National Days: Constructing and Mobilising National Identity. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-02302-5-117-5. Monteath, Colin (1997). Hall & Ball Kiwi Mountaineers: from Mount Cook to Everest. Christchurch: Cloudcap. ISBN 978-0-938567-42-4. Morris, Michael (1988). The Strait of Magellan. Dordrecht; London: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7923-0181-3. Pyne, Stephen J. (2017). The Ice: A Journey to Antarctica. University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-80523-8. Riffenburgh, Beau, ed. (2007). Encyclopedia of the Antarctic. Vol. 1. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-1358-7866-5. Rohli, Robert V.; Vega, Anthony J. (2018). Climatology (4th ed.). Burlington, Massachusetts: Jones & Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1-284-12656-3. Russell, Alan (1986). McWhirter, Norris (ed.). 1986 Guinness Book of Records. Sterling Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8069-4768-6. Scott, Anne W.; Hiatt, Alfred; McIlroy, Claire, eds. (2012). European Perceptions of Terra Australis. Farnham, UK: Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4094-3941-7. Siegert, Martin; Florindo, Fabio, eds. (2008). Antarctic Climate Evolution. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science. ISBN 978-0-08-093161-6. Stromberg, O.; et al. (1991). Nemoto, Takahisa; Mauchline, John (eds.). Marine Biology: Its Accomplishment and Future Prospect. Elsevier Science. ISBN 978-0-444-98696-2. Stonehouse, Bernard, ed. (2002). Encyclopedia of Antarctica and the Southern Oceans. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-98665-2. Thomas, David Neville (2007). Surviving Antarctica. London: Natural History Museum. ISBN 978-0-565-09217-7. Von Tigerstrom, Barbara; Leane, Geoffrey W. G., eds. (2005). International Law Issues in the South Pacific. Aldershot, UK; Burlington, Vermont: Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7546-4419-4. Trewby, Mary, ed. (2002). Antarctica: An Encyclopedia from Abbott Ice Shelf to Zooplankton. Buffalo, New York: Firefly Books. ISBN 978-1-55297-590-9. == Further reading == De Pomereu, Jean; and McCahey, Daniella. Antarctica: A History in 100 Objects (Conway, 2022) online book reviewKleinschmidt, Georg (2021). The geology of the Antarctic continent. Stuttgart: Bornträger Science Publisher. ISBN 978-3-443-11034-5. Lucas, Mike (1996). Antarctica. New Holland Publishers. ISBN 978-1-85368-743-3. Mardon, Austin Albert; Mardon, Catherine (2009). The use of geographic remote sensing, mapping and aerial photography to aid in the recovery of blue ice surficial meteorites in Antarctica. Edmonton: Golden Meteorite Press. ISBN 978-18974-7-235-4 – via Internet Archive. Stewart, John (2011). Antarctica: An Encyclopedia. Jefferson, N.C. and London: McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-3590-6. Ivanov, Lyubomir; Ivanova, Nusha (2022). The World of Antarctica. Generis Publishing. 241 pp. ISBN 979-8-88676-403-1 == External links == High resolution map (2022) – Reference Elevation Model of Antarctica (REMA) Antarctica. on In Our Time at the BBC Official website of the Antarctic Treaty Secretariat (de facto government) British Antarctic Survey (BAS) U.S. Antarctic Program Portal" Continents,Asia,"Asia ( (listen), UK also ) is the largest continent in the world by both land area and population. It covers an area of more than 44 million square kilometers, about 30% of Earth's total land area and 8% of Earth's total surface area. The continent, which has long been home to the majority of the human population, was the site of many of the first civilizations. Its 4.7 billion people constitute roughly 60% of the world's population, having more people than all other continents combined.Asia shares the landmass of Eurasia with Europe, and of Afro-Eurasia with both Europe and Africa. In general terms, it is bounded on the east by the Pacific Ocean, on the south by the Indian Ocean, and on the north by the Arctic Ocean. The border of Asia with Europe is a historical and cultural construct, as there is no clear physical and geographical separation between them. It is somewhat arbitrary and has moved since its first conception in classical antiquity. The division of Eurasia into two continents reflects East–West cultural, linguistic, and ethnic differences, some of which vary on a spectrum rather than with a sharp dividing line. A commonly accepted division places Asia to the east of the Suez Canal separating it from Africa; and to the east of the Turkish Straits, the Ural Mountains and Ural River, and to the south of the Caucasus Mountains and the Caspian and Black seas, separating it from Europe.China and India alternated in being the largest economies in the world from 1 to 1,800 CE. China was a major economic power and attracted many to the east, and for many the legendary wealth and prosperity of the ancient culture of India personified Asia, attracting European commerce, exploration and colonialism. The accidental discovery of a trans-Atlantic route from Europe to America by Columbus while in search for a route to India demonstrates this deep fascination. The Silk Road became the main east–west trading route in the Asian hinterlands while the Straits of Malacca stood as a major sea route. Asia has exhibited economic dynamism (particularly East Asia) as well as robust population growth during the 20th century, but overall population growth has since fallen. Asia was the birthplace of most of the world's mainstream religions including Hinduism, Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Jainism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism, Christianity, Islam, Sikhism, as well as many other religions. Given its size and diversity, the concept of Asia—a name dating back to classical antiquity—may actually have more to do with human geography than physical geography. Asia varies greatly across and within its regions with regard to ethnic groups, cultures, environments, economics, historical ties and government systems. It also has a mix of many different climates ranging from the equatorial south via the hot desert in the Middle East, temperate areas in the east and the continental centre to vast subarctic and polar areas in Siberia. == Definition and boundaries == === Asia–Africa boundary === The boundary between Asia and Africa is the Red Sea, the Gulf of Suez, and the Suez Canal. This makes Egypt a transcontinental country, with the Sinai peninsula in Asia and the remainder of the country in Africa. === Asia–Europe boundary === The threefold division of the Old World into Europe, Asia and Africa has been in use since the 6th century BCE, due to Greek geographers such as Anaximander and Hecataeus. Anaximander placed the boundary between Asia and Europe along the Phasis River (the modern Rioni river) in Georgia of Caucasus (from its mouth by Poti on the Black Sea coast, through the Surami Pass and along the Kura River to the Caspian Sea), a convention still followed by Herodotus in the 5th century BCE. During the Hellenistic period, this convention was revised, and the boundary between Europe and Asia was now considered to be the Tanais (the modern Don River). This is the convention used by Roman era authors such as Posidonius, Strabo and Ptolemy.The border between Asia and Europe was historically defined by European academics. The Don River became unsatisfactory to northern Europeans when Peter the Great, king of the Tsardom of Russia, defeating rival claims of Sweden and the Ottoman Empire to the eastern lands, and armed resistance by the tribes of Siberia, synthesized a new Russian Empire extending to the Ural Mountains and beyond, founded in 1721.In Sweden, five years after Peter's death, in 1730 Philip Johan von Strahlenberg published a new atlas proposing the Ural Mountains as the border of Asia. Tatishchev announced that he had proposed the idea to von Strahlenberg. The latter had suggested the Emba River as the lower boundary. Over the next century various proposals were made until the Ural River prevailed in the mid-19th century. The border had been moved perforce from the Black Sea to the Caspian Sea into which the Ural River projects. The border between the Black Sea and the Caspian is usually placed along the crest of the Caucasus Mountains, although it is sometimes placed further north. === Asia–Oceania boundary === The border between Asia and the region of Oceania is usually placed somewhere in the Indonesia Archipelago. The Maluku Islands are often considered to lie on the border of southeast Asia, with Indonesian New Guinea, to the east of the islands, being wholly part of Oceania. The terms Southeast Asia and Oceania, devised in the 19th century, have had several vastly different geographic meanings since their inception. The chief factor in determining which islands of the Indonesian Archipelago are Asian has been the location of the colonial possessions of the various empires there (not all European). Lewis and Wigen assert, ""The narrowing of 'Southeast Asia' to its present boundaries was thus a gradual process."" === Asia–North America boundary === The Bering Strait and Bering Sea separate the landmasses of Asia and North America, as well as forming the international boundary between Russia and the United States. This national and continental boundary separates the Diomede Islands in the Bering Strait, with Big Diomede in Russia and Little Diomede in the United States. The Aleutian Islands are an island chain extending westward from the Alaskan Peninsula toward Russia's Komandorski Islands and Kamchatka Peninsula. Most of them are always associated with North America, except for the westernmost Near Islands group, which is on Asia's continental shelf beyond the North Aleutians Basin and on rare occasions could be associated with Asia, which could then allow the U.S. state of Alaska as well as the United States itself to be considered a transcontinental state. The Aleutian Islands are sometimes associated with Oceania, owing to their status as remote Pacific islands, and their proximity to the Pacific Plate. This is extremely rare however, due to their non-tropical biogeography, as well as their inhabitants, who have historically been related to Indigenous Americans.St. Lawrence Island in the northern Bering Sea belongs to Alaska and may be associated with either continent but is almost always considered part of North America, as with the Rat Islands in the Aleutian chain. At their nearest points, Alaska and Russia are separated by only 4 kilometres (2.5 miles). === Ongoing definition === Geographical Asia is a cultural artifact of European conceptions of the world, beginning with the Ancient Greeks, being imposed onto other cultures, an imprecise concept causing endemic contention about what it means. Asia does not exactly correspond to the cultural borders of its various types of constituents.From the time of Herodotus a minority of geographers have rejected the three-continent system (Europe, Africa, Asia) on the grounds that there is no substantial physical separation between them. For example, Sir Barry Cunliffe, the emeritus professor of European archeology at Oxford, argues that Europe has been geographically and culturally merely ""the western excrescence of the continent of Asia"".Geographically, Asia is the major eastern constituent of the continent of Eurasia with Europe being a northwestern peninsula of the landmass. Asia, Europe and Africa make up a single continuous landmass—Afro-Eurasia (except for the Suez Canal)—and share a common continental shelf. Almost all of Europe and a major part of Asia sit atop the Eurasian Plate, adjoined on the south by the Arabian and Indian Plate and with the easternmost part of Siberia (east of the Chersky Range) on the North American Plate. == Etymology == The term ""Asia"" is believed to originate in the Bronze Age placename Assuwa (Hittite: 𒀸𒋗𒉿, romanized: aš-šu-wa) which originally referred only to a portion of northwestern Anatolia. The term appears in Hittite records recounting how a confederation of Assuwan states including Troy unsuccessfully rebelled against the Hittite king Tudhaliya I around 1400 BCE. Roughly contemporary Linear B documents contain the term asiwia (Mycenaean Greek: 𐀀𐀯𐀹𐀊, romanized: a-si-wi-ja), seemingly in reference to captives from the same area. Herodotus used the term Ἀσία in reference to Anatolia and the territory of the Persian Empire, in contrast to Greece and Egypt. He reports that Greeks assumed that Asia was named after the wife of Prometheus, but that Lydians say it was named after Asies, son of Cotys, who passed the name on to a tribe at Sardis. In Greek mythology, ""Asia"" (Ἀσία) or ""Asie"" (Ἀσίη) was the name of a ""Nymph or Titan goddess of Lydia"". The Iliad (attributed by the ancient Greeks to Homer) mentions two Phrygians in the Trojan War named Asios (an adjective meaning ""Asian""); and also a marsh or lowland containing a marsh in Lydia as ασιος. According to many Muslims, the term came from Ancient Egypt's Queen Asiya, the adoptive mother of Moses.The term was later adopted by the Romans, who used it in reference to the province of Asia, located in western Anatolia. One of the first writers to use Asia as a name of the whole continent was Pliny. == History == The history of Asia can be seen as the distinct histories of several peripheral coastal regions: East Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia and the Middle East, linked by the interior mass of the Central Asian steppes. The coastal periphery was home to some of the world's earliest known civilizations, each of them developing around fertile river valleys. The civilizations in Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley and the Yellow River shared many similarities. These civilizations may well have exchanged technologies and ideas such as mathematics and the wheel. Other innovations, such as writing, seem to have been developed individually in each area. Cities, states and empires developed in these lowlands. The central steppe region had long been inhabited by horse-mounted nomads who could reach all areas of Asia from the steppes. The earliest postulated expansion out of the steppe is that of the Indo-Europeans, who spread their languages into the Middle East, South Asia, and the borders of China, where the Tocharians resided. The northernmost part of Asia, including much of Siberia, was largely inaccessible to the steppe nomads, owing to the dense forests, climate and tundra. These areas remained very sparsely populated. The center and the peripheries were mostly kept separated by mountains and deserts. The Caucasus and Himalaya mountains and the Karakum and Gobi deserts formed barriers that the steppe horsemen could cross only with difficulty. While the urban city dwellers were more advanced technologically and socially, in many cases they could do little in a military aspect to defend against the mounted hordes of the steppe. However, the lowlands did not have enough open grasslands to support a large horsebound force; for this and other reasons, the nomads who conquered states in China, India, and the Middle East often found themselves adapting to the local, more affluent societies. The Islamic Caliphate's defeats of the Byzantine and Persian empires led to West Asia and southern parts of Central Asia and western parts of South Asia under its control during its conquests of the 7th century. The Mongol Empire conquered a large part of Asia in the 13th century, an area extending from China to Europe. Before the Mongol invasion, Song dynasty reportedly had approximately 120 million citizens; the 1300 census which followed the invasion reported roughly 60 million people.The Black Death, one of the most devastating pandemics in human history, is thought to have originated in the arid plains of central Asia, where it then travelled along the Silk Road.The Russian Empire began to expand into Asia from the 17th century, and would eventually take control of all of Siberia and most of Central Asia by the end of the 19th century. The Ottoman Empire controlled Anatolia, most of the Middle East, North Africa and the Balkans from the mid 16th century onwards. In the 17th century, the Manchu conquered China and established the Qing dynasty. The Islamic Mughal Empire and the Hindu Maratha Empire controlled much of India in the 16th and 18th centuries respectively. The Empire of Japan controlled most of East Asia and much of Southeast Asia, New Guinea and the Pacific islands until the end of World War II. == Geography == Asia is the largest continent on Earth. It covers 9% of the Earth's total surface area (or 30% of its land area), and has the longest coastline, at 62,800 kilometres (39,022 mi). Asia is generally defined as comprising the eastern four-fifths of Eurasia. It is located to the east of the Suez Canal and the Ural Mountains, and south of the Caucasus Mountains (or the Kuma–Manych Depression) and the Caspian and Black Seas. It is bounded on the east by the Pacific Ocean, on the south by the Indian Ocean and on the north by the Arctic Ocean. Asia is subdivided into 49 countries, five of them (Georgia, Azerbaijan, Russia, Kazakhstan and Turkey) are transcontinental countries lying partly in Europe. Geographically, Russia is partly in Asia, but is considered a European nation, both culturally and politically. The Gobi Desert is in Mongolia and the Arabian Desert stretches across much of the Middle East. The Yangtze River in China is the longest river in the continent. The Himalayas between Nepal and China is the tallest mountain range in the world. Tropical rainforests stretch across much of southern Asia and coniferous and deciduous forests lie farther north. === Main regions === There are various approaches to the regional division of Asia. The following subdivision into regions is used, among others, by the UN statistics agency UNSD. This division of Asia into regions by the United Nations is done solely for statistical reasons and does not imply any assumption about political or other affiliations of countries and territories. North Asia (Siberia) Central Asia (The 'stans) West Asia (The Middle East or Near East and the Caucasus) South Asia (Indian subcontinent) East Asia (Far East) Southeast Asia (East Indies and Indochina) === Climate === Asia has extremely diverse climate features. Climates range from arctic and subarctic in Siberia to tropical in southern India and Southeast Asia. It is moist across southeast sections, and dry across much of the interior. Some of the largest daily temperature ranges on Earth occur in western sections of Asia. The monsoon circulation dominates across southern and eastern sections, due to the presence of the Himalayas forcing the formation of a thermal low which draws in moisture during the summer. Southwestern sections of the continent are hot. Siberia is one of the coldest places in the Northern Hemisphere, and can act as a source of arctic air masses for North America. The most active place on Earth for tropical cyclone activity lies northeast of the Philippines and south of Japan. ==== Climate change ==== Climate change is having major impacts on many countries in the continent. A survey carried out in 2010 by global risk analysis farm Maplecroft identified 16 countries that are extremely vulnerable to climate change. Each nation's vulnerability was calculated using 42 socio, economic and environmental indicators, which identified the likely climate change impacts during the next 30 years. The Asian countries of Bangladesh, India, the Philippines, Vietnam, Thailand, Pakistan, China and Sri Lanka were among the 16 countries facing extreme risk from climate change. Some shifts are already occurring. For example, in tropical parts of India with a semi-arid climate, the temperature increased by 0.4 °C between 1901 and 2003. A 2013 study by the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) aimed to find science-based, pro-poor approaches and techniques that would enable Asia's agricultural systems to cope with climate change, while benefitting poor and vulnerable farmers. The study's recommendations ranged from improving the use of climate information in local planning and strengthening weather-based agro-advisory services, to stimulating diversification of rural household incomes and providing incentives to farmers to adopt natural resource conservation measures to enhance forest cover, replenish groundwater and use renewable energy.The ten countries of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) – Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam – are among the most vulnerable to the effects of climate change in the world, however, ASEAN's climate mitigation efforts are not commensurate with the climate threats and risks it faces. == Economy == Asia has the largest continental economy in the world by both GDP nominal and PPP values, and is the fastest growing economic region. As of 2023, China is by far the largest economy on the continent, making up nearly half of the continent's economy by GDP nominal. It is followed by Japan, India, South Korea, Indonesia, Saudi Arabia and Turkey, which are all ranked amongst the top 20 largest economies both by nominal and PPP values. Based on Global Office Locations 2011, Asia dominated the office locations with 4 of the top 5 being in Asia: Hong Kong, Singapore, Tokyo and Seoul. Around 68 percent of international firms have an office in Hong Kong.In the late 1990s and early 2000s, the economies of China and India grew rapidly, both with an average annual growth rate of more than 8%. Other recent very-high-growth nations in Asia include Israel, Malaysia, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Thailand, Vietnam, and the Philippines, and mineral-rich nations such as Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Iran, Brunei, the United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain and Oman.According to economic historian Angus Maddison in his book The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective, India had the world's largest economy during 0 BCE and 1000 BCE. Historically, India was the largest economy in the world for most of the two millennia from the 1st until 19th century, contributing 25% of the world's industrial output. China was the largest and most advanced economy on earth for much of recorded history and shared the mantle with India. For several decades in the late twentieth century Japan was the largest economy in Asia and second-largest of any single nation in the world, after surpassing the Soviet Union (measured in net material product) in 1990 and Germany in 1968. (NB: A number of supernational economies are larger, such as the European Union (EU), the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) or APEC). This ended in 2010 when China overtook Japan to become the world's second largest economy. It is forecasted that India will overtake Japan in terms of nominal GDP by 2027.In the late 1980s and early 1990s, Japan's GDP by currency exchange rates was almost as large as that of the rest of Asia combined. In 1995, Japan's economy nearly equaled that of the US as the largest economy in the world for a day, after the Japanese currency reached a record high of 79 yen/US$. Economic growth in Asia since World War II to the 1990s had been concentrated in Japan as well as the four regions of South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Singapore located in the Pacific Rim, known as the Asian tigers, which are now all considered developed economies, having amongst the highest GDP per capita in Asia. Asia is the largest continent in the world by a considerable margin, and it is rich in natural resources, such as petroleum, forests, fish, water, rice, copper and silver. Manufacturing in Asia has traditionally been strongest in East and Southeast Asia, particularly in China, Taiwan, South Korea, Japan, India, the Philippines, and Singapore. Japan and South Korea continue to dominate in the area of multinational corporations, but increasingly the PRC and India are making significant inroads. Many companies from Europe, North America, South Korea and Japan have operations in Asia's developing countries to take advantage of its abundant supply of cheap labour and relatively developed infrastructure.According to Citigroup in 2011, 9 of 11 Global Growth Generators countries came from Asia driven by population and income growth. They are Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Iraq, Mongolia, the Philippines, Sri Lanka and Vietnam. Asia has three main financial centers: Hong Kong, Tokyo and Singapore. Call centers and business process outsourcing (BPOs) are becoming major employers in India and the Philippines due to the availability of a large pool of highly skilled, English-speaking workers. The increased use of outsourcing has assisted the rise of India and the China as financial centers. Due to its large and extremely competitive information technology industry, India has become a major hub for outsourcing.Trade between Asian countries and countries on other continents is largely carried out on the sea routes that are important for Asia. Individual main routes have emerged from this. The main route leads from the Chinese coast south via Hanoi to Jakarta, Singapore and Kuala Lumpur through the Strait of Malacca via the Sri Lankan Colombo to the southern tip of India via Malé to East Africa Mombasa, from there to Djibouti, then through the Red Sea over the Suez Canal into Mediterranean, there via Haifa, Istanbul and Athens to the upper Adriatic to the northern Italian hub of Trieste with its rail connections to Central and Eastern Europe or further to Barcelona and around Spain and France to the European northern ports. A far smaller part of the goods traffic runs via South Africa to Europe. A particularly significant part of the Asian goods traffic is carried out across the Pacific towards Los Angeles and Long Beach. In contrast to the sea routes, the Silk Road via the land route to Europe is on the one hand still under construction and on the other hand is much smaller in terms of scope. Intra-Asian trade, including sea trade, is growing rapidly.In 2010, Asia had 3.3 million millionaires (people with net worth over US$1 million excluding their homes), slightly below North America with 3.4 million millionaires. Last year Asia had toppled Europe. Citigroup in The Wealth Report 2012 stated that Asian centa-millionaire overtook North America's wealth for the first time as the world's ""economic center of gravity"" continued moving east. At the end of 2011, there were 18,000 Asian people mainly in Southeast Asia, China and Japan who have at least $100 million in disposable assets, while North America with 17,000 people and Western Europe with 14,000 people. == Tourism == With growing Regional Tourism with domination of Chinese visitors, MasterCard has released Global Destination Cities Index 2013 with 10 of 20 are dominated by Asia and Pacific Region Cities and also for the first time a city of a country from Asia (Bangkok) set in the top-ranked with 15.98 million international visitors. == Demographics == East Asia had by far the strongest overall Human Development Index (HDI) improvement of any region in the world, nearly doubling average HDI attainment over the past 40 years, according to the report's analysis of health, education and income data. China, the second highest achiever in the world in terms of HDI improvement since 1970, is the only country on the ""Top 10 Movers"" list due to income rather than health or education achievements. Its per capita income increased a stunning 21-fold over the last four decades, also lifting hundreds of millions out of income poverty. Yet it was not among the region's top performers in improving school enrollment and life expectancy.Nepal, a South Asian country, emerges as one of the world's fastest movers since 1970 mainly due to health and education achievements. Its present life expectancy is 25 years longer than in the 1970s. More than four of every five children of school age in Nepal now attend primary school, compared to just one in five 40 years ago. Hong Kong ranked highest among the countries grouped on the HDI (number 7 in the world, which is in the ""very high human development"" category), followed by Singapore (9), Japan (19) and South Korea (22). Afghanistan (155) ranked lowest amongst Asian countries out of the 169 countries assessed. === Languages === Asia is home to several language families and many language isolates. Most Asian countries have more than one language that is natively spoken. For instance, according to Ethnologue, more than 700 languages are spoken in Indonesia, more than 400 languages spoken in India, and more than 100 are spoken in the Philippines. China has many languages and dialects in different provinces. === Religions === Many of the world's major religions have their origins in Asia, including the five most practiced in the world (excluding irreligion), which are Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Chinese folk religion (classified as Confucianism and Taoism), and Buddhism respectively. Asian mythology is complex and diverse. The story of the Great Flood for example, as presented to Jews in the Hebrew Bible in the narrative of Noah—and later to Christians in the Old Testament, and to Muslims in the Quran—is earliest found in Mesopotamian mythology, in the Enûma Eliš and Epic of Gilgamesh. Hindu mythology similarly tells about an avatar of Vishnu in the form of a fish who warned Manu of a terrible flood. Ancient Chinese mythology also tells of a Great Flood spanning generations, one that required the combined efforts of emperors and divinities to control. ==== Abrahamic ==== The Abrahamic religions including Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Druze faith, and Baháʼí Faith originated in West Asia.Judaism, the oldest of the Abrahamic faiths, is practiced primarily in Israel, the indigenous homeland and historical birthplace of the Hebrew nation: which today consists both of those Jews who remained in the Middle East and those who returned from diaspora in Europe, North America, and other regions; though various diaspora communities persist worldwide. Jews are the predominant ethnic group in Israel (75.6%) numbering at about 6.1 million, although the levels of adherence to Jewish religion vary. Outside of Israel there are small ancient Jewish communities in Turkey (17,400), Azerbaijan (9,100), Iran (8,756), India (5,000) and Uzbekistan (4,000), among many other places. In total, there are 14.4–17.5 million (2016, est.) Jews alive in the world today, making them one of the smallest Asian minorities, at roughly 0.3 to 0.4 percent of the total population of the continent. Christianity is a widespread religion in Asia with more than 286 million adherents according to Pew Research Center in 2010, and nearly 364 million according to Britannica Book of the Year 2014. Constituting around 12.6% of the total population of Asia. In the Philippines and East Timor, Roman Catholicism is the predominant religion; it was introduced by the Spaniards and the Portuguese, respectively. In Armenia and Georgia, Eastern Orthodoxy is the predominant religion. In the Middle East, such as in the Levant, Anatolia and Fars, Syriac Christianity (Church of the East) and Oriental Orthodoxy are prevalent minority denominations, which are both Eastern Christian sects mainly adhered to Assyrian people or Syriac Christians. Vibrant indigenous minorities in West Asia are adhering to the Eastern Catholic Churches and Eastern Orthodoxy. Saint Thomas Christians in India trace their origins to the evangelistic activity of Thomas the Apostle in the 1st century. Significant Christian communities also found in Central Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia and East Asia.Islam, which originated in the Hejaz located in modern-day Saudi Arabia, is the second largest and most widely-spread religion in Asia with at least 1 billion Muslims constituting around 23.8% of the total population of Asia. With 12.7% of the world Muslim population, the country currently with the largest Muslim population in the world is Indonesia, followed by Pakistan (11.5%), India (10%), Bangladesh, Iran and Turkey. Mecca, Medina and Jerusalem are the three holiest cities for Islam in all the world. The Hajj and Umrah attract large numbers of Muslim devotees from all over the world to Mecca and Medina. Iran is the largest Shi'a country. The Druze Faith or Druzism originated in West Asia, is a monotheistic religion based on the teachings of figures like Hamza ibn-'Ali ibn-Ahmad and Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, and Greek philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle. The number of Druze people worldwide is around one million, with about 45% to 50% live in Syria, 35% to 40% live in Lebanon, and less than 10% live in Israel, with recently there has been a growing Druze diaspora.The Baháʼí Faith originated in Asia, in Iran (Persia), and spread from there to the Ottoman Empire, Central Asia, India, and Burma during the lifetime of Bahá'u'lláh. Since the middle of the 20th century, growth has particularly occurred in other Asian countries, because Baháʼí activities in many Muslim countries has been severely suppressed by authorities. Lotus Temple is a big Baháʼí Temple in India. ==== Indian and East Asian religions ==== Almost all Asian religions have philosophical character and Asian philosophical traditions cover a large spectrum of philosophical thoughts and writings. Indian philosophy includes Hindu philosophy and Buddhist philosophy. They include elements of nonmaterial pursuits, whereas another school of thought from India, Cārvāka, preached the enjoyment of the material world. The religions of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism originated in India, South Asia. In East Asia, particularly in China and Japan, Confucianism, Taoism and Zen Buddhism took shape. As of 2012, Hinduism has around 1.1 billion adherents. The faith represents around 25% of Asia's population and is the largest religion in Asia. However, it is mostly concentrated in South Asia. Over 80% of the populations of both India and Nepal adhere to Hinduism, alongside significant communities in Bangladesh, Pakistan, Bhutan, Sri Lanka and Bali, Indonesia. Many overseas Indians in countries such as Burma, Singapore and Malaysia also adhere to Hinduism. Buddhism has a great following in mainland Southeast Asia and East Asia. Buddhism is the religion of the majority of the populations of Cambodia (96%), Thailand (95%), Burma (80–89%), Japan (36–96%), Bhutan (75–84%), Sri Lanka (70%), Laos (60–67%) and Mongolia (53–93%). Taiwan (35–93%), South Korea (23–50%), Malaysia (19–21%), Nepal (9–11%), Vietnam (10–75%), China (20–50%), North Korea (2–14%), and small communities in India and Bangladesh. The Communist-governed countries of China, Vietnam and North Korea are officially atheist, thus the number of Buddhists and other religious adherents may be under-reported. Jainism is found mainly in India and in overseas Indian communities such as the United States and Malaysia. Sikhism is found in Northern India and amongst overseas Indian communities in other parts of Asia, especially Southeast Asia. Confucianism is found predominantly in Mainland China, South Korea, Taiwan and in overseas Chinese populations. Taoism is found mainly in Mainland China, Taiwan, Malaysia and Singapore. In many Chinese communities, Taoism is easily syncretized with Mahayana Buddhism, thus exact religious statistics are difficult to obtain and may be understated or overstated. == Modern conflicts == Some of the events pivotal in the Asia territory related to the relationship with the outside world in the post-Second World War were: The Partition of India The Chinese Civil War The Kashmir conflict The Balochistan Conflict The Naxalite–Maoist insurgency in India The Korean War The French Indochina War The Vietnam War The Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation The 1959 Tibetan uprising The Sino-Vietnamese War The Bangladesh Liberation War The Yom Kippur War The Xinjiang conflict The Iranian Revolution The Soviet–Afghan War The Iran–Iraq War The Cambodian Killing Fields The Insurgency in Laos The Lebanese Civil War The Sri Lankan Civil War The 1988 Maldives coup d'état The Dissolution of the Soviet Union The Gulf War The Nepalese Civil War The Indo-Pakistani wars and conflicts The West Papua conflict The First Nagorno-Karabakh War The 1989 Tiananmen Square protests The Indonesian occupation of East Timor The 1999 Pakistani coup d'état The War in Afghanistan The Iraq War The South Thailand insurgency The 2006 Thai coup d'état The Burmese Civil War The Saffron Revolution The Kurdish–Turkish conflict The Arab Spring The Israeli–Palestinian conflict The Arab–Israeli conflict The Syrian Civil War The Sino-Indian War The 2014 Thai coup d'état The Moro conflict in the Philippines The Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant The Turkish invasion of Syria The Rohingya crisis in Myanmar The Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen The Hong Kong protests The 2020 China–India skirmishes == Culture == The culture of Asia is a diverse blend of customs and traditions that have been practiced by the various ethnic groups of the continent for centuries. The continent is divided into six geographic sub-regions: Central Asia, East Asia, North Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia, and West Asia. These regions are defined by their cultural similarities, including common religions, languages, and ethnicities. West Asia, also known as Southwest Asia or the Middle East, has cultural roots in the ancient civilizations of the Fertile Crescent and Mesopotamia, which gave rise to the Persian, Arab, Ottoman empires, as well as the Abrahamic religions of Judaism, Christianity and Islam. These civilizations, which are located in the Hilly flanks, are among the oldest in the world, with evidence of farming dating back to around 9000 BCE. Despite the challenges posed by the vast size of the continent and the presence of natural barriers such as deserts and mountain ranges, trade and commerce have helped to create a Pan-Asian culture that is shared across the region. === Nobel prizes === The polymath Rabindranath Tagore, a Bengali poet, dramatist, and writer from Santiniketan, now in West Bengal, India, became in 1913 the first Asian Nobel laureate. He won his Nobel Prize in Literature for notable impact his prose works and poetic thought had on English, French, and other national literatures of Europe and the Americas. He is also the writer of the national anthems of Bangladesh and India. Other Asian writers who won Nobel Prize for literature include Yasunari Kawabata (Japan, 1968), Kenzaburō Ōe (Japan, 1994), Gao Xingjian (China, 2000), Orhan Pamuk (Turkey, 2006), and Mo Yan (China, 2012). Some may consider the American writer, Pearl S. Buck, an honorary Asian Nobel laureate, having spent considerable time in China as the daughter of missionaries, and based many of her novels, namely The Good Earth (1931) and The Mother (1933), as well as the biographies of her parents for their time in China, The Exile and Fighting Angel, all of which earned her the Literature prize in 1938. Also, Mother Teresa of India and Shirin Ebadi of Iran were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for their significant and pioneering efforts for democracy and human rights, especially for the rights of women and children. Ebadi is the first Iranian and the first Muslim woman to receive the prize. Another Nobel Peace Prize winner is Aung San Suu Kyi from Burma for her peaceful and non-violent struggle under a military dictatorship in Burma. She is a nonviolent pro-democracy activist and leader of the National League for Democracy in Burma (Myanmar) and a noted prisoner of conscience. She is a Buddhist and was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1991. Chinese dissident Liu Xiaobo was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for ""his long and non-violent struggle for fundamental human rights in China"" on 8 October 2010. He is the first Chinese citizen to be awarded a Nobel Prize of any kind while residing in China. In 2014, Kailash Satyarthi from India and Malala Yousafzai from Pakistan were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize ""for their struggle against the suppression of children and young people and for the right of all children to education"". Sir C.V. Raman is the first Asian to get a Nobel prize in Sciences. He won the Nobel Prize in Physics ""for his work on the scattering of light and for the discovery of the effect named after him"". Japan has won the most Nobel Prizes of any Asian nation with 24 followed by India which has won 13. Amartya Sen, (born 3 November 1933) is an Indian economist who was awarded the 1998 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences for his contributions to welfare economics and social choice theory, and for his interest in the problems of society's poorest members. Other Asian Nobel Prize winners include Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, Abdus Salam, Malala Yousafzai, Robert Aumann, Menachem Begin, Aaron Ciechanover, Avram Hershko, Daniel Kahneman, Shimon Peres, Yitzhak Rabin, Ada Yonath, Yasser Arafat, José Ramos-Horta and Bishop Carlos Filipe Ximenes Belo of Timor Leste, Kim Dae-jung, and 13 Japanese scientists. Most of the said awardees are from Japan and Israel except for Chandrasekhar and Raman (India), Abdus Salam and Malala Yousafzai, (Pakistan), Arafat (Palestinian Territories), Kim (South Korea), and Horta and Belo (Timor Leste). In 2006, Dr. Muhammad Yunus of Bangladesh was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for the establishment of Grameen Bank, a community development bank that lends money to poor people, especially women in Bangladesh. Dr. Yunus received his PhD in economics from Vanderbilt University, United States. He is internationally known for the concept of micro credit which allows poor and destitute people with little or no collateral to borrow money. The borrowers typically pay back money within the specified period and the incidence of default is very low. The Dalai Lama has received approximately eighty-four awards over his spiritual and political career. On 22 June 2006, he became one of only four people ever to be recognized with Honorary Citizenship by the Governor General of Canada. On 28 May 2005, he received the Christmas Humphreys Award from the Buddhist Society in the United Kingdom. Most notable was the Nobel Peace Prize, presented in Oslo, Norway on 10 December 1989. == Political geography == Within the above-mentioned states are several partially recognized countries with limited to no international recognition. None of them are members of the UN: == See also == References to articles: Subregions of AsiaSpecial topics: Asian Century Asian cuisine Asian furniture Asian Games Asia-Pacific Asian Para Games Asian Monetary Unit Asian people Eastern world Eurasia Far East East Asia Southeast Asia South Asia Central Asia West Asia North Asia Fauna of Asia Flags of Asia Middle East Eastern Mediterranean Levant Near East Pan-AsianismLists: List of cities in Asia List of metropolitan areas in Asia by population List of sovereign states and dependent territories in AsiaProjects Asian Highway Network Trans-Asian Railway == Notes == == References == == Bibliography == Lewis, Martin W.; Wigen, Kären (1997). The myth of continents: a critique of metageography. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-20743-1. Ventris, Michael; Chadwick, John (1973). Documents in Mycenaean Greek (2nd ed.). Cambridge: University Press. == Further reading == Embree, Ainslie T., ed. Encyclopedia of Asian history (1988) vol. 1 online; vol 2 online; vol 3 online; vol 4 online Higham, Charles. Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations. Facts on File library of world history. New York: Facts On File, 2004. Kamal, Niraj. ""Arise Asia: Respond to White Peril"". New Delhi: Wordsmith, 2002, ISBN 978-81-87412-08-3 Kapadia, Feroz, and Mandira Mukherjee. Encyclopaedia of Asian Culture and Society. New Delhi: Anmol Publications, 1999. Levinson, David, and Karen Christensen, eds. Encyclopedia of Modern Asia. (6 vol. Charles Scribner's Sons, 2002). == External links == Asia web resources provided by GovPubs at the University of Colorado Boulder Libraries Asia at the Encyclopædia Britannica Asia: Human Geography at the National Geographic Society Asia at Curlie Asian Reading Room from the United States Library of Congress ""Asia"" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 2 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 320–358. ""Display Maps"". The Soil Maps of Asia. European Digital Archive of Soil Maps – EuDASM. Archived from the original on 12 August 2011. Retrieved 26 July 2011. ""Asia Maps"". Perry–Castañeda Library Map Collection. University of Texas Libraries. Archived from the original on 18 July 2011. Retrieved 20 July 2011. ""Asia"". Norman B. Leventhal Map Center at the Boston Public Library. Archived from the original on 29 September 2011. Retrieved 26 July 2011. Bowring, Philip (12 February 1987). ""What is Asia?"". Eastern Economic Review. 135 (7). Archived from the original on 28 July 2011. Retrieved 22 April 2009." Continents,Australia (continent),"The continent of Australia, sometimes known in technical contexts by the names Sahul (), Australia-New Guinea, Australinea, Meganesia, or Papualand to distinguish it from the country of Australia, is located within the Southern and Eastern hemispheres. The name ""Sahul"" takes its name from the Sahul Shelf, which is a part of the continental shelf of the Australian continent. The continent includes mainland Australia, Tasmania, the island of New Guinea (Papua New Guinea and Western New Guinea), the Aru Islands, the Ashmore and Cartier Islands, most of the Coral Sea Islands, and some other nearby islands. Situated in the geographical region of Oceania, Australia is the smallest of the seven traditional continents. The continent includes a continental shelf overlain by shallow seas which divide it into several landmasses—the Arafura Sea and Torres Strait between mainland Australia and New Guinea, and Bass Strait between mainland Australia and Tasmania. When sea levels were lower during the Pleistocene ice age, including the Last Glacial Maximum about 18,000 BC, they were connected by dry land. During the past 18,000 to 10,000 years, rising sea levels overflowed the lowlands and separated the continent into today's low-lying arid to semi-arid mainland and the two mountainous islands of New Guinea and Tasmania. With a total land area of 8.56 million square kilometres (3,310,000 sq mi), the Australian continent is the smallest, lowest, flattest, and second-driest continent (after Antarctica) on Earth. As the country of Australia is mostly on a single landmass, and comprises most of the continent, it is sometimes informally referred to as an island continent, surrounded by oceans.Papua New Guinea, a country within the continent, is one of the most culturally and linguistically diverse countries in the world. It is also one of the most rural, as only 18 percent of its people live in urban centres. West Papua, a province of Indonesia, is home to an estimated 44 uncontacted tribal groups. Australia, the largest landmass in the continent, is highly urbanised, and has the world's 14th-largest economy with the second-highest human development index globally. Australia also has the world's 9th largest immigrant population. == Terminology == The continent of Australia is sometimes known by the names Sahul, Australinea, or Meganesia to distinguish it from the country of Australia, and consists of the landmasses which sit on Australia's continental plate. This includes mainland Australia, Tasmania, and the island of New Guinea, which comprises Papua New Guinea and Western New Guinea (Papua and West Papua, provinces of Indonesia). The name ""Sahul"" takes its name from the Sahul Shelf, which is part of the continental shelf of the Australian continent. The term Oceania, originally a ""great division"" of the world in the 1810s, was replaced in English language countries by the concept of Australia as one of the world's continents in the 1950s. Prior to the 1950s, before the popularization of the theory of plate tectonics, Antarctica, Australia and Greenland were sometimes described as island continents, but none were usually taught as one of the world's continents in English-speaking countries. Scottish cartographer John Bartholomew wrote in 1873 that, ""the New World consists of North America, and the peninsula of South America attached to it. These divisions [are] generally themselves spoken as continents, and to them has been added another, embracing the large island of Australia and numerous others in the [Pacific] Ocean, under the name of Oceania. There are thus six great divisions of the earth — Europe, Asia, Africa, North America, South America and Oceania.""The American author Samuel Griswold Goodrich wrote in his 1854 book History of All Nations that, ""geographers have agreed to consider the island world of the Pacific Ocean as a third continent, under the name Oceania."" In this book the other two continents were categorized as being the New World (consisting of North America and South America) and the Old World (consisting of Africa, Asia and Europe). In his 1879 book Australasia, British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace commented that, ""Oceania is the word often used by continental geographers to describe the great world of islands we are now entering upon"" and that ""Australia forms its central and most important feature."" He did not explicitly label Oceania a continent in the book, but did note that it was one of the six major divisions of the world. He considered it to encompass the insular Pacific area between Asia and the Americas, and claimed it extended up to the Aleutian Islands, which are among the northernmost islands in the Pacific Ocean. However, definitions of Oceania varied during the 19th century. In the 19th century, many geographers divided up Oceania into mostly racially-based subdivisions; Australasia, Malaysia (encompassing the Malay Archipelago), Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia.Today, the Malay Archipelago is typically considered part of Southeast Asia, and the term Oceania is often used to denote the region encompassing the Australian continent, Zealandia and various islands in the Pacific Ocean that are not included in the seven-continent model. It has been recognized by the United Nations as one of the world's five major continental divisions since its foundation in 1947, along with Africa, Asia, Europe and the Americas. The UN's definition of Oceania utilizes four of the five subregions from the 19th century; Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. They include American Samoa, Australia and their external territories, the Cook Islands, the Federated States of Micronesia, French Polynesia, Fiji, Guam, Kiribati, the Marshall Islands, Nauru, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Niue, the Northern Mariana Islands, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Pitcairn Islands, Samoa, the Solomon Islands, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu, Wallis and Futuna, and the United States Minor Outlying Islands (Baker Island, Howland Island, Jarvis Island, Midway Atoll, Palmyra Atoll, and Wake Island). The original UN definition of Oceania from 1947 included these same countries and semi-independent territories, which were mostly still colonies at that point.The island states of Indonesia, Japan, the Philippines, Singapore and Taiwan, all located within the bounds of the Pacific or associated marginal seas, are excluded from the UN definition. The states of Hong Kong and Malaysia, located in both mainland Asia and marginal seas of the Pacific, are also excluded, as is the nation of Brunei, which shares the island of Borneo with Indonesia and Malaysia. Further excluded are East Timor and Indonesian New Guinea/Western New Guinea, areas which are biogeographically or geologically associated with the Australian landmass. This definition of Oceania is used in statistical reports, by the International Olympic Committee, and by many atlases. The CIA World Factbook also categorize Oceania or the Pacific area as one of the world's major continental divisions, but use the term ""Australia and Oceania"" to refer to the area. Their definition does not include Australia's subantarctic external territory Heard Island and McDonald Islands, but is otherwise the same as the UN definition, and it is also used for statistical purposes. In countries such as Argentina, Brazil, China, Chile, Costa Rica, Ecuador, France, Greece, Italy, Mexico, the Netherlands, Peru, Spain, Switzerland or Venezuela, Oceania is treated as a continent in the sense that it is ""one of the parts of the world"", and Australia is only seen as an island nation. In other countries, including Kazakhstan, Norway, Poland and Russia, Australia and Eurasia are thought of as continents, while Asia, Europe and Oceania are regarded as ""parts of the world"". In the Pacific Ocean Handbook (1945), author Eliot Grinnell Mears wrote that he categorized Australia, New Zealand and Pacific islands under the label of Oceania for ""scientific reasons; Australia's fauna is largely continental in character, New Zealand's are clearly insular; and neither Commonwealth realm has close ties with Asia."" He further added that, ""the term Australasia is not relished by New Zealanders and this name is too often confused with Australia."" Some 19th century definitions of Oceania grouped Australia, New Zealand and the islands of Melanesia together under the label of Australasia, in other 19th century definitions of Oceania, the term was only used to refer to Australia itself, with New Zealand being categorized with the islands of Polynesia in such definitions.Archaeological terminology for this region has changed repeatedly. Before the 1970s, the single Pleistocene landmass was called Australasia, derived from the Latin australis, meaning ""southern"", although this word is most often used for a wider region that includes lands like New Zealand that are not on the same continental shelf. In the early 1970s, the term Greater Australia was introduced for the Pleistocene continent. Then at a 1975 conference and consequent publication, the name Sahul was extended from its previous use for just the Sahul Shelf to cover the continent.In 1984 W. Filewood suggested the name Meganesia, meaning ""great island"" or ""great island-group"", for both the Pleistocene continent and the present-day lands, and this name has been widely accepted by biologists. Others have used Meganesia with different meanings: travel writer Paul Theroux included New Zealand in his definition and others have used it for Australia, New Zealand and Hawaii. Another biologist, Richard Dawkins, coined the name Australinea in 2004. Australia–New Guinea has also been used. == Geology and geography == The Australian continent, being a part of the Indo-Australian Plate (more specifically, the Australian Plate), is the lowest, flattest, and oldest landmass on Earth and it has had a relatively stable geological history. New Zealand is not part of the continent of Australia, but of the separate, submerged continent of Zealandia. New Zealand and Australia are both part of the Oceanian sub-region known as Australasia, with New Guinea being in Melanesia. The continent includes a continental shelf overlain by shallow seas which divide it into several landmasses—the Arafura Sea and Torres Strait between mainland Australia and New Guinea, and Bass Strait between mainland Australia and Tasmania. When sea levels were lower during the Pleistocene ice age, including the Last Glacial Maximum about 18,000 BC, they were connected by dry land. During the past 18,000 to 10,000 years, rising sea levels overflowed the lowlands and separated the continent into today's low-lying arid to semi-arid mainland and the two mountainous islands of New Guinea and Tasmania. The continental shelf connecting the islands, half of which is less than 50 metres (160 ft) deep, covers some 2.5 million square kilometres (970,000 sq mi), including the Sahul Shelf and Bass Strait. Geological forces such as tectonic uplift of mountain ranges or clashes between tectonic plates occurred mainly in Australia's early history, when it was still a part of Gondwana. Australia is situated in the middle of the tectonic plate, and therefore currently has no active volcanism. The continent primarily sits on the Indo-Australian Plate. Because of its central location on its tectonic plate, Australia does not have any active volcanic regions, the only continent with this distinction. The lands were joined with Antarctica as part of the southern supercontinent Gondwana until the plate began to drift north about 96 million years ago. For most of the time since then, Australia–New Guinea remained a continuous landmass. When the last glacial period ended in about 10,000 BC, rising sea levels formed Bass Strait, separating Tasmania from the mainland. Then between about 8,000 and 6,500 BC, the lowlands in the north were flooded by the sea, separating the Aru Islands, mainland Australia, New Guinea, and Tasmania. A northern arc consisting of the New Guinea Highlands, the Raja Ampat Islands, and Halmahera was uplifted by the northward migration of Australia and subduction of the Pacific Plate. The Outer Banda Arc was accreted along the northwestern edge the continent; it includes the islands of Timor, Tanimbar, and Seram. Papua New Guinea has several volcanoes, as it is situated along the Pacific Ring of Fire. Volcanic eruptions are not rare, and the area is prone to earthquakes and tsunamis because of this. Mount Wilhelm in Papua New Guinea is the second highest mountain in the continent, and at 4,884 metres (16,024 ft) above sea level, Puncak Jaya is the highest mountain. == Human history == The Australian continent and Sunda were points of early human migrations after leaving Africa. Recent research points to a planned migration of hundreds of people using bamboo rafts, which eventually landed on Sahul. === Indigenous peoples === Indigenous Australians, that is Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islanders people, are the original inhabitants of the Australian continent and nearby islands. They migrated from Africa to Asia around 70,000 years ago and arrived in Australia at least 50,000 years ago, based on archaeological evidence. More recent research points to earlier arrival, possibly 65,000 years ago.They are believed to be among the earliest human migrations out of Africa. There is evidence of genetic and linguistic interchange between Australians in the far north and the Austronesian peoples of modern-day New Guinea and the islands, but this may be the result of recent trade and intermarriage. The earliest known human remains were found at Lake Mungo, a dry lake in the southwest of New South Wales. Remains found at Mungo suggest one of the world's oldest known cremations, thus indicating early evidence for religious ritual among humans. Dreamtime remains a prominent feature of Australian Aboriginal art, the oldest continuing tradition of art in the world.Papuan habitation is estimated to have begun between 42,000 and 48,000 years ago in New Guinea. Trade between New Guinea and neighboring Indonesian islands was documented as early as the seventh century, and archipelagic rule of New Guinea by the 13th. At the beginning of the seventh century, the Sumatra-based empire of Srivijaya (7th century–13th century) engaged in trade relations with western New Guinea, initially taking items like sandalwood and birds-of-paradise in tribute to China, but later making slaves out of the natives. The rule of the Java-based empire of Majapahit (1293–1527) extended to the western fringes of New Guinea. Recent archaeological research suggests that 50,000 years ago people may have occupied sites in the highlands at New Guinean altitudes of up to 2,000 m (6,600 ft), rather than being restricted to warmer coastal areas. === Pre-colonial history === Legends of Terra Australis Incognita—an ""unknown land of the South""—date back to Roman times and before, and were commonplace in medieval geography, although not based on any documented knowledge of the continent. Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle speculated of a large landmass in the southern hemisphere, saying, ""Now since there must be a region bearing the same relation to the southern pole as the place we live in bears to our pole..."". His ideas were later expanded by Ptolemy (2nd century AD), who believed that the lands of the Northern Hemisphere should be balanced by land in the south. The theory of balancing land has been documented as early as the 5th century on maps by Macrobius, who uses the term Australis on his maps.Terra Australis, a hypothetical continent first posited in antiquity, appeared on maps between the 15th and 18th centuries. Scientists, such as Gerardus Mercator (1569) and Alexander Dalrymple as late as 1767 argued for its existence, with such arguments as that there should be a large landmass in the south as a counterweight to the known landmasses in the Northern Hemisphere. The cartographic depictions of the southern continent in the 16th and early 17th centuries, as might be expected for a concept based on such abundant conjecture and minimal data, varied wildly from map to map; in general, the continent shrank as potential locations were reinterpreted. At its largest, the continent included Tierra del Fuego, separated from South America by a small strait; New Guinea; and what would come to be called Australia. === European exploration === In 1606 Dutch navigator Willem Janszoon made the first documented European sight and landing on the continent of Australia in Cape York Peninsula. Dutch explorer Abel Janszoon Tasman circumnavigated and landed on parts of the Australian continental coast and discovered Van Diemen's Land (now Tasmania), New Zealand in 1642, and Fiji islands. He was the first known European explorer to reach these islands.In the quest for Terra Australis, Spanish explorations in the 17th century, such as the expedition led by the Portuguese navigator Pedro Fernandes de Queirós, discovered the Pitcairn and Vanuatu archipelagos, and sailed the Torres Strait between Australia and New Guinea, named after navigator Luís Vaz de Torres, who was the first European to explore the Strait. When Europeans first arrived, inhabitants of New Guinea and nearby islands, whose technologies included bone, wood, and stone tools, had a productive agricultural system. In 1660, the Dutch recognised the Sultan of Tidore's sovereignty over New Guinea. The first known Europeans to sight New Guinea were probably the Portuguese and Spanish navigators sailing in the South Pacific in the early part of the 16th century. On 23 April 1770 British explorer James Cook made his first recorded direct observation of indigenous Australians at Brush Island near Bawley Point. On 29 April, Cook and crew made their first landfall on the mainland of the continent at a place now known as the Kurnell Peninsula. It is here that James Cook made first contact with an Aboriginal tribe known as the Gweagal, who he fired upon, injuring one. His expedition became the first recorded Europeans to have encountered the eastern coastline of Australia. Captain Arthur Phillip led the First Fleet of 11 ships and about 850 convicts into Sydney on 26 January 1788. This was to be the location for the new colony. Phillip described Sydney Cove as being ""without exception the finest harbour in the world"". === Modern history === In 1883, the Colony of Queensland tried to annex the southern half of eastern New Guinea, but the British government did not approve. The Commonwealth of Australia came into being when the Federal Constitution was proclaimed by the Governor-General, Lord Hopetoun, on 1 January 1901. From that point a system of federalism in Australia came into operation, entailing the establishment of an entirely new national government (the Commonwealth government) and an ongoing division of powers between that government and the States. With the encouragement of Queensland, in 1884, a British protectorate had been proclaimed over the southern coast of New Guinea and its adjacent islands. British New Guinea was annexed outright in 1888. The possession was placed under the authority of the newly federated Commonwealth of Australia in 1902 and with passage of the Papua Act of 1905, British New Guinea became the Australian Territory of Papua, with formal Australian administration beginning in 1906. The Bombing of Darwin on 19 February 1942 was the largest single attack ever mounted by a foreign power on Australia. In an effort to isolate Australia, the Japanese planned a seaborne invasion of Port Moresby, in the Australian Territory of New Guinea. Between July and November 1942, Australian forces repulsed Japanese attempts on the city by way of the Kokoda Track, in the highlands of New Guinea. The Battle of Buna–Gona, between November 1942 and January 1943, set the tone for the bitter final stages of the New Guinea campaign, which persisted into 1945. The offensives in Papua and New Guinea of 1943–44 were the single largest series of connected operations ever mounted by the Australian armed forces.Following the 1998 commencement of reforms across Indonesia, Papua and other Indonesian provinces received greater regional autonomy. In 2001, ""Special Autonomy"" status was granted to Papua province, although to date, implementation has been partial and often criticised. The region was administered as a single province until 2003, when it was split into the provinces of Papua and West Papua. Elections in 1972 resulted in the formation of a ministry headed by Chief Minister Michael Somare, who pledged to lead the country to self-government and then to independence. Papua New Guinea became self-governing on 1 December 1973 and achieved independence on 16 September 1975. The country joined the United Nations (UN) on 10 October 1975.Migration brought large numbers of southern and central Europeans to Australia for the first time. A 1958 government leaflet assured readers that unskilled non-British migrants were needed for ""labour on rugged projects ...work which is not generally acceptable to Australians or British workers"". Australia fought on the side of Britain in the two world wars and became a long-standing ally of the United States when threatened by Imperial Japan during World War II. Trade with Asia increased and a post-war immigration program received more than 6.5 million migrants from every continent. Supported by immigration of people from more than 200 countries since the end of World War II, the population increased to more than 23 million by 2014. == Ecology == === Flora === For about 40 million years Australia–New Guinea was almost completely isolated. During this time, the continent experienced numerous changes in climate, but the overall trend was towards greater aridity. When South America eventually separated from Antarctica, the development of the cold Antarctic Circumpolar Current changed weather patterns across the world. For Australia–New Guinea, it brought a marked intensification of the drying trend. The great inland seas and lakes dried out. Much of the long-established broad-leaf deciduous forest began to give way to the distinctive hard-leaved sclerophyllous plants that characterise the modern Australian landscape. Typical Southern Hemisphere flora include the conifers Podocarpus (eastern Australia and New Guinea), the rainforest emergents Araucaria (eastern Australia and New Guinea), Nothofagus (New Guinea and Tasmania) and Agathis (northern Queensland and New Guinea), as well as tree ferns and several species of Eucalyptus. Prominent features of the Australian flora are adaptations to aridity and fire which include scleromorphy and serotiny. These adaptations are common in species from the large and well-known families Proteaceae (Banksias and Grevilleas), Myrtaceae (Eucalyptus or gum trees, Melaleucas and Callistemons), Fabaceae (Acacias or wattles), and Casuarinaceae (Casuarinas or she-oaks), which are typically found in the Australian mainland. The flora of New Guinea is a mixture of many tropical rainforest species with origins in Asia, such as Castanopsis acuminatissima, Lithocarpus spp., elaeocarps, and laurels, together with typically Australasian flora. In the New Guinean highlands, conifers such as Dacrycarpus, Dacrydium, Papuacedrus and Libocedrus are present.For many species, the primary refuge was the relatively cool and well-watered Great Dividing Range. Even today, pockets of remnant vegetation remain in the cool uplands, some species not much changed from the Gondwanan forms of 60 or 90 million years ago. Eventually, the Australia–New Guinea tectonic plate collided with the Eurasian plate to the north. The collision caused the northern part of the continent to buckle upwards, forming the high and rugged mountains of New Guinea and, by reverse (downwards) buckling, the Torres Strait that now separates the two main landmasses. The collision also pushed up the islands of Wallacea, which served as island 'stepping-stones' that allowed plants from Southeast Asia's rainforests to colonise New Guinea, and some plants from Australia–New Guinea to move into Southeast Asia. The ocean straits between the islands were narrow enough to allow plant dispersal, but served as an effective barrier to exchange of land mammals between Australia–New Guinea and Asia. Among the fungi, the remarkable association between Cyttaria gunnii (one of the ""golf-ball"" fungi) and its associated trees in the genus Nothofagus is evidence of that drift: the only other places where this association is known are New Zealand and southern Argentina and Chile. === Fauna === Due to the spread of animals, fungi and plants across the single Pleistocene landmass the separate lands have a related biota. There are over 300 bird species in West Papua, of which at least 20 are unique to the ecoregion, and some live only in very restricted areas. These include the grey-banded munia, Vogelkop bowerbird, and the king bird-of-paradise.Australia has a huge variety of animals; some 83% of mammals, 89% of reptiles, 24% of fish and insects and 93% of amphibians that inhabit the continent are endemic to Australia. This high level of endemism can be attributed to the continent's long geographic isolation, tectonic stability, and the effects of an unusual pattern of climate change on the soil and flora over geological time. Australia and its territories are home to around 800 species of bird; 45% of these are endemic to Australia. Predominant bird species in Australia include the Australian magpie, Australian raven, the pied currawong, crested pigeons and the laughing kookaburra. The koala, emu, platypus and kangaroo are national animals of Australia, and the Tasmanian devil is also one of the well-known animals in the country. The goanna is a predatory lizard native to the Australian mainland. As the continent drifted north from Antarctica, a unique fauna, flora and mycobiota developed. Marsupials and monotremes also existed on other continents, but only in Australia–New Guinea did they out-compete the placental mammals and come to dominate. New Guinea has 284 species and six orders of mammals: monotremes, three orders of marsupials, rodents and bats; 195 of the mammal species (69%) are endemic. New Guinea has a rich diversity of coral life and 1,200 species of fish have been found. Also about 600 species of reef-building coral—the latter equal to 75 percent of the world's known total. New Guinea has 578 species of breeding birds, of which 324 species are endemic. Bird life also flourished—in particular, the songbirds (order Passeriformes, suborder Passeri) are thought to have evolved 50 million years ago in the part of Gondwana that later became Australia, New Zealand, New Guinea, and Antarctica, before radiating into a great number of different forms and then spreading around the globe.Animal groups such as macropods, monotremes, and cassowaries are endemic to Australia. There were three main reasons for the enormous diversity that developed in animal, fungal and plant life. While much of the rest of the world underwent significant cooling and thus loss of species diversity, Australia–New Guinea was drifting north at such a pace that the overall global cooling effect was roughly equalled by its gradual movement toward the equator. Temperatures in Australia–New Guinea, in other words, remained reasonably constant for a very long time, and a vast number of different animal, fungal and plant species were able to evolve to fit particular ecological niches. Because the continent was more isolated than any other, very few outside species arrived to colonise, and unique native forms developed unimpeded. Finally, despite the fact that the continent was already very old and thus relatively infertile, there are dispersed areas of high fertility. Where other continents had volcanic activity and/or massive glaciation events to turn over fresh, unleached rocks rich in minerals, the rocks and soils of Australia–New Guinea were left largely untouched except by gradual erosion and deep weathering. In general, fertile soils produce a profusion of life, and a relatively large number of species/level of biodiversity. This is because where nutrients are plentiful, competition is largely a matter of outcompeting rival species, leaving great scope for innovative co-evolution as is witnessed in tropical, fertile ecosystems. In contrast, infertile soils tend to induce competition on an abiotic basis meaning individuals all face constant environmental pressures, leaving less scope for divergent evolution, a process instrumental in creating new species.Although New Guinea is the most northerly part of the continent, and could be expected to be the most tropical in climate, the altitude of the New Guinea highlands is such that a great many animals and plants that were once common across Australia–New Guinea now survive only in the tropical highlands where they are severely threatened by population growth. == Climate == In New Guinea, the climate is mostly monsoonal (December to March), southeast monsoon (May to October), and tropical rainforest with slight seasonal temperature variation. In lower altitudes, the temperature is around 27 °C (81 °F) year round. But the higher altitudes, such as Mendi, are constantly around 21 °C (70 °F) with cool lows nearing 11 °C (52 °F), with abundant rainfall and high humidity. The New Guinea Highlands are one of the few regions close to the equator that experience snowfall, which occurs in the most elevated parts of the mainland. Some areas in the island experience an extraordinary amount of precipitation, averaging roughly 4,500 millimetres (180 in) of rainfall annually. The Australian landmass's climate is mostly desert or semi-arid, with the southern coastal corners having a temperate climate, such as oceanic and humid subtropical climate in the east coast and Mediterranean climate in the west. The northern parts of the country have a tropical climate. Snow falls frequently on the highlands near the east coast, in the states of Victoria, New South Wales, Tasmania and in the Australian Capital Territory. Temperatures in Australia have ranged from above 50 °C (122 °F) to well below 0 °C (32 °F). Nonetheless, minimum temperatures are moderated. The El Niño-Southern Oscillation is associated with seasonal abnormality in many areas in the world. Australia is one of the continents most affected and experiences extensive droughts alongside considerable wet periods. == Demography == === Religion === Christianity is the predominant religion in the continent, although large proportions of Australians belong to no religion. Other religions in the region include Islam, Buddhism and Hinduism, which are prominent minority religions in Australia. Traditional religions are often animist, found in New Guinea. Islam is widespread in the Indonesian New Guinea. Many Papuans combine their Christian faith with traditional indigenous beliefs and practices. === Languages === ""Aboriginal Australian languages"", including the large Pama–Nyungan family, ""Papuan languages"" of New Guinea and neighbouring islands, including the large Trans–New Guinea family, and ""Tasmanian languages"" are generic terms for the native languages of the continent other than those of Austronesian family. Predominant languages include English in Australia, Tok Pisin in Papua New Guinea, and Indonesian (Malay) in Indonesian New Guinea. Immigration to Australia have brought overseas languages such as Italian, Greek, Arabic, Filipino, Mandarin, Vietnamese and Spanish, among others. Contact between Austronesian and Papuan resulted in several instances in mixed languages such as Maisin. Tok Pisin is an English creole language spoken in Papua New Guinea. Papua New Guinea has more languages than any other country, with over 820 indigenous languages, representing 12% of the world's total, but most have fewer than 1,000 speakers. === Immigration === Since 1945, more than 7 million people have settled in Australia. From the late 1970s, there was a significant increase in immigration from Asian and other non-European countries, making Australia a multicultural country. Sydney is the most multicultural city in Oceania, having more than 250 different languages spoken, with about 40 percent of residents speaking a language other than English at home. Furthermore, 36 percent of the population reported having been born overseas, with top countries being Italy, Lebanon, Vietnam and Iraq, among others. Melbourne is also fairly multicultural, having the largest Greek-speaking population outside of Europe, and the second largest Asian population in Australia after Sydney. == Economy == Australia is the only First World country on the Australia-New Guinea continent, although the economy of Australia is by far the largest and most dominant economy in the region and one of the largest in the world. Australia's per-capita GDP is higher than that of the United Kingdom, Canada, Germany, and France in terms of purchasing power parity. The Australian Securities Exchange in Sydney is the largest stock exchange in Australia and in the South Pacific. In 2012, Australia was the 12th largest national economy by nominal GDP and the 19th-largest measured by PPP-adjusted GDP. Tourism in Australia is an important component of the Australian economy. In the financial year 2014/15, tourism represented 3.0% of Australia's GDP contributing A$47.5 billion to the national economy. In 2015, there were 7.4 million visitor arrivals.Mercer Quality of Living Survey ranks Sydney tenth in the world in terms of quality of living, making it one of the most livable cities. It is classified as an Alpha+ World City by GaWC. Melbourne also ranked highly in the world's most liveable city list, and is a leading financial centre in the Asia-Pacific region. Papua New Guinea is rich in natural resources, which account for two-thirds of their export earnings. Though PNG is filled with resources, the lack of country's development led foreign countries to take over few sites and continued foreign demand for PNG's resources and as a result, the United States constructed an oil company and began to export in 2004 and this was the largest project in PNG's history. Papua New Guinea is classified as a developing economy by the International Monetary Fund. Strong growth in Papua New Guinea's mining and resource sector led to the country becoming the sixth fastest-growing economy in the world in 2011. == Politics == Australia is a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy with Charles III at its apex as the King of Australia, a role that is distinct from his position as monarch of the other Commonwealth realms. The King is represented in Australia by the Governor-General at the federal level and by the Governors at the state level, who by convention act on the advice of his ministers. There are two major political groups that usually form government, federally and in the states: the Australian Labor Party and the Coalition which is a formal grouping of the Liberal Party and its minor partner, the National Party. Within Australian political culture, the Coalition is considered centre-right and the Labor Party is considered centre-left. Papua New Guinea is a Commonwealth realm. As such, King Charles III is its sovereign and head of state. The constitutional convention, which prepared the draft constitution, and Australia, the outgoing metropolitan power, had thought that Papua New Guinea would not remain a monarchy. The founders, however, considered that imperial honours had a cachet. The monarch is represented by the Governor-General of Papua New Guinea, currently Bob Dadae. Papua New Guinea (along with Solomon Islands) is unusual among Commonwealth realms in that governors-general are elected by the legislature, rather than chosen by the executive branch. == Culture == Since 1788, the primary influence behind Australian culture has been Anglo-Celtic Western culture, with some Indigenous influences. The divergence and evolution that has occurred in the ensuing centuries has resulted in a distinctive Australian culture. Since the mid-20th century, American popular culture has strongly influenced Australia, particularly through television and cinema. Other cultural influences come from neighbouring Asian countries, and through large-scale immigration from non-English-speaking nations. The Australian Museum in Sydney and the National Gallery of Victoria in Melbourne are the oldest and largest museums in the continent, as well as in Oceania. Sydney's New Year's Eve celebrations are the largest in the continent.It is estimated that more than 7000 different cultural groups exist in Papua New Guinea, and most groups have their own language. Because of this diversity, in which they take pride, many different styles of cultural expression have emerged; each group has created its own expressive forms in art, performance art, weaponry, costumes and architecture. Papua New Guinea is one of the few cultures in Oceania to practice the tradition of bride price. In particular, Papua New Guinea is world-famous for carved wooden sculpture: masks, canoes, story-boards. Australia has a tradition of Aboriginal art which is thousands of years old, the best known forms being rock art and bark painting. Evidence of Aboriginal art in Australia can be traced back at least 30,000 years. Examples of ancient Aboriginal rock artworks can be found throughout the continent – notably in national parks such as those of the UNESCO listed sites at Uluru and Kakadu National Park in the Northern Territory, but also within protected parks in urban areas such as at Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park in Sydney. Aboriginal culture includes a number of practices and ceremonies centered on a belief in the Dreamtime. Reverence for the land and oral traditions are emphasised. === Sport === Popular sports in Papua New Guinea include various codes of football (rugby league, rugby union, soccer, and Australian rules football), cricket, volleyball, softball, netball, and basketball. Other Olympic sports are also gaining popularity, such as boxing and weightlifting. Rugby league is the most popular sport in Papua New Guinea (especially in the highlands), which also unofficially holds the title as the national sport. The most popular sport in Australia is cricket, the most popular sport among Australian women is netball, while Australian rules football is the most popular sport in terms of spectatorship and television ratings.Australia has hosted two Summer Olympic Games: Melbourne 1956 and Sydney 2000. Australia has also hosted five editions of the Commonwealth Games (Sydney 1938, Perth 1962, Brisbane 1982, Melbourne 2006, and Gold Coast 2018). In 2006 Australia joined the Asian Football Confederation and qualified for the 2010 and 2014 World Cups as an Asian entrant. == Notes == == See also == Australian Plate List of islands in the Pacific Ocean Outline of Australia Paleoclimatology == References == == Bibliography == Davison, Graeme; Hirst, John; Macintyre, Stuart (1998). The Oxford Companion to Australian History. Melbourne: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-553597-6. Lewis, Martin W.; Wigen, Kären E. (1997). The Myth of Continents: a Critique of Metageography. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-20743-1. Ebach, Malte C. (ed) (2021) Handbook of Australasian Biogeography CRC Press. Ist Edition ISBN 9780367658168 == External links == Media related to Australia (continent) at Wikimedia Commons" Continents,Europe,"Europe is a continent comprising the westernmost peninsulas of Eurasia, located entirely in the Northern Hemisphere and mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere. It shares the continental landmass of Afro-Eurasia with both Africa and Asia. It is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, and Asia to the east. Europe is commonly considered to be separated from Asia by the watershed of the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian Sea, the Greater Caucasus, the Black Sea and the waterways of the Turkish Straits.Europe covers about 10.18 million km2 (3.93 million sq mi), or 2% of Earth's surface (6.8% of land area), making it the second-smallest continent (using the seven-continent model). Politically, Europe is divided into about fifty sovereign states, of which Russia is the largest and most populous, spanning 39% of the continent and comprising 15% of its population. Europe had a total population of about 745 million (about 10% of the world population) in 2021; the third-largest after Asia and Africa. The European climate is largely affected by warm Atlantic currents that temper winters and summers on much of the continent, even at latitudes along which the climate in Asia and North America is severe. Further from the sea, seasonal differences are more noticeable than close to the coast. European culture is the root of Western civilisation, which traces its lineage back to ancient Greece and ancient Rome. The fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 CE and the related Migration Period marked the end of Europe's ancient history, and the beginning of the Middle Ages. The Renaissance began in Florence and spread to the rest of the continent, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, exploration, art, and science which contributed to the beginning of the modern era. Since the Age of Discovery, led by Spain and Portugal, Europe played a predominant role in global affairs with multiple explorations and conquests around the world. Between the 16th and 20th centuries, European powers colonised at various times the Americas, almost all of Africa and Oceania, and the majority of Asia. The Age of Enlightenment, the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars shaped the continent culturally, politically and economically from the end of the 17th century until the first half of the 19th century. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Great Britain at the end of the 18th century, gave rise to radical economic, cultural and social change in Western Europe and eventually the wider world. Both world wars began and were fought to a great extent in Europe, contributing to a decline in Western European dominance in world affairs by the mid-20th century as the Soviet Union and the United States took prominence. During the Cold War, Europe was divided along the Iron Curtain between NATO in the West and the Warsaw Pact in the East, until the Revolutions of 1989, Fall of the Berlin Wall and the Dissolution of the Soviet Union. The European Union (EU) and the Council of Europe are two important international organisations aiming to represent the European continent on a political level. The Council of Europe was founded in 1948 with the idea of unifying Europe to achieve common goals and prevent future wars. Further European integration by some states led to the formation of the European Union, a separate political entity that lies between a confederation and a federation. The EU originated in Western Europe but has been expanding eastward since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. A majority of its members have adopted a common currency, the euro, and a large bloc of countries, the Schengen Area, have abolished internal border and immigration controls. == Name == In classical Greek mythology, Europa (Ancient Greek: Εὐρώπη, Eurṓpē) was a Phoenician princess. One view is that her name derives from the Ancient Greek elements εὐρύς (eurús) 'wide, broad', and ὤψ (ōps, gen. ὠπός, ōpós) 'eye, face, countenance', hence their composite Eurṓpē would mean 'wide-gazing' or 'broad of aspect'. Broad has been an epithet of Earth herself in the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion and the poetry devoted to it. An alternative view is that of Robert Beekes, who has argued in favour of a Pre-Indo-European origin for the name, explaining that a derivation from eurus would yield a different toponym than Europa. Beekes has located toponyms related to that of Europa in the territory of ancient Greece, and localities such as that of Europos in ancient Macedonia.There have been attempts to connect Eurṓpē to a Semitic term for west, this being either Akkadian erebu meaning 'to go down, set' (said of the sun) or Phoenician 'ereb 'evening, west', which is at the origin of Arabic maghreb and Hebrew ma'arav. Martin Litchfield West stated that ""phonologically, the match between Europa's name and any form of the Semitic word is very poor"", while Beekes considers a connection to Semitic languages improbable.Most major world languages use words derived from Eurṓpē or Europa to refer to the continent. Chinese, for example, uses the word Ōuzhōu (歐洲/欧洲), which is an abbreviation of the transliterated name Ōuluóbā zhōu (歐羅巴洲) (zhōu means ""continent""); a similar Chinese-derived term Ōshū (欧州) is also sometimes used in Japanese such as in the Japanese name of the European Union, Ōshū Rengō (欧州連合), despite the katakana Yōroppa (ヨーロッパ) being more commonly used. In some Turkic languages, the originally Persian name Frangistan ('land of the Franks') is used casually in referring to much of Europe, besides official names such as Avrupa or Evropa. == Definition == === Contemporary definition === The prevalent definition of Europe as a geographical term has been in use since the mid-19th century. Europe is taken to be bounded by large bodies of water to the north, west and south; Europe's limits to the east and north-east are usually taken to be the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, and the Caspian Sea; to the south-east, the Caucasus Mountains, the Black Sea, and the waterways connecting the Black Sea to the Mediterranean Sea. Islands are generally grouped with the nearest continental landmass, hence Iceland is considered to be part of Europe, while the nearby island of Greenland is usually assigned to North America, although politically belonging to Denmark. Nevertheless, there are some exceptions based on sociopolitical and cultural differences. Cyprus is closest to Anatolia (or Asia Minor), but is considered part of Europe politically and it is a member state of the EU. Malta was considered an island of North-western Africa for centuries, but now it is considered to be part of Europe as well. ""Europe"", as used specifically in British English, may also refer to Continental Europe exclusively.The term ""continent"" usually implies the physical geography of a large land mass completely or almost completely surrounded by water at its borders. Prior to the adoption of the current convention that includes mountain divides, the border between Europe and Asia had been redefined several times since its first conception in classical antiquity, but always as a series of rivers, seas and straits that were believed to extend an unknown distance east and north from the Mediterranean Sea without the inclusion of any mountain ranges. Cartographer Herman Moll suggested in 1715 Europe was bounded by a series of partly-joined waterways directed towards the Turkish straits, and the Irtysh River draining into the upper part of the Ob River and the Arctic Ocean. In contrast, the present eastern boundary of Europe partially adheres to the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, which is somewhat arbitrary and inconsistent compared to any clear-cut definition of the term ""continent"". The current division of Eurasia into two continents now reflects East-West cultural, linguistic and ethnic differences which vary on a spectrum rather than with a sharp dividing line. The geographic border between Europe and Asia does not follow any state boundaries and now only follows a few bodies of water. Turkey is generally considered a transcontinental country divided entirely by water, while Russia and Kazakhstan are only partly divided by waterways. France, the Netherlands, Portugal and Spain are also transcontinental (or more properly, intercontinental, when oceans or large seas are involved) in that their main land areas are in Europe while pockets of their territories are located on other continents separated from Europe by large bodies of water. Spain, for example, has territories south of the Mediterranean Sea—namely, Ceuta and Melilla—which are parts of Africa and share a border with Morocco. According to the current convention, Georgia and Azerbaijan are transcontinental countries where waterways have been completely replaced by mountains as the divide between continents. === History of the concept === ==== Early history ==== The first recorded usage of Eurṓpē as a geographic term is in the Homeric Hymn to Delian Apollo, in reference to the western shore of the Aegean Sea. As a name for a part of the known world, it is first used in the 6th century BCE by Anaximander and Hecataeus. Anaximander placed the boundary between Asia and Europe along the Phasis River (the modern Rioni River on the territory of Georgia) in the Caucasus, a convention still followed by Herodotus in the 5th century BCE. Herodotus mentioned that the world had been divided by unknown persons into three parts—Europe, Asia, and Libya (Africa)—with the Nile and the Phasis forming their boundaries—though he also states that some considered the River Don, rather than the Phasis, as the boundary between Europe and Asia. Europe's eastern frontier was defined in the 1st century by geographer Strabo at the River Don. The Book of Jubilees described the continents as the lands given by Noah to his three sons; Europe was defined as stretching from the Pillars of Hercules at the Strait of Gibraltar, separating it from Northwest Africa, to the Don, separating it from Asia.The convention received by the Middle Ages and surviving into modern usage is that of the Roman era used by Roman-era authors such as Posidonius, Strabo and Ptolemy, who took the Tanais (the modern Don River) as the boundary. The Roman Empire did not attach a strong identity to the concept of continental divisions. However, following the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the culture that developed in its place, linked to Latin and the Catholic church, began to associate itself with the concept of ""Europe"". The term ""Europe"" is first used for a cultural sphere in the Carolingian Renaissance of the 9th century. From that time, the term designated the sphere of influence of the Western Church, as opposed to both the Eastern Orthodox churches and to the Islamic world. A cultural definition of Europe as the lands of Latin Christendom coalesced in the 8th century, signifying the new cultural condominium created through the confluence of Germanic traditions and Christian-Latin culture, defined partly in contrast with Byzantium and Islam, and limited to northern Iberia, the British Isles, France, Christianised western Germany, the Alpine regions and northern and central Italy. The concept is one of the lasting legacies of the Carolingian Renaissance: Europa often figures in the letters of Charlemagne's court scholar, Alcuin. The transition of Europe to being a cultural term as well as a geographic one led to the borders of Europe being affected by cultural considerations in the East, especially relating to areas under Byzantine, Ottoman, and Russian influence. Such questions were affected by the positive connotations associated with the term Europe by its users. Such cultural considerations were not applied to the Americas, despite their conquest and settlement by European states. Instead, the concept of ""Western civilization"" emerged as a way of grouping together Europe and these colonies. ==== Modern definitions ==== The question of defining a precise eastern boundary of Europe arises in the Early Modern period, as the eastern extension of Muscovy began to include North Asia. Throughout the Middle Ages and into the 18th century, the traditional division of the landmass of Eurasia into two continents, Europe and Asia, followed Ptolemy, with the boundary following the Turkish Straits, the Black Sea, the Kerch Strait, the Sea of Azov and the Don (ancient Tanais). But maps produced during the 16th to 18th centuries tended to differ in how to continue the boundary beyond the Don bend at Kalach-na-Donu (where it is closest to the Volga, now joined with it by the Volga–Don Canal), into territory not described in any detail by the ancient geographers. Around 1715, Herman Moll produced a map showing the northern part of the Ob River and the Irtysh River, a major tributary of the Ob, as components of a series of partly-joined waterways taking the boundary between Europe and Asia from the Turkish Straits, and the Don River all the way to the Arctic Ocean. In 1721, he produced a more up to date map that was easier to read. However, his proposal to adhere to major rivers as the line of demarcation was never taken up by other geographers who were beginning to move away from the idea of water boundaries as the only legitimate divides between Europe and Asia. Four years later, in 1725, Philip Johan von Strahlenberg was the first to depart from the classical Don boundary. He drew a new line along the Volga, following the Volga north until the Samara Bend, along Obshchy Syrt (the drainage divide between the Volga and Ural Rivers), then north and east along the latter waterway to its source in the Ural Mountains. At this point he proposed that mountain ranges could be included as boundaries between continents as alternatives to nearby waterways. Accordingly, he drew the new boundary north along Ural Mountains rather than the nearby and parallel running Ob and Irtysh rivers. This was endorsed by the Russian Empire and introduced the convention that would eventually become commonly accepted. However, this did not come without criticism. Voltaire, writing in 1760 about Peter the Great's efforts to make Russia more European, ignored the whole boundary question with his claim that neither Russia, Scandinavia, northern Germany, nor Poland were fully part of Europe. Since then, many modern analytical geographers like Halford Mackinder have declared that they see little validity in the Ural Mountains as a boundary between continents.The mapmakers continued to differ on the boundary between the lower Don and Samara well into the 19th century. The 1745 atlas published by the Russian Academy of Sciences has the boundary follow the Don beyond Kalach as far as Serafimovich before cutting north towards Arkhangelsk, while other 18th- to 19th-century mapmakers such as John Cary followed Strahlenberg's prescription. To the south, the Kuma–Manych Depression was identified c. 1773 by a German naturalist, Peter Simon Pallas, as a valley that once connected the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, and subsequently was proposed as a natural boundary between continents. By the mid-19th century, there were three main conventions, one following the Don, the Volga–Don Canal and the Volga, the other following the Kuma–Manych Depression to the Caspian and then the Ural River, and the third abandoning the Don altogether, following the Greater Caucasus watershed to the Caspian. The question was still treated as a ""controversy"" in geographical literature of the 1860s, with Douglas Freshfield advocating the Caucasus crest boundary as the ""best possible"", citing support from various ""modern geographers"".In Russia and the Soviet Union, the boundary along the Kuma–Manych Depression was the most commonly used as early as 1906. In 1958, the Soviet Geographical Society formally recommended that the boundary between the Europe and Asia be drawn in textbooks from Baydaratskaya Bay, on the Kara Sea, along the eastern foot of Ural Mountains, then following the Ural River until the Mugodzhar Hills, and then the Emba River; and Kuma–Manych Depression, thus placing the Caucasus entirely in Asia and the Urals entirely in Europe. However, most geographers in the Soviet Union favoured the boundary along the Caucasus crest, and this became the common convention in the later 20th century, although the Kuma–Manych boundary remained in use in some 20th-century maps. Some view the separation of Eurasia into Asia and Europe as a residue of Eurocentrism: ""In physical, cultural and historical diversity, China and India are comparable to the entire European landmass, not to a single European country. [...]."" == History == === Prehistory === During the 2.5 million years of the Pleistocene, numerous cold phases called glacials (Quaternary ice age), or significant advances of continental ice sheets, in Europe and North America, occurred at intervals of approximately 40,000 to 100,000 years. The long glacial periods were separated by more temperate and shorter interglacials which lasted about 10,000–15,000 years. The last cold episode of the last glacial period ended about 10,000 years ago. Earth is currently in an interglacial period of the Quaternary, called the Holocene.Homo erectus georgicus, which lived roughly 1.8 million years ago in Georgia, is the earliest hominin to have been discovered in Europe. Other hominin remains, dating back roughly 1 million years, have been discovered in Atapuerca, Spain. Neanderthal man (named after the Neandertal valley in Germany) appeared in Europe 150,000 years ago (115,000 years ago it is found already in the territory of present-day Poland) and disappeared from the fossil record about 40,000 years ago, with their final refuge being the Iberian Peninsula. The Neanderthals were supplanted by modern humans (Cro-Magnons), who appeared in Europe around 43,000 to 40,000 years ago. Homo sapiens arrived in Europe around 54,000 years ago, some 10,000 years earlier than previously thought. The earliest sites in Europe dated 48,000 years ago are Riparo Mochi (Italy), Geissenklösterle (Germany) and Isturitz (France).The European Neolithic period—marked by the cultivation of crops and the raising of livestock, increased numbers of settlements and the widespread use of pottery—began around 7000 BCE in Greece and the Balkans, probably influenced by earlier farming practices in Anatolia and the Near East. It spread from the Balkans along the valleys of the Danube and the Rhine (Linear Pottery culture), and along the Mediterranean coast (Cardial culture). Between 4500 and 3000 BCE, these central European neolithic cultures developed further to the west and the north, transmitting newly acquired skills in producing copper artifacts. In Western Europe the Neolithic period was characterised not by large agricultural settlements but by field monuments, such as causewayed enclosures, burial mounds and megalithic tombs. The Corded Ware cultural horizon flourished at the transition from the Neolithic to the Chalcolithic. During this period giant megalithic monuments, such as the Megalithic Temples of Malta and Stonehenge, were constructed throughout Western and Southern Europe.The modern native populations of Europe largely descend from three distinct lineages: Mesolithic hunter-gatherers, descended from populations associated with the Paleolithic Epigravettian culture; Neolithic Early European Farmers who migrated from Anatolia during the Neolithic Revolution 9,000 years ago; and Yamnaya Steppe herders who expanded into Europe from the Pontic–Caspian steppe of Ukraine and southern Russia in the context of Indo-European migrations 5,000 years ago. The European Bronze Age began c. 3200 BCE in Greece with the Minoan civilisation on Crete, the first advanced civilisation in Europe. The Minoans were followed by the Myceneans, who collapsed suddenly around 1200 BCE, ushering the European Iron Age. Iron Age colonisation by the Greeks and Phoenicians gave rise to early Mediterranean cities. Early Iron Age Italy and Greece from around the 8th century BCE gradually gave rise to historical Classical antiquity, whose beginning is sometimes dated to 776 BCE, the year of the first Olympic Games. === Classical antiquity === Ancient Greece was the founding culture of Western civilisation. Western democratic and rationalist culture are often attributed to Ancient Greece. The Greek city-state, the polis, was the fundamental political unit of classical Greece. In 508 BCE, Cleisthenes instituted the world's first democratic system of government in Athens. The Greek political ideals were rediscovered in the late 18th century by European philosophers and idealists. Greece also generated many cultural contributions: in philosophy, humanism and rationalism under Aristotle, Socrates and Plato; in history with Herodotus and Thucydides; in dramatic and narrative verse, starting with the epic poems of Homer; in drama with Sophocles and Euripides, in medicine with Hippocrates and Galen; and in science with Pythagoras, Euclid and Archimedes. In the course of the 5th century BCE, several of the Greek city states would ultimately check the Achaemenid Persian advance in Europe through the Greco-Persian Wars, considered a pivotal moment in world history, as the 50 years of peace that followed are known as Golden Age of Athens, the seminal period of ancient Greece that laid many of the foundations of Western civilisation. Greece was followed by Rome, which left its mark on law, politics, language, engineering, architecture, government and many more key aspects in western civilisation. By 200 BCE, Rome had conquered Italy and over the following two centuries it conquered Greece and Hispania (Spain and Portugal), the North African coast, much of the Middle East, Gaul (France and Belgium) and Britannia (England and Wales). Expanding from their base in central Italy beginning in the third century BCE, the Romans gradually expanded to eventually rule the entire Mediterranean Basin and Western Europe by the turn of the millennium. The Roman Republic ended in 27 BCE, when Augustus proclaimed the Roman Empire. The two centuries that followed are known as the pax romana, a period of unprecedented peace, prosperity and political stability in most of Europe. The empire continued to expand under emperors such as Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius, who spent time on the Empire's northern border fighting Germanic, Pictish and Scottish tribes. Christianity was legalised by Constantine I in 313 CE after three centuries of imperial persecution. Constantine also permanently moved the capital of the empire from Rome to the city of Byzantium (modern-day Istanbul) which was renamed Constantinople in his honour in 330 CE. Christianity became the sole official religion of the empire in 380 CE and in 391–392 CE, the emperor Theodosius outlawed pagan religions. This is sometimes considered to mark the end of antiquity; alternatively antiquity is considered to end with the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 CE; the closure of the pagan Platonic Academy of Athens in 529 CE; or the rise of Islam in the early 7th century CE. During most of its existence, the Byzantine Empire was one of the most powerful economic, cultural, and military forces in Europe. === Early Middle Ages === During the decline of the Roman Empire, Europe entered a long period of change arising from what historians call the ""Age of Migrations"". There were numerous invasions and migrations amongst the Ostrogoths, Visigoths, Goths, Vandals, Huns, Franks, Angles, Saxons, Slavs, Avars, Bulgars and, later on, the Vikings, Pechenegs, Cumans and Magyars. Renaissance thinkers such as Petrarch would later refer to this as the ""Dark Ages"".Isolated monastic communities were the only places to safeguard and compile written knowledge accumulated previously; apart from this very few written records survive and much literature, philosophy, mathematics and other thinking from the classical period disappeared from Western Europe, though they were preserved in the east, in the Byzantine Empire.While the Roman empire in the west continued to decline, Roman traditions and the Roman state remained strong in the predominantly Greek-speaking Eastern Roman Empire, also known as the Byzantine Empire. During most of its existence, the Byzantine Empire was the most powerful economic, cultural and military force in Europe. Emperor Justinian I presided over Constantinople's first golden age: he established a legal code that forms the basis of many modern legal systems, funded the construction of the Hagia Sophia and brought the Christian church under state control.From the 7th century onwards, as the Byzantines and neighbouring Sasanid Persians were severely weakened due to the protracted, centuries-lasting and frequent Byzantine–Sasanian wars, the Muslim Arabs began to make inroads into historically Roman territory, taking the Levant and North Africa and making inroads into Asia Minor. In the mid-7th century, following the Muslim conquest of Persia, Islam penetrated into the Caucasus region. Over the next centuries Muslim forces took Cyprus, Malta, Crete, Sicily and parts of southern Italy. Between 711 and 720, most of the lands of the Visigothic Kingdom of Iberia was brought under Muslim rule—save for small areas in the north-west (Asturias) and largely Basque regions in the Pyrenees. This territory, under the Arabic name Al-Andalus, became part of the expanding Umayyad Caliphate. The unsuccessful second siege of Constantinople (717) weakened the Umayyad dynasty and reduced their prestige. The Umayyads were then defeated by the Frankish leader Charles Martel at the Battle of Poitiers in 732, which ended their northward advance. In the remote regions of north-western Iberia and the middle Pyrenees the power of the Muslims in the south was scarcely felt. It was here that the foundations of the Christian kingdoms of Asturias, Leon and Galicia were laid and from where the reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula would start. However, no coordinated attempt would be made to drive the Moors out. The Christian kingdoms were mainly focused on their own internal power struggles. As a result, the Reconquista took the greater part of eight hundred years, in which period a long list of Alfonsos, Sanchos, Ordoños, Ramiros, Fernandos and Bermudos would be fighting their Christian rivals as much as the Muslim invaders. During the Dark Ages, the Western Roman Empire fell under the control of various tribes. The Germanic and Slav tribes established their domains over Western and Eastern Europe, respectively. Eventually the Frankish tribes were united under Clovis I. Charlemagne, a Frankish king of the Carolingian dynasty who had conquered most of Western Europe, was anointed ""Holy Roman Emperor"" by the Pope in 800. This led in 962 to the founding of the Holy Roman Empire, which eventually became centred in the German principalities of central Europe.East Central Europe saw the creation of the first Slavic states and the adoption of Christianity (c. 1000 CE). The powerful West Slavic state of Great Moravia spread its territory all the way south to the Balkans, reaching its largest territorial extent under Svatopluk I and causing a series of armed conflicts with East Francia. Further south, the first South Slavic states emerged in the late 7th and 8th century and adopted Christianity: the First Bulgarian Empire, the Serbian Principality (later Kingdom and Empire) and the Duchy of Croatia (later Kingdom of Croatia). To the East, Kievan Rus' expanded from its capital in Kiev to become the largest state in Europe by the 10th century. In 988, Vladimir the Great adopted Orthodox Christianity as the religion of state. Further East, Volga Bulgaria became an Islamic state in the 10th century, but was eventually absorbed into Russia several centuries later. === High and Late Middle Ages === The period between the year 1000 and 1250 is known as the High Middle Ages, followed by the Late Middle Ages until c. 1500. During the High Middle Ages the population of Europe experienced significant growth, culminating in the Renaissance of the 12th century. Economic growth, together with the lack of safety on the mainland trading routes, made possible the development of major commercial routes along the coast of the Mediterranean and Baltic Seas. The growing wealth and independence acquired by some coastal cities gave the Maritime Republics a leading role in the European scene. The Middle Ages on the mainland were dominated by the two upper echelons of the social structure: the nobility and the clergy. Feudalism developed in France in the Early Middle Ages, and soon spread throughout Europe. A struggle for influence between the nobility and the monarchy in England led to the writing of the Magna Carta and the establishment of a parliament. The primary source of culture in this period came from the Roman Catholic Church. Through monasteries and cathedral schools, the Church was responsible for education in much of Europe. The Papacy reached the height of its power during the High Middle Ages. An East-West Schism in 1054 split the former Roman Empire religiously, with the Eastern Orthodox Church in the Byzantine Empire and the Roman Catholic Church in the former Western Roman Empire. In 1095 Pope Urban II called for a crusade against Muslims occupying Jerusalem and the Holy Land. In Europe itself, the Church organised the Inquisition against heretics. In the Iberian Peninsula, the Reconquista concluded with the fall of Granada in 1492, ending over seven centuries of Islamic rule in the south-western peninsula.In the east, a resurgent Byzantine Empire recaptured Crete and Cyprus from the Muslims, and reconquered the Balkans. Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest city in Europe from the 9th to the 12th centuries, with a population of approximately 400,000. The Empire was weakened following the defeat at Manzikert, and was weakened considerably by the sack of Constantinople in 1204, during the Fourth Crusade. Although it would recover Constantinople in 1261, Byzantium fell in 1453 when Constantinople was taken by the Ottoman Empire. In the 11th and 12th centuries, constant incursions by nomadic Turkic tribes, such as the Pechenegs and the Cuman-Kipchaks, caused a massive migration of Slavic populations to the safer, heavily forested regions of the north, and temporarily halted the expansion of the Rus' state to the south and east. Like many other parts of Eurasia, these territories were overrun by the Mongols. The invaders, who became known as Tatars, were mostly Turkic-speaking peoples under Mongol suzerainty. They established the state of the Golden Horde with headquarters in Crimea, which later adopted Islam as a religion, and ruled over modern-day southern and central Russia for more than three centuries. After the collapse of Mongol dominions, the first Romanian states (principalities) emerged in the 14th century: Moldavia and Walachia. Previously, these territories were under the successive control of Pechenegs and Cumans. From the 12th to the 15th centuries, the Grand Duchy of Moscow grew from a small principality under Mongol rule to the largest state in Europe, overthrowing the Mongols in 1480, and eventually becoming the Tsardom of Russia. The state was consolidated under Ivan III the Great and Ivan the Terrible, steadily expanding to the east and south over the next centuries. The Great Famine of 1315–1317 was the first crisis that would strike Europe in the late Middle Ages. The period between 1348 and 1420 witnessed the heaviest loss. The population of France was reduced by half. Medieval Britain was afflicted by 95 famines, and France suffered the effects of 75 or more in the same period. Europe was devastated in the mid-14th century by the Black Death, one of the most deadly pandemics in human history which killed an estimated 25 million people in Europe alone—a third of the European population at the time.The plague had a devastating effect on Europe's social structure; it induced people to live for the moment as illustrated by Giovanni Boccaccio in The Decameron (1353). It was a serious blow to the Roman Catholic Church and led to increased persecution of Jews, beggars and lepers. The plague is thought to have returned every generation with varying virulence and mortalities until the 18th century. During this period, more than 100 plague epidemics swept across Europe. === Early modern period === The Renaissance was a period of cultural change originating in Florence, and later spreading to the rest of Europe. The rise of a new humanism was accompanied by the recovery of forgotten classical Greek and Arabic knowledge from monastic libraries, often translated from Arabic into Latin. The Renaissance spread across Europe between the 14th and 16th centuries: it saw the flowering of art, philosophy, music and the sciences, under the joint patronage of royalty, the nobility, the Roman Catholic Church and an emerging merchant class. Patrons in Italy, including the Medici family of Florentine bankers and the Popes in Rome, funded prolific quattrocento and cinquecento artists such as Raphael, Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci.Political intrigue within the Church in the mid-14th century caused the Western Schism. During this forty-year period, two popes—one in Avignon and one in Rome—claimed rulership over the Church. Although the schism was eventually healed in 1417, the papacy's spiritual authority had suffered greatly. In the 15th century, Europe started to extend itself beyond its geographic frontiers. Spain and Portugal, the greatest naval powers of the time, took the lead in exploring the world. Exploration reached the Southern Hemisphere in the Atlantic and the Southern tip of Africa. Christopher Columbus reached the New World in 1492, and Vasco da Gama opened the ocean route to the East linking the Atlantic and Indian Oceans in 1498. The Portuguese-born explorer Ferdinand Magellan reached Asia westward across the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans in a Spanish expedition, resulting in the first circumnavigation of the globe, completed by the Spaniard Juan Sebastián Elcano (1519–1522). Soon after, the Spanish and Portuguese began establishing large global empires in the Americas, Asia, Africa and Oceania. France, the Netherlands and England soon followed in building large colonial empires with vast holdings in Africa, the Americas and Asia. In 1588, a Spanish armada failed to invade England. A year later England tried unsuccessfully to invade Spain, allowing Philip II of Spain to maintain his dominant war capacity in Europe. This English disaster also allowed the Spanish fleet to retain its capability to wage war for the next decades. However, two more Spanish armadas failed to invade England (2nd Spanish Armada and 3rd Spanish Armada). The Church's power was further weakened by the Protestant Reformation in 1517 when German theologian Martin Luther nailed his Ninety-five Theses criticising the selling of indulgences to the church door. He was subsequently excommunicated in the papal bull Exsurge Domine in 1520 and his followers were condemned in the 1521 Diet of Worms, which divided German princes between Protestant and Roman Catholic faiths. Religious fighting and warfare spread with Protestantism. The plunder of the empires of the Americas allowed Spain to finance religious persecution in Europe for over a century. The Thirty Years War (1618–1648) crippled the Holy Roman Empire and devastated much of Germany, killing between 25 and 40 percent of its population. In the aftermath of the Peace of Westphalia, France rose to predominance within Europe. The defeat of the Ottoman Turks at the Battle of Vienna in 1683 marked the historic end of Ottoman expansion into Europe.The 17th century in Central and parts of Eastern Europe was a period of general decline; the region experienced more than 150 famines in a 200-year period between 1501 and 1700. From the Union of Krewo (1385) east-central Europe was dominated by the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The hegemony of the vast Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth had ended with the devastation brought by the Second Northern War (Deluge) and subsequent conflicts; the state itself was partitioned and ceased to exist at the end of the 18th century.From the 15th to 18th centuries, when the disintegrating khanates of the Golden Horde were conquered by Russia, Tatars from the Crimean Khanate frequently raided Eastern Slavic lands to capture slaves. Further east, the Nogai Horde and Kazakh Khanate frequently raided the Slavic-speaking areas of contemporary Russia and Ukraine for hundreds of years, until the Russian expansion and conquest of most of northern Eurasia (i.e. Eastern Europe, Central Asia and Siberia). The Renaissance and the New Monarchs marked the start of an Age of Discovery, a period of exploration, invention and scientific development. Among the great figures of the Western scientific revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries were Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo and Isaac Newton. According to Peter Barrett, ""It is widely accepted that 'modern science' arose in the Europe of the 17th century (towards the end of the Renaissance), introducing a new understanding of the natural world."" === 18th and 19th centuries === The Seven Years' War brought to an end the ""Old System"" of alliances in Europe. Consequently, when the American Revolutionary War turned into a global war between 1778 and 1783, Britain found itself opposed by a strong coalition of European powers, and lacking any substantial ally.The Age of Enlightenment was a powerful intellectual movement during the 18th century promoting scientific and reason-based thoughts. Discontent with the aristocracy and clergy's monopoly on political power in France resulted in the French Revolution, and the establishment of the First Republic as a result of which the monarchy and many of the nobility perished during the initial reign of terror. Napoleon Bonaparte rose to power in the aftermath of the French Revolution, and established the First French Empire that, during the Napoleonic Wars, grew to encompass large parts of Europe before collapsing in 1815 with the Battle of Waterloo. Napoleonic rule resulted in the further dissemination of the ideals of the French Revolution, including that of the nation state, as well as the widespread adoption of the French models of administration, law and education. The Congress of Vienna, convened after Napoleon's downfall, established a new balance of power in Europe centred on the five ""Great Powers"": the UK, France, Prussia, Austria and Russia. This balance would remain in place until the Revolutions of 1848, during which liberal uprisings affected all of Europe except for Russia and the UK. These revolutions were eventually put down by conservative elements and few reforms resulted. The year 1859 saw the unification of Romania, as a nation state, from smaller principalities. In 1867, the Austro-Hungarian empire was formed; 1871 saw the unifications of both Italy and Germany as nation-states from smaller principalities.In parallel, the Eastern Question grew more complex ever since the Ottoman defeat in the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774). As the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire seemed imminent, the Great Powers struggled to safeguard their strategic and commercial interests in the Ottoman domains. The Russian Empire stood to benefit from the decline, whereas the Habsburg Empire and Britain perceived the preservation of the Ottoman Empire to be in their best interests. Meanwhile, the Serbian revolution (1804) and Greek War of Independence (1821) marked the beginning of the end of Ottoman rule in the Balkans, which ended with the Balkan Wars in 1912–1913. Formal recognition of the de facto independent principalities of Montenegro, Serbia and Romania ensued at the Congress of Berlin in 1878. The Industrial Revolution started in Great Britain in the last part of the 18th century and spread throughout Europe. The invention and implementation of new technologies resulted in rapid urban growth, mass employment and the rise of a new working class. Reforms in social and economic spheres followed, including the first laws on child labour, the legalisation of trade unions, and the abolition of slavery. In Britain, the Public Health Act of 1875 was passed, which significantly improved living conditions in many British cities. Europe's population increased from about 100 million in 1700 to 400 million by 1900. The last major famine recorded in Western Europe, the Great Famine of Ireland, caused death and mass emigration of millions of Irish people. In the 19th century, 70 million people left Europe in migrations to various European colonies abroad and to the United States. The industrial revolution also led to large population growth, and the share of the world population living in Europe reached a peak of slightly above 25% around the year 1913. === 20th century to the present === Two world wars and an economic depression dominated the first half of the 20th century. The First World War was fought between 1914 and 1918. It started when Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria was assassinated by the Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip. Most European nations were drawn into the war, which was fought between the Entente Powers (France, Belgium, Serbia, Portugal, Russia, the United Kingdom, and later Italy, Greece, Romania, and the United States) and the Central Powers (Austria-Hungary, Germany, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire). The war left more than 16 million civilians and military dead. Over 60 million European soldiers were mobilised from 1914 to 1918. Russia was plunged into the Russian Revolution, which threw down the Tsarist monarchy and replaced it with the communist Soviet Union, leading also to the independence of many former Russian governorates, such as Finland, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, as new European countries. Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire collapsed and broke up into separate nations, and many other nations had their borders redrawn. The Treaty of Versailles, which officially ended the First World War in 1919, was harsh towards Germany, upon whom it placed full responsibility for the war and imposed heavy sanctions. Excess deaths in Russia over the course of the First World War and the Russian Civil War (including the postwar famine) amounted to a combined total of 18 million. In 1932–1933, under Stalin's leadership, confiscations of grain by the Soviet authorities contributed to the second Soviet famine which caused millions of deaths; surviving kulaks were persecuted and many sent to Gulags to do forced labour. Stalin was also responsible for the Great Purge of 1937–38 in which the NKVD executed 681,692 people; millions of people were deported and exiled to remote areas of the Soviet Union. The social revolutions sweeping through Russia also affected other European nations following The Great War: in 1919, with the Weimar Republic in Germany and the First Austrian Republic; in 1922, with Mussolini's one-party fascist government in the Kingdom of Italy and in Atatürk's Turkish Republic, adopting the Western alphabet and state secularism. Economic instability, caused in part by debts incurred in the First World War and 'loans' to Germany played havoc in Europe in the late 1920s and 1930s. This, and the Wall Street Crash of 1929, brought about the worldwide Great Depression. Helped by the economic crisis, social instability and the threat of communism, fascist movements developed throughout Europe placing Adolf Hitler in power of what became Nazi Germany.In 1933, Hitler became the leader of Germany and began to work towards his goal of building Greater Germany. Germany re-expanded and took back the Saarland and Rhineland in 1935 and 1936. In 1938, Austria became a part of Germany following the Anschluss. Later that year, following the Munich Agreement signed by Germany, France, the United Kingdom, and Italy, Germany annexed the Sudetenland, which was a part of Czechoslovakia inhabited by ethnic Germans, and in early 1939, the remainder of Czechoslovakia was split into the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, controlled by Germany and the Slovak Republic. At the time, the United Kingdom and France preferred a policy of appeasement. With tensions mounting between Germany and Poland over the future of Danzig, the Germans turned to the Soviets and signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, which allowed the Soviets to invade the Baltic states and parts of Poland and Romania. Germany invaded Poland on 1 September 1939, prompting France and the United Kingdom to declare war on Germany on 3 September, opening the European Theatre of the Second World War. The Soviet invasion of Poland started on 17 September and Poland fell soon thereafter. On 24 September, the Soviet Union attacked the Baltic countries and, on 30 November, Finland, the latter of which was followed by the devastating Winter War for the Red Army. The British hoped to land at Narvik and send troops to aid Finland, but their primary objective in the landing was to encircle Germany and cut the Germans off from Scandinavian resources. Around the same time, Germany moved troops into Denmark. The Phoney War continued. In May 1940, Germany attacked France through the Low Countries. France capitulated in June 1940. By August, Germany had begun a bombing offensive against the United Kingdom but failed to convince the Britons to give up. In 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa. On 7 December 1941 Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor drew the United States into the conflict as allies of the British Empire, and other allied forces. After the staggering Battle of Stalingrad in 1943, the German offensive in the Soviet Union turned into a continual fallback. The Battle of Kursk, which involved the largest tank battle in history, was the last major German offensive on the Eastern Front. In June 1944, British and American forces invaded France in the D-Day landings, opening a new front against Germany. Berlin finally fell in 1945, ending the Second World War in Europe. The war was the largest and most destructive in human history, with 60 million dead across the world. More than 40 million people in Europe had died as a result of the Second World War, including between 11 and 17 million people who perished during the Holocaust. The Soviet Union lost around 27 million people (mostly civilians) during the war, about half of all Second World War casualties. By the end of the Second World War, Europe had more than 40 million refugees. Several post-war expulsions in Central and Eastern Europe displaced a total of about 20 million people.The First World War, and especially the Second World War, diminished the eminence of Western Europe in world affairs. After the Second World War the map of Europe was redrawn at the Yalta Conference and divided into two blocs, the Western countries and the communist Eastern bloc, separated by what was later called by Winston Churchill an ""Iron Curtain"". The United States and Western Europe established the NATO alliance and, later, the Soviet Union and Central Europe established the Warsaw Pact. Particular hot spots after the Second World War were Berlin and Trieste, whereby the Free Territory of Trieste, founded in 1947 with the UN, was dissolved in 1954 and 1975, respectively. The Berlin blockade in 1948 and 1949 and the construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961 were one of the great international crises of the Cold War.The two new superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union, became locked in a fifty-year-long Cold War, centred on nuclear proliferation. At the same time decolonisation, which had already started after the First World War, gradually resulted in the independence of most of the European colonies in Asia and Africa. In the 1980s the reforms of Mikhail Gorbachev and the Solidarity movement in Poland weakened the previously rigid communist system. The opening of the Iron Curtain at the Pan-European Picnic then set in motion a peaceful chain reaction, at the end of which the Eastern bloc, the Warsaw Pact and other communist states collapsed, and the Cold War ended. Germany was reunited, after the symbolic fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 and the maps of Central and Eastern Europe were redrawn once more. This made old previously interrupted cultural and economic relationships possible, and previously isolated cities such as Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Budapest and Trieste were now again in the centre of Europe.European integration also grew after the Second World War. In 1949 the Council of Europe was founded, following a speech by Sir Winston Churchill, with the idea of unifying Europe to achieve common goals. It includes all European states except for Belarus, Russia, and Vatican City. The Treaty of Rome in 1957 established the European Economic Community between six Western European states with the goal of a unified economic policy and common market. In 1967 the EEC, European Coal and Steel Community, and Euratom formed the European Community, which in 1993 became the European Union. The EU established a parliament, court and central bank, and introduced the euro as a unified currency. Between 2004 and 2013, more Central European countries began joining, expanding the EU to 28 European countries and once more making Europe a major economical and political centre of power. However, the United Kingdom withdrew from the EU on 31 January 2020, as a result of a June 2016 referendum on EU membership. The Russo-Ukrainian conflict, which has been ongoing since 2014, steeply escalated when Russia launched a full-scale invasion of Ukraine on 24 February 2022, marking the largest humanitarian and refugee crisis in Europe since the Second World War and the Yugoslav Wars. == Geography == Europe makes up the western fifth of the Eurasian landmass. It has a higher ratio of coast to landmass than any other continent or subcontinent. Its maritime borders consist of the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west and the Mediterranean, Black and Caspian Seas to the south. Land relief in Europe shows great variation within relatively small areas. The southern regions are more mountainous, while moving north the terrain descends from the high Alps, Pyrenees and Carpathians, through hilly uplands, into broad, low northern plains, which are vast in the east. This extended lowland is known as the Great European Plain and at its heart lies the North German Plain. An arc of uplands also exists along the north-western seaboard, which begins in the western parts of the islands of Britain and Ireland, and then continues along the mountainous, fjord-cut spine of Norway. This description is simplified. Subregions such as the Iberian Peninsula and the Italian Peninsula contain their own complex features, as does mainland Central Europe itself, where the relief contains many plateaus, river valleys and basins that complicate the general trend. Sub-regions like Iceland, Britain and Ireland are special cases. The former is a land unto itself in the northern ocean that is counted as part of Europe, while the latter are upland areas that were once joined to the mainland until rising sea levels cut them off. === Climate === Europe lies mainly in the temperate climate zone of the northern hemisphere, where the prevailing wind direction is from the west. The climate is milder in comparison to other areas of the same latitude around the globe due to the influence of the Gulf Stream, an ocean current which carries warm water from the Gulf of Mexico across the Atlantic ocean to Europe. The Gulf Stream is nicknamed ""Europe's central heating"", because it makes Europe's climate warmer and wetter than it would otherwise be. The Gulf Stream not only carries warm water to Europe's coast but also warms up the prevailing westerly winds that blow across the continent from the Atlantic Ocean. Therefore, the average temperature throughout the year of Aveiro is 16 °C (61 °F), while it is only 13 °C (55 °F) in New York City which is almost on the same latitude, bordering the same ocean. Berlin, Germany; Calgary, Canada; and Irkutsk, in far south-eastern Russia, lie on around the same latitude; January temperatures in Berlin average around 8 °C (14 °F) higher than those in Calgary and they are almost 22 °C (40 °F) higher than average temperatures in Irkutsk.The large water masses of the Mediterranean Sea, which equalise the temperatures on an annual and daily average, are also of particular importance. The water of the Mediterranean extends from the Sahara desert to the Alpine arc in its northernmost part of the Adriatic Sea near Trieste.In general, Europe is not just colder towards the north compared to the south, but it also gets colder from the west towards the east. The climate is more oceanic in the west and less so in the east. This can be illustrated by the following table of average temperatures at locations roughly following the 64th, 60th, 55th, 50th, 45th and 40th latitudes. None of them is located at high altitude; most of them are close to the sea. (location, approximate latitude and longitude, coldest month average, hottest month average and annual average temperatures in degrees C) It is notable how the average temperatures for the coldest month, as well as the annual average temperatures, drop from the west to the east. For instance, Edinburgh is warmer than Belgrade during the coldest month of the year, although Belgrade is around 10° of latitude farther south. === Geology === The geological history of Europe traces back to the formation of the Baltic Shield (Fennoscandia) and the Sarmatian craton, both around 2.25 billion years ago, followed by the Volgo–Uralia shield, the three together leading to the East European craton (≈ Baltica) which became a part of the supercontinent Columbia. Around 1.1 billion years ago, Baltica and Arctica (as part of the Laurentia block) became joined to Rodinia, later resplitting around 550 million years ago to reform as Baltica. Around 440 million years ago Euramerica was formed from Baltica and Laurentia; a further joining with Gondwana then leading to the formation of Pangea. Around 190 million years ago, Gondwana and Laurasia split apart due to the widening of the Atlantic Ocean. Finally and very soon afterwards, Laurasia itself split up again, into Laurentia (North America) and the Eurasian continent. The land connection between the two persisted for a considerable time, via Greenland, leading to interchange of animal species. From around 50 million years ago, rising and falling sea levels have determined the actual shape of Europe and its connections with continents such as Asia. Europe's present shape dates to the late Tertiary period about five million years ago.The geology of Europe is hugely varied and complex and gives rise to the wide variety of landscapes found across the continent, from the Scottish Highlands to the rolling plains of Hungary. Europe's most significant feature is the dichotomy between highland and mountainous Southern Europe and a vast, partially underwater, northern plain ranging from Ireland in the west to the Ural Mountains in the east. These two halves are separated by the mountain chains of the Pyrenees and Alps/Carpathians. The northern plains are delimited in the west by the Scandinavian Mountains and the mountainous parts of the British Isles. Major shallow water bodies submerging parts of the northern plains are the Celtic Sea, the North Sea, the Baltic Sea complex and Barents Sea. The northern plain contains the old geological continent of Baltica and so may be regarded geologically as the ""main continent"", while peripheral highlands and mountainous regions in the south and west constitute fragments from various other geological continents. Most of the older geology of western Europe existed as part of the ancient microcontinent Avalonia. === Flora === Having lived side by side with agricultural peoples for millennia, Europe's animals and plants have been profoundly affected by the presence and activities of humans. With the exception of Fennoscandia and northern Russia, few areas of untouched wilderness are currently found in Europe, except for various national parks. The main natural vegetation cover in Europe is mixed forest. The conditions for growth are very favourable. In the north, the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic Drift warm the continent. Southern Europe has a warm but mild climate. There are frequent summer droughts in this region. Mountain ridges also affect the conditions. Some of these, such as the Alps and the Pyrenees, are oriented east–west and allow the wind to carry large masses of water from the ocean in the interior. Others are oriented south–north (Scandinavian Mountains, Dinarides, Carpathians, Apennines) and because the rain falls primarily on the side of mountains that is oriented towards the sea, forests grow well on this side, while on the other side, the conditions are much less favourable. Few corners of mainland Europe have not been grazed by livestock at some point in time, and the cutting down of the preagricultural forest habitat caused disruption to the original plant and animal ecosystems. Possibly 80 to 90 percent of Europe was once covered by forest. It stretched from the Mediterranean Sea to the Arctic Ocean. Although over half of Europe's original forests disappeared through the centuries of deforestation, Europe still has over one quarter of its land area as forest, such as the broadleaf and mixed forests, taiga of Scandinavia and Russia, mixed rainforests of the Caucasus and the Cork oak forests in the western Mediterranean. During recent times, deforestation has been slowed and many trees have been planted. However, in many cases monoculture plantations of conifers have replaced the original mixed natural forest, because these grow quicker. The plantations now cover vast areas of land, but offer poorer habitats for many European forest dwelling species which require a mixture of tree species and diverse forest structure. The amount of natural forest in Western Europe is just 2–3% or less, while in its Western Russia its 5–10%. The European country with the smallest percentage of forested area is Iceland (1%), while the most forested country is Finland (77%).In temperate Europe, mixed forest with both broadleaf and coniferous trees dominate. The most important species in central and western Europe are beech and oak. In the north, the taiga is a mixed spruce–pine–birch forest; further north within Russia and extreme northern Scandinavia, the taiga gives way to tundra as the Arctic is approached. In the Mediterranean, many olive trees have been planted, which are very well adapted to its arid climate; Mediterranean Cypress is also widely planted in southern Europe. The semi-arid Mediterranean region hosts much scrub forest. A narrow east–west tongue of Eurasian grassland (the steppe) extends westwards from Ukraine and southern Russia and ends in Hungary and traverses into taiga to the north. === Fauna === Glaciation during the most recent ice age and the presence of humans affected the distribution of European fauna. As for the animals, in many parts of Europe most large animals and top predator species have been hunted to extinction. The woolly mammoth was extinct before the end of the Neolithic period. Today wolves (carnivores) and bears (omnivores) are endangered. Once they were found in most parts of Europe. However, deforestation and hunting caused these animals to withdraw further and further. By the Middle Ages the bears' habitats were limited to more or less inaccessible mountains with sufficient forest cover. Today, the brown bear lives primarily in the Balkan peninsula, Scandinavia and Russia; a small number also persist in other countries across Europe (Austria, Pyrenees etc.), but in these areas brown bear populations are fragmented and marginalised because of the destruction of their habitat. In addition, polar bears may be found on Svalbard, a Norwegian archipelago far north of Scandinavia. The wolf, the second largest predator in Europe after the brown bear, can be found primarily in Central and Eastern Europe and in the Balkans, with a handful of packs in pockets of Western Europe (Scandinavia, Spain, etc.). Other carnivores include the European wildcat, red fox and arctic fox, the golden jackal, different species of martens, the European hedgehog, different species of reptiles (like snakes such as vipers and grass snakes) and amphibians, as well as different birds (owls, hawks and other birds of prey). Important European herbivores are snails, larvae, fish, different birds and mammals, like rodents, deer and roe deer, boars and living in the mountains, marmots, steinbocks, chamois among others. A number of insects, such as the small tortoiseshell butterfly, add to the biodiversity.Sea creatures are also an important part of European flora and fauna. The sea flora is mainly phytoplankton. Important animals that live in European seas are zooplankton, molluscs, echinoderms, different crustaceans, squids and octopuses, fish, dolphins and whales. Biodiversity is protected in Europe through the Council of Europe's Bern Convention, which has also been signed by the European Community as well as non-European states. == Politics == The political map of Europe is substantially derived from the re-organisation of Europe following the Napoleonic Wars in 1815. The prevalent form of government in Europe is parliamentary democracy, in most cases in the form of Republic; in 1815, the prevalent form of government was still the Monarchy. Europe's remaining eleven monarchies are constitutional. European integration is the process of political, legal, economic (and in some cases social and cultural) integration of European states as it has been pursued by the powers sponsoring the Council of Europe since the end of the Second World War. The European Union has been the focus of economic integration on the continent since its foundation in 1993. More recently, the Eurasian Economic Union has been established as a counterpart comprising former Soviet states. 27 European states are members of the politico-economic European Union, 26 of the border-free Schengen Area and 20 of the monetary union Eurozone. Among the smaller European organisations are the Nordic Council, the Benelux, the Baltic Assembly and the Visegrád Group. == List of states and territories == This list includes all internationally recognised sovereign countries falling even partially under any common geographical or political definitions of Europe. Within the above-mentioned states are several de facto independent countries with limited to no international recognition. None of them are members of the UN: Several dependencies and similar territories with broad autonomy are also found within or close to Europe. This includes Åland (an autonomous county of Finland), two autonomous territories of the Kingdom of Denmark (other than Denmark proper), three Crown Dependencies and two British Overseas Territories. Svalbard is also included due to its unique status within Norway, although it is not autonomous. Not included are the three countries of the United Kingdom with devolved powers and the two Autonomous Regions of Portugal, which despite having a unique degree of autonomy, are not largely self-governing in matters other than international affairs. Areas with little more than a unique tax status, such as the Canary Islands and Heligoland, are also not included for this reason. == Economy == As a continent, the economy of Europe is currently the largest on Earth and it is the richest region as measured by assets under management with over $32.7 trillion compared to North America's $27.1 trillion in 2008. In 2009 Europe remained the wealthiest region. Its $37.1 trillion in assets under management represented one-third of the world's wealth. It was one of several regions where wealth surpassed its precrisis year-end peak. As with other continents, Europe has a large wealth gap among its countries. The richer states tend to be in the Northwest and West in general, followed by Central Europe, while most economies of Eastern and Southeastern Europe are still reemerging from the collapse of the Soviet Union and the breakup of Yugoslavia. The model of the Blue Banana was designed as an economic geographic representation of the respective economic power of the regions, which was further developed into the Golden Banana or Blue Star. The trade between East and West, as well as towards Asia, which had been disrupted for a long time by the two world wars, new borders and the Cold War, increased sharply after 1989. In addition, there is new impetus from the Chinese Belt and Road Initiative across the Suez Canal towards Africa and Asia.The European Union, a political entity composed of 27 European states, comprises the largest single economic area in the world. Nineteen EU countries share the euro as a common currency. Five European countries rank in the top ten of the world's largest national economies in GDP (PPP). This includes (ranks according to the CIA): Germany (6), Russia (7), the United Kingdom (10), France (11) and Italy (13).Some European countries are much richer than others. The richest in terms of nominal GDP is Monaco with its US$185,829 per capita (2018) and the poorest is Ukraine with its US$3,659 per capita (2019).As a whole, Europe's GDP per capita is US$21,767 according to a 2016 International Monetary Fund assessment. === Economic history === Industrial growth (1760–1945)Capitalism has been dominant in the Western world since the end of feudalism. From Britain, it gradually spread throughout Europe. The Industrial Revolution started in Europe, specifically the United Kingdom in the late 18th century, and the 19th century saw Western Europe industrialise. Economies were disrupted by the First World War, but by the beginning of the Second World War, they had recovered and were having to compete with the growing economic strength of the United States. The Second World War, again, damaged much of Europe's industries. Cold War (1945–1991)After the Second World War the economy of the UK was in a state of ruin, and continued to suffer relative economic decline in the following decades. Italy was also in a poor economic condition but regained a high level of growth by the 1950s. West Germany recovered quickly and had doubled production from pre-war levels by the 1950s. France also staged a remarkable comeback enjoying rapid growth and modernisation; later on Spain, under the leadership of Franco, also recovered and the nation recorded huge unprecedented economic growth beginning in the 1960s in what is called the Spanish miracle. The majority of Central and Eastern European states came under the control of the Soviet Union and thus were members of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON).The states which retained a free-market system were given a large amount of aid by the United States under the Marshall Plan. The western states moved to link their economies together, providing the basis for the EU and increasing cross border trade. This helped them to enjoy rapidly improving economies, while those states in COMECON were struggling in a large part due to the cost of the Cold War. Until 1990, the European Community was expanded from 6 founding members to 12. The emphasis placed on resurrecting the West German economy led to it overtaking the UK as Europe's largest economy. Reunification (1991–present)With the fall of communism in Central and Eastern Europe in 1991, the post-socialist states underwent shock therapy measures to liberalise their economies and implement free market reforms. After East and West Germany were reunited in 1990, the economy of West Germany struggled as it had to support and largely rebuild the infrastructure of East Germany, while the latter experienced sudden mass unemployment and plummeting of industrial production. By the millennium change, the EU dominated the economy of Europe, comprising the five largest European economies of the time: Germany, the United Kingdom, France, Italy, and Spain. In 1999, 12 of the 15 members of the EU joined the Eurozone, replacing their national currencies by the euro. Figures released by Eurostat in 2009 confirmed that the Eurozone had gone into recession in 2008. It impacted much of the region. In 2010, fears of a sovereign debt crisis developed concerning some countries in Europe, especially Greece, Ireland, Spain and Portugal. As a result, measures were taken, especially for Greece, by the leading countries of the Eurozone. The EU-27 unemployment rate was 10.3% in 2012. For those aged 15–24 it was 22.4%. == Demographics == The population of Europe was about 742 million in 2023 according to UN estimates. This is slightly more than one ninth of the world's population. The population density of Europe (the number of people per area) is the second highest of any continent, behind Asia. The population of Europe is currently slowly decreasing, by about 0.2% per year, because there are fewer births than deaths. This natural decrease in population is reduced by the fact that more people migrate to Europe from other continents than vice versa. Southern Europe and Western Europe are the regions with the highest average number of elderly people in the world, today they comprise 21% of the population, with over 65 years. Projections suggest that by 2050 Europe will reach 30%. This is caused by the fact that the population has been having children below replacement level since the 1970s. The United Nations predicts that Europe will decline its population between 2022 and 2050 by -7 per cent, without changing immigration movements.According to a population projection of the UN Population Division, Europe's population may fall to between 680 and 720 million people by 2050, which would be 7% of the world population at that time. Within this context, significant disparities exist between regions in relation to fertility rates. The average number of children per female of child-bearing age is 1.52, far below the replacement rate. The UN predicts a steady population decline in Central and Eastern Europe as a result of emigration and low birth rates. === Ethnic groups === Pan and Pfeil (2004) count 87 distinct ""peoples of Europe"", of which 33 form the majority population in at least one sovereign state, while the remaining 54 constitute ethnic minorities. === Migration === Europe is home to the highest number of migrants of all global regions at nearly 87 million people in 2020, according to the International Organisation for Migration. In 2005, the EU had an overall net gain from immigration of 1.8 million people. This accounted for almost 85% of Europe's total population growth. In 2021, 827,000 persons were given citizenship of an EU member state, a increase of about 14% compared with 2020. 2.3 million immigrants from non-EU countries entered the EU in 2021.Early modern emigration from Europe began with Spanish and Portuguese settlers in the 16th century, and French and English settlers in the 17th century. But numbers remained relatively small until waves of mass emigration in the 19th century, when millions of poor families left Europe.Today, large populations of European descent are found on every continent. European ancestry predominates in North America and to a lesser degree in South America (particularly in Uruguay, Argentina, Chile and Brazil, while most of the other Latin American countries also have a considerable population of European origins). Australia and New Zealand have large European-derived populations. Africa has no countries with European-derived majorities (or with the exception of Cape Verde and probably São Tomé and Príncipe, depending on context), but there are significant minorities, such as the White South Africans in South Africa. In Asia, European-derived populations, (specifically Russians), predominate in North Asia and some parts of Northern Kazakhstan. === Languages === Europe has about 225 indigenous languages, mostly falling within three Indo-European language groups: the Romance languages, derived from the Latin of the Roman Empire; the Germanic languages, whose ancestor language came from southern Scandinavia; and the Slavic languages. Slavic languages are mostly spoken in Southern, Central and Eastern Europe. Romance languages are spoken primarily in Western and Southern Europe, as well as in Switzerland in Central Europe and Romania and Moldova in Eastern Europe. Germanic languages are spoken in Western, Northern and Central Europe as well as in Gibraltar and Malta in Southern Europe. Languages in adjacent areas show significant overlaps (such as in English, for example). Other Indo-European languages outside the three main groups include the Baltic group (Latvian and Lithuanian), the Celtic group (Irish, Scottish Gaelic, Manx, Welsh, Cornish and Breton), Greek, Armenian and Albanian. A distinct non-Indo-European family of Uralic languages (Estonian, Finnish, Hungarian, Erzya, Komi, Mari, Moksha and Udmurt) is spoken mainly in Estonia, Finland, Hungary and parts of Russia. Turkic languages include Azerbaijani, Kazakh and Turkish, in addition to smaller languages in Eastern and Southeast Europe (Balkan Gagauz Turkish, Bashkir, Chuvash, Crimean Tatar, Karachay-Balkar, Kumyk, Nogai and Tatar). Kartvelian languages (Georgian, Mingrelian and Svan) are spoken primarily in Georgia. Two other language families reside in the North Caucasus (termed Northeast Caucasian, most notably including Chechen, Avar and Lezgin; and Northwest Caucasian, most notably including Adyghe). Maltese is the only Semitic language that is official within the EU, while Basque is the only European language isolate. Multilingualism and the protection of regional and minority languages are recognised political goals in Europe today. The Council of Europe Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities and the Council of Europe's European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages set up a legal framework for language rights in Europe. === Religion === The largest religion in Europe is Christianity, with 76.2% of Europeans considering themselves Christians, including Catholic, Eastern Orthodox and various Protestant denominations. Among Protestants, the most popular are Lutheranism, Anglicanism and the Reformed faith. Smaller Protestant denominations include Anabaptists as well as denominations centered in the United States such as Pentecostalism, Methodism, and Evangelicalism. Although Christianity originated in the Middle East, its centre of mass shifted to Europe when it became the official religion of the Roman Empire in the late 4th century. Christianity played a prominent role in the development of the European culture and identity. Today, a bit over 25% of the world's Christians live in Europe.Islam is the second most popular religion in Europe. Over 25 million, or roughly 5% of the population, adhere to it. In Albania and Bosnia and Herzegovina, two countries in the Balkan peninsula in Southeastern Europe, Islam instead of Christianity is the majority religion. This is of also the case in Turkey and in certain parts of Russia, as well as in Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan, all of which are at the border to Asia. Many countries in Europe are home to a sizeable Muslim minority, and immigration to Europe has increased the number of Muslim people in Europe in recent years. The Jewish population in Europe was about 1.4 million people in 2020 (about 0.2% of the population). There is a long history of Jewish life in Europe, beginning in antiquity. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Russian Empire had the majority of the world's Jews living within its borders. In 1897, according to Russian census of 1897, the total Jewish population of Russia was 5.1 million people, which was 4.13% of total population. Of this total, the vast majority lived within the Pale of Settlement. In 1933, there were about 9.5 million Jewish people in Europe, representing 1.7% of the population, but most were killed or displaced across Europe during The Holocaust. In the 21st century, France has the largest Jewish population in Europe, followed by the United Kingdom, Germany and Russia.Other religions practiced in Europe include Hinduism and Buddhism, are minority religions (though Tibetan Buddhism is the majority religion of Russia's Republic of Kalmykia). A large and increasing number people in Europe are irreligious, atheist and agnostic. They are estimated to make up about 18.3% of Europe's population currently. === Major cities and urban areas === The three largest urban areas of Europe are Moscow, London and Paris. All have over 10 million residents, and as such have been described as megacities. While Istanbul has the highest total city population, it lies partly in Asia. 64.9% of the residents live on the European side and 35.1% on the Asian side. The next largest cities in order of population are Madrid, Saint Petersburg, Milan, Barcelona, Berlin, and Rome each having over 3 million residents.When considering the commuter belts or metropolitan areas, within Europe (for which comparable data is available) Moscow covers the largest population, followed in order by Istanbul, London, Paris, Madrid, Milan, Ruhr Area, Saint Petersburg, Rhein-Süd, Barcelona and Berlin. == Culture == ""Europe"" as a cultural concept is substantially derived from the shared heritage of ancient Greece and the Roman Empire and its cultures. The boundaries of Europe were historically understood as those of Christendom (or more specifically Latin Christendom), as established or defended throughout the medieval and early modern history of Europe, especially against Islam, as in the Reconquista and the Ottoman wars in Europe.This shared cultural heritage is combined by overlapping indigenous national cultures and folklores, roughly divided into Slavic, Latin (Romance) and Germanic, but with several components not part of either of these group (notably Greek, Basque and Celtic). Historically, special examples with overlapping cultures are Strasbourg with Latin (Romance) and Germanic or Trieste with Latin, Slavic and Germanic roots. Cultural contacts and mixtures shape a large part of the regional cultures of Europe. Europe is often described as ""maximum cultural diversity with minimal geographical distances"". Different cultural events are organised in Europe, with the aim of bringing different cultures closer together and raising awareness of their importance, such as the European Capital of Culture, the European Region of Gastronomy, the European Youth Capital and the European Capital of Sport. === Sport === == See also == == Notes == == References == == Sources == National Geographic Society (2005). National Geographic Visual History of the World. Washington, DC: National Geographic Society. ISBN 0-7922-3695-5. Bulliet, Richard; Crossley, Pamela; Headrick, Daniel; Hirsch, Steven; Johnson, Lyman (2011). The Earth and Its Peoples, Brief Edition. Vol. 1. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-495-91311-5. Brown, Stephen F.; Anatolios, Khaled; Palmer, Martin (2009). O'Brien, Joanne (ed.). Catholicism & Orthodox Christianity. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-1-60413-106-2. Laiou, Angeliki E.; Morisson, Cécile (2007). The Byzantine Economy. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-84978-4. Lewis, Martin W.; Wigen, Kären (1997). The Myth of Continents: A Critique of Metageography. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-20743-1. Pounds, Norman John Greville (1979). An Historical Geography of Europe, 1500–1840. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-22379-9. == External links == Europe web resources provided by GovPubs at the University of Colorado Boulder Libraries Europe at the Encyclopædia Britannica Europe: Human Geography at the National Geographic Society Europe at Curlie European Reading Room from the United States Library of Congress ""Europe"" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 9 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 907–953. The Columbia Gazetteer of the World Online Columbia University PressHistorical Maps Borders in Europe 3000BC to the present Geacron Historical atlas Online history of Europe in 21 maps" Continents,Four continents,"Europeans in the 16th century divided the world into four continents: Africa, America, Asia, and Europe. Each of the four continents was seen to represent its quadrant of the world—Africa in the south, America in the west, Asia in the east, and Europe in the north. This division fit the Renaissance sensibilities of the time, which also divided the world into four seasons, four classical elements, four cardinal directions, four classical virtues, etc. The four parts of the world or the four corners of the world refers to Africa (the ""south""), the Americas (the ""west""), Asia (the ""east""), and Europe (the ""north""). Depictions of personifications of the four continents became popular in several media. Sets of four could be placed around all sorts of four-sided objects, or in pairs along the façade of a building with a central doorway. They were common subjects for prints, and later small porcelain figures. A set of loose conventions quickly arose as to the iconography of the figures. They were normally female, with Europe queenly and grandly dressed, Asia fully dressed but in an exotic style, with Africa and America at most half-dressed, and given exotic props as attributes. == A three-cornered world == Before the discovery of the New World a commonplace of classical and medieval geography had been the ""three parts"" in which, from Mediterranean and European perspectives, the world was divided: Europe, Asia and Africa. As Laurent de Premierfait, the pre-eminent French translator of Latin literature in the early fifteenth century, informed his readers: Asia is one of the three parts of the world, which the authors divide in Asia, Africa and Europe. Asia extends towards the Orient as far as the rising sun (""devers le souleil levant""), towards the south (""midi"") it ends at the great sea, towards the occident it ends at our sea, and towards the north (""septentrion"") it ends in the Maeotian marshes and the river named Thanaus. == A fourth corner: the enlarged world == For Laurent's French readers, Asia ended at ""our sea"", the Mediterranean; Western Europeans were only dimly aware of the Ural Mountains, which divide Europe from Asia in the eyes of the modern geographer, and which represent the geological suture between two fragmentary continents, or cratons. Instead, the division between these continents in the European-centered picture was the Hellespont, which neatly separated Europe from Asia. From the European perspective, into the Age of Discovery, Asia began beyond the Hellespont with Asia Minor, where the Roman province of Asia had lain, and stretched away to what were initially unimaginably exotic and distant places— ""the Orient"". == Iconography == === Cesare Ripa's Iconologia === In 1593, Cesare Ripa published one of the most successful emblem books for the use of artists and artisans who might be called upon to depict allegorical figures. He covered an astonishingly wide variety of fields, and his work was reprinted many times, though the text did not always correlate to the illustration. The book was still being brought up-to-date in the 18th century. Ripa's text and the many sets of illustrations by various artists for different later editions (beginning in 1603) took some of the existing iconological conventions for the four continents, and were so influential that depictions for the next two centuries were largely determined by them.Europa is depicted as a woman dressed in fine clothes. She wears a crown while the papal tiara and crowns of kings lie at her feet, indicating her position of power over all the continents. The plentiful cornucopia shows Europe to be a land of abundance and the small temple she holds signifies Christianity. As a continent of great military force, Europe is also accompanied by a horse and an array of weapons. This probably draws on the Europa regina map schematic. Africa, by contrast wears the elephant headdress and is accompanied by animals common to Africa such as a lion, the scorpion of the desert sands, and Cleopatra's asps. These depictions come straight from Roman coins with personifications of the Roman province of Africa, a much smaller strip of the Mediterranean coast. The abundance and fertility of Africa is symbolized in the cornucopia that she holds. Other personifications of Africa at the time depict her nude, symbolizing the Eurocentric perceptions of Africa as an uncivilized land. While the illustration of Africa in Ripa's Iconologia is light-skinned, it was also common to illustrate her with dark skin.Ripa's Asia, seen by Europe as a continent of exotic spices, silk, and the seat of Religion, wears rich clothing and carries a smoking censer. The continent's warm climate is represented by the wreath of flowers in her hair. A camel takes its ease beside her.The iconic image of America shows a Native American maiden in a feathered headdress, with bow and arrow. Perhaps she represents a fabled Amazon from the river that already carried the name. In other instances of American iconography, symbols meant to connote wilderness and a tropical climate occasionally included animals entirely absent from the Americas, such as the lion. Flora and fauna as images were often interchangeable between depictions of Africa and America during the seventeenth century due to the association of the tropical climate of Central and South America with that of Africa.In addition to having an untamed landscape, America was portrayed as a place of savagery by virtue of the people who inhabited it. This can be seen in the woodcut as America is depicted as much more warlike than the other three continents. As Claire Le Corbeiller explains, America “was usually envisioned as a rather fierce savage – only slightly removed in type from the medieval tradition of the wild man.""The woodcut also shows America stepping on a human head, which is meant to connote cannibalism. Evidence of dismemberment, such as disembodied heads, in addition to America's bow and arrows and her lack of clothing were all meant to connote savagery. Such imagery was not uncommon in depictions of the Americas, but it was not always the case. In time, the image of a wild native being justly subjugated by a European conqueror was turned into a portrayal of an “Indian princess”. === Other depictions === The American millionaire philanthropist James Hazen Hyde, who inherited a majority share in Equitable Life Assurance Society, formed a collection of allegorical prints illustrating the Four Continents that are now at the New-York Historical Society; Hyde's drawings and a supporting collection of sets of porcelain table ornaments and other decorative arts illustrating the Four Continents were shared by various New York City museums. The Renaissance associated one major river to each of the continents; Europe is represented by the Danube, Africa and Asia by the Nile and the Ganges respectively, and America is represented by the La Plata. The Four Rivers theme appears for example in the Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi, a 17th-century fountain in Rome designed by Gian Lorenzo Bernini in the Piazza Navona in Rome, and in the painting The Four Continents by Peter Paul Rubens. Fountain of the Four Rivers, (Danube, Nile, Ganges, La Plata) == Decline == With the European discovery of the existence of Australia, the theme of the ""Four Continents"" lost much of its drive, long before another continent, Antarctica, was also discovered. The iconography survived as the Four Corners of the World, however, generally in self-consciously classicizing contexts: for instance, in New York, in front of the Beaux-Arts Alexander Hamilton U.S. Custom House (1907), four sculptural groups by Daniel Chester French symbolize the ""Four Corners of the World"". == Today == With the grouping of the continents by landmass, have been occasionally grouped leaving four continental landmasses. These remaining four landmasses are, from largest to smallest: Afroeurasia, America, Antarctica and Australia. == See also == Continent Four Corners (disambiguation) Four Seas Roof of the World Seven Seas == Notes == == References == Hall, James, Hall's Dictionary of Subjects and Symbols in Art, 1996 (2nd edn.), John Murray, ISBN 0719541476 Honour, Hugh, The New Golden Land: European Images of America from the Discoveries to the Present Time. New York: Pantheon Books, 1975. An exhibition based on the book's premise was curated by Honour at the Cleveland Museum of Art, 1975–77. Le Corbeiller, Clare, ""Miss America and Her Sisters, Personifications of the Four Parts of the World,"" Bulletin of the Metropolitan Museum of Art (Apr. 1961): 209–23. Fleming, E. McClung, ""The American Image as Indian Princess, 1765-1783,"" Winterthur Portfolio 2 (1965): 65–81. Fleming, E. McClung, ""From Indian Princess to Greek Goddess: The American Image, 1783-1815,"" Winterthur Portfolio 3 (1967): 37–66. Higham, John, ""Indian Princess and Roman Goddess: The First Female Symbols of America,"" Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society 100(1) 45-79: 1990 == External links == The Four Continents Hemisphere Maps The Universe Divided into Fours Guide to the James H. Hyde Collection of Allegorical Prints of the Four Continents" Continents,Continental fragment,"Continental crustal fragments, partly synonymous with microcontinents, are pieces of continents that have broken off from main continental masses to form distinct islands that are often several hundred kilometers from their place of origin. == Causes == Continental fragments and microcontinent crustal compositions are very similar to those of regular continental crust. The rifting process that caused the continental fragments to form most likely impacts their layers and overall thickness along with the addition of mafic intrusions to the crust. Studies have determined that the average crustal thickness of continental fragments is approximately 24.8 ± 5.7 kilometres (15.4 ± 3.5 mi). The sedimentary layer of continental fragments can be up to 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) thick and can overlay two to three crustal layers. Continental fragments have an average crustal density of 2.81 g/cm3 (0.102 lb/cu in) which is very similar to that of typical continental crust. Strike-slip fault zones cause the fragmentation of microcontinents. The zones link the extensional zones where continental pieces are already isolated through the remaining continental bridges. Additionally, they facilitate quick crustal thinning across narrow zones and near-vertical strike-slip-dominated faults. They develop fault-block patterns that slice the portion of continent into detachable slivers. The continental fragments are located at various angles from their transform faults. == History == Some microcontinents are fragments of Gondwana or other ancient cratonic continents; examples include Madagascar; the northern Mascarene Plateau, which includes the Seychelles Microcontinent; and the island of Timor. Other islands, such as several in the Caribbean Sea, are composed largely of granitic rock as well, but all continents contain both granitic and basaltic crust, and there is no clear dividing line between islands and microcontinents under such a definition. The Kerguelen Plateau is a large igneous province formed by a volcanic hotspot; however, it was associated with the breakup of Gondwana and was for a time above water, so it is considered a microcontinent, though not a continental fragment. Other hotspot islands such as the Hawaiian Islands and Iceland are considered neither microcontinents nor continental fragments. Not all islands can be considered microcontinents: Borneo, the British Isles, Newfoundland, and Sri Lanka, for example, are each within the continental shelf of an adjacent continent, separated from the mainland by inland seas flooding its margins.Several islands in the eastern Indonesian Archipelago are considered continental fragments, although this designation is controversial. The archipelago is home to numerous microcontinents with complex geology and tectonics. This makes it complicated to classify landmasses and determine causation for the formation of the landmass. These include southern Bacan, Banggai-Sulu Islands (Sulawesi), the Buru-Seram-Ambon complex (Maluku), Obi, Sumba, and Timor (Nusa Tenggara) == List of continental fragments and microcontinents == === Continental fragments (pieces of Pangaea smaller than Australia) === Azores Plateau Bollons Seamount – Continental fragment seamount southeast of New Zealand East Tasman Plateau – Submerged microcontinent south east of Tasmania Joseph Gilbert Seamount – Continental fragment seamount west of New Zealand Jan Mayen Microcontinent – Atlantic fragment of continental crust Madagascar – Island country in the Indian Ocean Mascarene Plateau – Submarine plateau in the western Indian Ocean Seychelles Microcontinent – A microcontinent underlying the Seychelles Islands in the western Indian Ocean Mauritia – A Precambrian microcontinent that broke away as India and Madagascar separated Parts of Wallaby Plateau Possibly Sumba, Timor, and other islands of eastern Indonesia; Sulawesi formed via the subduction of a microcontinent Rockall Plateau – Bathymetric feature northwest of Scotland and Ireland Socotra – Largest of four islands of the Socotra Archipelago, Yemen South Orkney Microcontinent Zealandia – Mostly submerged mass of continental crust containing New Zealand and New Caledonia === Other microcontinents (formed post-Pangaea) === Barbados – Island nation in the Caribbean Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica, and other granitic Caribbean islands Kerguelen Plateau – Oceanic plateau in the southern Indian Ocean == References ==" Continents,Indian subcontinent,"The Indian subcontinent is a physiographical region in Southern Asia, situated on the Indian Plate, projecting southwards into the Indian Ocean from the Himalayas. Geopolitically, it spans major landmasses from the countries of Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. Although the terms ""Indian subcontinent"" and ""South Asia"" are often used interchangeably to denote the region, the geopolitical term of South Asia frequently includes Afghanistan, which is not considered part of the subcontinent.Geologically, the subcontinent originates from Insular India, an isolated landmass that rifted from the supercontinent of Gondwana during the Cretaceous and merged with the landmass of Eurasia nearly 55 million years ago, forming the Himalayas. Historically, as well as to the present day, it is and has been the most populated region in the world, holding roughly 20–25 percent of the global population at all times in history. Geographically, it is the peninsular region in South Asia, delineated by the Himalayas in the north, the Hindu Kush in the west, and the Arakan in the east. The neighboring geographical regions around the subcontinent include the Tibetan Plateau to the north, the Indochinese Peninsula to the east, and the Iranian Plateau to the west and the Indian Ocean to the south. == Name == According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the term subcontinent signifies a ""subdivision of a continent which has a distinct geographical, political, or cultural identity"" and also a ""large land mass somewhat smaller than a continent"". Its use to signify the Indian subcontinent is evidenced from the early twentieth century when most of the territory was either part of the British Empire or allied with them. It was a convenient term to refer to the region comprising both British India and the princely states.The term has been particularly common in the British Empire and its successors, while the term South Asia is the more common usage in Europe and North America. According to historians Sugata Bose and Ayesha Jalal, the Indian subcontinent has come to be known as South Asia ""in more recent and neutral parlance"". Indologist Ronald B. Inden argues that the usage of the term South Asia is becoming more widespread since it clearly distinguishes the region from East Asia. While South Asia, a more accurate term that reflects the region's contemporary political demarcations, is replacing the Indian subcontinent, a term closely linked to the region's colonial heritage, as a cover term, the latter is still widely used in typological studies.Since the partition of India, citizens of Pakistan (which became independent of British India in 1947) and Bangladesh (which became independent of Pakistan in 1971) often perceive the use of the Indian subcontinent as offensive and suspicious because of the dominant placement of India in the term. As such it is being increasingly less used in those countries. Meanwhile, many Indian analysts prefer to use the term because of the socio-cultural commonalities of the region. The region has also been called the ""Asian subcontinent"", the ""South Asian subcontinent"", as well as ""India"" or ""Greater India"" in the classical and pre-modern sense. == Geology == The Indian subcontinent was formerly part of Gondwana, a supercontinent formed during the late Neoproterozoic and early Paleozoic. Gondwana began to break up during the Mesozoic, with Insular India separating from Antarctica 130-120 million years ago and Madagascar around 90 million years ago. during the Cretaceous. Insular India subsequently drifted northeastwards, colliding with the Eurasian Plate nearly 55 million years ago, during the Eocene, forming the Indian subcontinent. The zone where the Eurasian and Indian subcontinent plates meet remains geologically active, prone to major earthquakes.Physiographically, it is a peninsular region in South Asia delineated by the Himalayas in the north, the Hindu Kush in the west, and the Arakanese in the east. It extends southward into the Indian Ocean with the Arabian Sea to the southwest and the Bay of Bengal to the southeast. Most of this region rests on the Indian Plate and is isolated from the rest of Asia by large mountain barriers. Laccadive Islands, Maldives and the Chagos Archipelago are three series of coral atolls, cays and Faroes on the Indian plate along with the Chagos–Laccadive Ridge, a submarine ridge that was generated by the northern drift of the Indian Plate over the Réunion hotspot during the Cretaceous and early Cenozoic times. The Maldives archipelago rises from a basement of volcanic basalt outpourings from a depth of about 2000 m forming the central part of the ridge between Laccadives and the Great Chagos Bank. == Geography == According to anthropologist John R. Lukacs, ""the Indian Subcontinent occupies the major landmass of South Asia."" According to historian B. N. Mukherjee, ""The subcontinent is an indivisible geographical entity."" According to geographer Dudley Stamp, ""there is perhaps no mainland part of the world better marked off by nature as a region or a 'realm' by itself than the Indian subcontinent.""This natural physical landmass in South Asia is the dry-land portion of the Indian Plate, which has been relatively isolated from the rest of Eurasia. The Himalayas (from Brahmaputra River in the east to Indus River in the west), Karakoram (from Indus River in the east to Yarkand River in the west) and the Hindu Kush mountains (from Yarkand River westwards) form its northern boundary. In the west it is bounded by parts of the mountain ranges of Hindu Kush, Spīn Ghar (Safed Koh), Sulaiman Mountains, Kirthar Mountains, Brahui range, and Pab range among others, with the Western Fold Belt along the border (between the Sulaiman Range and the Chaman Fault) is the western boundary of the Indian Plate, where, along the Eastern Hindu Kush, lies the Afghanistan–Pakistan border. In the east, it is bounded by Patkai, Naga, Lushai and Chin hills. The Indian Ocean, Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea forms the boundary of the Indian subcontinent in the south, south-east and south-west. Given the difficulty of passage through the Himalayas, the sociocultural, religious and political interaction of the Indian subcontinent has largely been through the valleys of Afghanistan in its northwest, the valleys of Manipur in its east, and by maritime routes. More difficult but historically important interaction has also occurred through passages pioneered by the Tibetans. These routes and interactions have led to the spread of Buddhism out of the Indian subcontinent into other parts of Asia. The Islamic expansion arrived into the Indian subcontinent in two ways: through Afghanistan on land, and to the Indian coast through the maritime routes on the Arabian Sea. == Geopolitics == In terms of modern geopolitical boundaries, the Indian subcontinent constitutes Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, and Pakistan, besides, by convention, the island country of Sri Lanka and other nearby island nations of the Indian Ocean, such as Maldives and the British Indian Ocean Territory, unlike ""South Asia"" sometimes the expression ""Indian subcontinent"" may exclude the islands of Maldives and Sri Lanka. According to Chris Brewster and Wolfgang Mayrhofer, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal and Bhutan constitute the Indian subcontinent. Brewster and Mayrhofer also maintain that with Afghanistan and Maldives included the region is referred to as South Asia. The periphery of the subcontinent, including Pakistan, Bangladesh and the island chains of the Maldives, features large Muslim populations, while the heartland, including most of India, Nepal and Sri Lanka, are overwhelmingly Hindu or Buddhist. Since most of these countries are located on the Indian Plate, a continuous landmass, the borders between countries are often either a river or a no man's land.The precise definition of an ""Indian subcontinent"" in a geopolitical context is somewhat contested as there is no globally accepted definition on which countries are a part of South Asia or the Indian subcontinent. Whether called the Indian subcontinent or South Asia, the definition of the geographical extent of this region varies. Afghanistan, despite often considered as a part of South Asia, is usually not included in the Indian subcontinent. Maldives, an island country consisting of a small archipelago southwest of the peninsula, while largely considered a part of the Indian subcontinent, sometimes is mentioned by sources, including the International Monetary Fund, as a group of islands away from the Indian subcontinent in a south-western direction. == Culture == === Religion === === Sports === == See also == Arabian Peninsula Greater India Hindustan South Asia South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) == Notes == == References ==" Continents,North America,"North America is a continent in the Northern Hemisphere almost entirely within the Western Hemisphere. North America is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. The region includes Canada, the Caribbean, Central America, Greenland, Mexico, and the United States. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), representing approximately 16.5% of the Earth's land area and 4.8% of its total surface area. It is the third-largest continent by size after Asia and Africa, and the fourth-largest continent by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. As of 2013, North America's population was estimated at nearly 579 million people in 23 independent states, or about 7.5% of the world's population. In human geography and in the English-speaking world outside the United States, particularly in Canada, the terms ""North America"" and ""North American"" are typically defined as including just Canada and the United States.The first human populations reached North America during the Last Glacial Period approximately 20,000 to 17,000 years ago, during which they crossed the Bering land bridge in the Bering Strait on their way to reaching North America. The Paleo-Indian period in North America followed the Last Glacial Period, and lasted until about 10,000 years ago when the Archaic period began. The classic stage followed the Archaic period, and lasted from approximately the 6th to 13th centuries. Beginning in 1000 AD, the Norse were the first Europeans to begin exploring and ultimately colonizing areas of North America. In 1492, the exploratory voyages of Christopher Columbus led to a transatlantic exchange, including migrations of European settlers during the Age of Discovery and the early modern period. Present-day cultural and ethnic patterns reflect interactions between European colonists, indigenous peoples, African slaves, immigrants from Europe, Asia, and descendants of these respective groups. Europe's colonization in North America led to most North Americans speaking European languages, including English, Spanish, and French, and the cultures of the region commonly reflect Western traditions. However, relatively small parts of North America in Canada, the United States, Mexico, and Central America have indigenous populations that continue adhering to their respective pre-European colonial cultural and linguistic traditions. == Name == The Americas were named after the Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci by German cartographers Martin Waldseemüller and Matthias Ringmann. Vespucci explored South America between 1497 and 1502, and was the first European to suggest that the Americas represented a landmass not then known to Europeans. In 1507, Waldseemüller published a world map, and placed the word ""America"" on the continent of present-day South America. The continent north of present-day Mexico was then referred to as Parias. On a 1553 world map published by Petrus Apianus, North America was called ""Baccalearum"", meaning ""realm of the Cod fish"", in reference to the abundance of cod fish on the East Coast.Waldseemüller used the Latin version of Vespucci's name, Americus Vespucius, in its feminine form of ""America"", following the examples of ""Europa"", ""Asia"", and ""Africa"". Map makers later extended the name America to North America. In 1538, Gerardus Mercator used the term America on his world map of the entire Western Hemisphere. On his subsequent 1569 map, Mercator called North America ""America or New India"" (America sive India Nova).The Spanish Empire called its territories in North and South America ""Las Indias"", and the name given to the state body that oversaw the region was called the Council of the Indies. == Definitions == The United Nations and its statistics division recognize North America as including three regions: Northern America, Central America, and the Caribbean. ""Northern America"" is a distinct term from ""North America"", excluding Central America, which itself may or may not include Mexico. In the limited context of regional trade agreements, the term is used to reference three nations, Canada, the United States, and Mexico. France, Italy, Portugal, Spain, Romania, Greece, and the countries of Latin America use a six-continent model, with the Americas viewed as a single continent and North America designating a subcontinent comprising Canada, the United States, Mexico, and Saint Pierre and Miquelon (politically part of France), and often including Greenland and Bermuda.North America has historically been known by other names, including Spanish North America, New Spain, and Northern America, the first official name given to Mexico. === Regions === North America includes several regions and subregions, each of which have their own respective cultural, economic, and geographic regions. Economic regions include several regions formalized in 20th and 21st century trade agreements, including NAFTA between Canada, Mexico, and the United States, and CAFTA between Central America, the Dominican Republic, and the United States. North America is divided linguistically and culturally into two primary regions, Anglo-America and Latin America. Anglo-America includes most of North America, Belize, and Caribbean islands with English-speaking populations, though subnational entities, including Louisiana and Quebec, have large Francophone populations; in Quebec, French is the official language.. The southern portion of North America includes Central America and non-English speaking Caribbean nations. The north of the continent maintains recognized regions as well. In contrast to the common definition of North America, which encompasses the whole North American continent, the term ""North America"" is sometimes used more narrowly to refer only to four nations, Canada, Greenland, Mexico, and the U.S.The term Northern America refers to the northernmost countries and territories of North America: the U.S., Bermuda, Canada, Greenland, and St. Pierre and Miquelon. Although the term does not refer to a unified region, Middle America includes Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean.North America's largest countries by land area are Canada and the U.S., both of which have well-defined and recognized subregions. In Canada, these include (from east to west) Atlantic Canada, Central Canada, Canadian Prairies, the British Columbia Coast, and Northern Canada. In the U.S., they include New England, the Mid-Atlantic, South Atlantic states, East North Central states, West North Central states, East South Central states, West South Central states, Mountain states, and Pacific states. The Great Lakes region and the Pacific Northwest include areas in both Canada and the U.S. === Countries, dependencies, and other territories === == Natural characteristics == === Geography === North America occupies the northern portion of the landmass generally referred to as the New World, the Western Hemisphere, the Americas, or simply America, which, in many countries, is considered a single continent with North America a subcontinent. North America is the third-largest continent by area after Asia and Africa.North America's only land connection to South America is in present-day Panama at the Darien Gap on the Colombia-Panama border, placing almost all of Panama within North America. Alternatively, some geologists physiographically locate its southern limit at the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Mexico, with Central America extending southeastward to South America from this point. The Caribbean islands, or West Indies, are considered part of North America. The continental coastline is long and irregular. The Gulf of Mexico is the largest body of water indenting the continent, followed by Hudson Bay. Others include the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and the Gulf of California. Before the Central American isthmus formed, the region had been underwater. The islands of the West Indies delineate a submerged former land bridge, which had connected North and South America via what are now Florida and Venezuela. There are several islands off the continent's coasts; principally, the Arctic Archipelago, the Bahamas, Turks & Caicos, the Greater and Lesser Antilles, the Aleutian Islands (some of which are in the Eastern Hemisphere proper), the Alexander Archipelago, the many thousand islands of the British Columbia Coast, and Newfoundland. Greenland, a self-governing Danish island, and the world's largest, is on the same tectonic plate (the North American Plate) and is part of North America geographically. In a geologic sense, Bermuda is not part of the Americas, but an oceanic island that was formed on the fissure of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge over 100 million years ago (mya). The nearest landmass to it is Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. However, Bermuda is often thought of as part of North America, especially given its historical, political and cultural ties to Virginia and other parts of the continent. The vast majority of North America is on the North American Plate. Parts of western Mexico, including Baja California, and of California, including the cities of San Diego, Los Angeles, and Santa Cruz, lie on the eastern edge of the Pacific Plate, with the two plates meeting along the San Andreas fault. The southernmost portion of the continent and much of the West Indies lie on the Caribbean Plate, whereas the Juan de Fuca and Cocos plates border the North American Plate on its western frontier. The continent can be divided into four great regions (each of which contains many subregions): the Great Plains stretching from the Gulf of Mexico to the Canadian Arctic; the geologically young, mountainous west, including the Rocky Mountains, the Great Basin, California and Alaska; the raised but relatively flat plateau of the Canadian Shield in the northeast; and the varied eastern region, which includes the Appalachian Mountains, the coastal plain along the Atlantic seaboard, and the Florida peninsula. Mexico, with its long plateaus and cordilleras, falls largely in the western region, although the eastern coastal plain does extend south along the Gulf. The western mountains are split in the middle into the main range of the Rockies and the coast ranges in California, Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia, with the Great Basin—a lower area containing smaller ranges and low-lying deserts—in between. The highest peak is Denali in Alaska. The U.S. Geographical Survey (USGS) states that the geographic center of North America is ""6 miles [10 km] west of Balta, Pierce County, North Dakota"" at about 48°10′N 100°10′W, about 24 kilometers (15 mi) from Rugby, North Dakota. The USGS further states that ""No marked or monumented point has been established by any government agency as the geographic center of either the 50 states, the conterminous United States, or the North American continent."" Nonetheless, there is a 4.6-meter (15 ft) field stone obelisk in Rugby claiming to mark the center. The North American continental pole of inaccessibility is located 1,650 km (1,030 mi) from the nearest coastline, between Allen and Kyle, South Dakota at 43.36°N 101.97°W / 43.36; -101.97 (Pole of Inaccessibility North America). === Geology === ==== Geologic history ==== Laurentia is an ancient craton which forms the geologic core of North America; it formed between 1.5 and 1.0 billion years ago during the Proterozoic eon. The Canadian Shield is the largest exposure of this craton. From the Late Paleozoic to Early Mesozoic eras, North America was joined with the other modern-day continents as part of the supercontinent Pangaea, with Eurasia to its east. One of the results of the formation of Pangaea was the Appalachian Mountains, which formed some 480 mya, making it among the oldest mountain ranges in the world. When Pangaea began to rift around 200 mya, North America became part of Laurasia, before it separated from Eurasia as its own continent during the mid-Cretaceous period. The Rockies and other western mountain ranges began forming around this time from a period of mountain building called the Laramide orogeny, between 80 and 55 mya. The formation of the Isthmus of Panama that connected the continent to South America arguably occurred approximately 12 to 15 mya, and the Great Lakes (as well as many other northern freshwater lakes and rivers) were carved by receding glaciers about 10,000 years ago. North America is the source of much of what humanity knows about geologic time periods. The geographic area that would later become the United States has been the source of more varieties of dinosaurs than any other modern country. According to paleontologist Peter Dodson, this is primarily due to stratigraphy, climate and geography, human resources, and history. Much of the Mesozoic Era is represented by exposed outcrops in the many arid regions of the continent. The most significant Late Jurassic dinosaur-bearing fossil deposit in North America is the Morrison Formation of the western U.S. ==== Canada ==== Canada is geographically one of the oldest regions in the world, with more than half of the region consisting of Precambrian rocks that have been above sea level since the beginning of the Palaeozoic era. Canada's mineral resources are diverse and extensive. Across the Canadian Shield and in the north there are large iron, nickel, zinc, copper, gold, lead, molybdenum, and uranium reserves. Large diamond concentrations have been recently developed in the Arctic, making Canada one of the world's largest producers. Throughout the Shield, there are many mining towns extracting these minerals. The largest, and best known, is Sudbury, Ontario. Sudbury is an exception to the normal process of forming minerals in the Shield since there is significant evidence that the Sudbury Basin is an ancient meteorite impact crater. The nearby, but less known Temagami Magnetic Anomaly has striking similarities to the Sudbury Basin. Its magnetic anomalies are very similar to the Sudbury Basin, and so it could be a second metal-rich impact crater. The Shield is also covered by vast boreal forests that support an important logging industry. ==== United States ==== The lower 48 U.S. states can be divided into roughly five physiographic provinces: The American cordillera The Canadian Shield Northern portion of the upper midwestern U.S. The stable platform The coastal plain The Appalachian orogenic beltThe geology of Alaska is typical of that of the cordillera, while the major islands of Hawaii consist of Neogene volcanics erupted over a hot spot. ==== Central America ==== Central America is geologically active with volcanic eruptions and earthquakes occurring from time to time. In 1976 Guatemala was hit by a major earthquake, killing 23,000 people; Managua, the capital of Nicaragua, was devastated by earthquakes in 1931 and 1972, the last one killing about 5,000 people; three earthquakes devastated El Salvador, one in 1986 and two in 2001; one earthquake devastated northern and central Costa Rica in 2009, killing at least 34 people; in Honduras a powerful earthquake killed seven people in 2009. Volcanic eruptions are common in the region. In 1968 the Arenal Volcano, in Costa Rica, erupted and killed 87 people. Fertile soils from weathered volcanic lavas have made it possible to sustain dense populations in agriculturally productive highland areas. Central America has many mountain ranges; the longest are the Sierra Madre de Chiapas, the Cordillera Isabelia, and the Cordillera de Talamanca. Between the mountain ranges lie fertile valleys that are suitable for the people; in fact, most of the population of Honduras, Costa Rica, and Guatemala live in valleys. Valleys are also suitable for the production of coffee, beans, and other crops. === Climate === North America is a very large continent that extends from north of the Arctic Circle to south of the Tropic of Cancer. Greenland, along with the Canadian Shield, is tundra with average temperatures ranging from 10 to 20 °C (50 to 68 °F), but central Greenland is composed of a very large ice sheet. This tundra radiates throughout Canada, but its border ends near the Rocky Mountains (but still contains Alaska) and at the end of the Canadian Shield, near the Great Lakes. Climate west of the Cascade Range is described as being temperate weather with average precipitation 20 inches (510 millimeters). Climate in coastal California is described to be Mediterranean, with average temperatures in cities like San Francisco ranging from 57 to 70 °F (14 to 21 °C) over the course of the year.Stretching from the East Coast to eastern North Dakota, and stretching down to Kansas, is the humid continental climate featuring intense seasons, with a large amount of annual precipitation, with places like New York City averaging 50 in (1,300 mm). Starting at the southern border of the humid continental climate and stretching to the Gulf of Mexico (whilst encompassing the eastern half of Texas) is the humid subtropical climate. This area has the wettest cities in the contiguous U.S., with annual precipitation reaching 67 in (1,700 mm) in Mobile, Alabama. Stretching from the borders of the humid continental and subtropical climates, and going west to the Sierra Nevada, south to the southern tip of Durango, north to the border with tundra climate, the steppe/desert climates are the driest in the United States. Highland climates cut from north to south of the continent, where subtropical or temperate climates occur just below the tropics, as in central Mexico and Guatemala. Tropical climates appear in the island regions and in the subcontinent's bottleneck, found in countries and states bathed by the Caribbean Sea or to the south of the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean. Precipitation patterns vary across the region, and as such rainforest, monsoon, and savanna types can be found, with rains and high temperatures throughout the year. === Ecology === Notable North American fauna include the bison, black bear, jaguar, cougar, prairie dog, turkey, pronghorn, raccoon, coyote, and monarch butterfly. Notable plants that were domesticated in North America include tobacco, maize, squash, tomato, sunflower, blueberry, avocado, cotton, chile pepper, and vanilla. == History == === Pre-Columbian era === The indigenous peoples of the Americas have many creation myths by which they assert that they have been present on the land since its creation, but there is no evidence that humans evolved there. The specifics of the initial settlement of the Americas by ancient Asians are subject to ongoing research and discussion. The traditional theory has been that hunters entered the Bering Land Bridge between eastern Siberia and present-day Alaska from 27,000 to 14,000 years ago. A growing viewpoint is that the first American inhabitants sailed from Beringia some 13,000 years ago, with widespread habitation of the Americas during the end of the Last Glacial Period, in what is known as the Late Glacial Maximum, around 12,500 years ago. The oldest petroglyphs in North America date from 15,000 to 10,000 years before present. Genetic research and anthropology indicate additional waves of migration from Asia via the Bering Strait during the Early-Middle Holocene.Prior to the arrival of European explorers and colonists in North America, the natives of North America were divided into many different polities, ranging from small bands of a few families to large empires. They lived in several culture areas, which roughly correspond to geographic and biological zones that defined the representative cultures and lifestyles of the indigenous people who lived there, including the bison hunters of the Great Plains and the farmers of Mesoamerica. Native groups also are classified by their language families, which included Athapascan and Uto-Aztecan languages. Indigenous peoples with similar languages did not always share the same material culture, however, and were not necessarily always allies. Anthropologists speculate that the Inuit of the high Arctic arrived in North America much later than other native groups, evidenced by the disappearance of Dorset culture artifacts from the archaeological record and their replacement by the Thule people. During the thousands of years of native habitation on the continent, cultures changed and shifted. One of the oldest yet discovered is the Clovis culture (c. 9550–9050 BCE) in modern New Mexico. Later groups include the Mississippian culture and related Mound building cultures, found in the Mississippi River valley and the Pueblo culture of what is now the Four Corners. The more southern cultural groups of North America were responsible for the domestication of many common crops now used around the world, such as tomatoes, squash, and maize. As a result of the development of agriculture in the south, many other cultural advances were made there. The Mayans developed a writing system, built huge pyramids and temples, had a complex calendar, and developed the concept of zero around 400 CE.The first recorded European references to North America are in Norse sagas where it is referred to as Vinland. The earliest verifiable instance of pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact by any European culture with the North America mainland has been dated to around 1000 CE. The site, situated at the northernmost extent of the island named Newfoundland, has provided unmistakable evidence of Norse settlement. Norse explorer Leif Erikson (c. 970–1020 CE) is thought to have visited the area. Erikson was the first European to make landfall on the continent (excluding Greenland).The Mayan culture was still present in southern Mexico and Guatemala when the Spanish conquistadors arrived, but political dominance in the area had shifted to the Aztec Empire, whose capital city Tenochtitlan was located further north in the Valley of Mexico. The Aztecs were conquered in 1521 by Hernán Cortés. === Post-contact, 1492–1910 === During the so-called Age of Discovery, Europeans explored overseas and staked claims to various parts of North America, much of which was already settled by indigenous peoples. Upon Europeans' arrival in the ""New World"", indigenous peoples had a variety of reactions, including curiosity, trading, cooperation, resignation, and resistance. The indigenous population declined substantially following European arrival, primarily due to the introduction of Eurasian diseases, such as smallpox, to which the indigenous peoples lacked immunity, and because of violent conflicts with Europeans. Indigenous culture changed significantly and their affiliation with political and cultural groups also changed. Several linguistic groups died out, and others changed quite quickly. On the North America's southeastern coast, Spanish explorer Juan Ponce de León, who had accompanied Columbus's second voyage, visited and named in 1513 La Florida. As the colonial period unfolded, Spain, England, and France appropriated and claimed extensive territories in North America eastern and southern coastlines. Spain established permanent settlements on the Caribbean islands of Hispaniola and Cuba in the 1490s, building cities, putting the resident indigenous populations to work, raising crops for Spanish settlers and panning gold to enrich the Spaniards. Much of the indigenous population died due to disease and overwork, spurring the Spaniards on to claim new lands and peoples. An expedition under the command of Spanish settler, Hernán Cortés, sailed westward in 1519 to what turned out to be the mainland in Mexico. With local indigenous allies, the Spanish conquered the Aztec empire in central Mexico in 1521. Spain then established permanent cities in Mexico, Central America, and Spanish South America in the sixteenth century. Once Spaniards conquered the high civilization of the Aztecs and Incas, the Caribbean was a backwater of the Spanish empire. Other European powers began to intrude on areas claimed by Spain, including the Caribbean islands. France took the western half of Hispaniola and developed Saint-Domingue as a cane sugar producing colony worked by black slave labor. Britain took Barbados and Jamaica, and the Dutch and Danes took islands previously claimed by Spain. Britain did not begin settling on the North American mainland until a hundred years after the first Spanish settlements, since it sought first to control nearby Ireland. === English settlements === The first permanent English settlement was in Jamestown, Virginia in 1607, followed by additional colonial establishments on the east coast from present-day Georgia in the south to Massachusetts in the north, forming the Thirteen Colonies of British America. The English did not establish settlements north or east of the St. Lawrence Valley in present-day Canada until after the conclusion of the American Revolutionary War. Britain's early settlements in present-day Canada included St. John's, Newfoundland in 1630 and Halifax, Nova Scotia in 1749. The first permanent French settlement was in Quebec City, Quebec in 1608 === Seven Years' War === With the British victory in the Seven Years' War, France in 1763 ceded to Britain its claims of North American territories east of the Mississippi River. Spain, in turn, gained rights to the territories west of Mississippi, which then served as a border between Spain and Britain's territorial claims. French colonists settled Illinois Country after several generations of experience on North America, migrating over the Mississippi River to regions where Spain was not present and where they were able to leverage their earlier Louisiana French settlements around the Gulf of Mexico. These early French settlers partnered with midwest indigenous tribes, and their mixed ancestry descendants later followed a westward expansion all the way to the Pacific Ocean on the present-day U.S. West Coast. === American Revolution === In 1776, after various attempts to reconcile differences with the British, the Thirteen Colonies in British America sent delegates to the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia, who unanimously adopted the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776, written primarily by Thomas Jefferson, a member of the Committee of Five charged by the Second Continental Congress with authoring it. In the Declaration, the thirteen colonies declared their independence from the British monarchy, then governed by King George III, and detailed the factors that contributed to their decision. With the signing and issuance of the Declaration of Independence, the thirteen colonies formalized and escalated the American Revolutionary War, which had begun the year before at the Battles of Lexington and Concord on April 19, 1775. Gathered in Philadelphia following the war's outbreak, delegates from the thirteen colonies established the Continental Army from various patriot militias then engaged in resisting the British, and appointed George Washington as the Continental Army's military commander. As the American Revolutionary War progressed, France and Spain, both then enemies of Britain, began to ultimately see the promise of a potential American victory in the war and began supporting Washington and the American Revolutionary cause. The British Army, in turn, was supported by Hessian military units from present-day Germany. In 1783, after an eight-year attempt to defeat the American rebellion, King George III acknowledged Britain's defeat in the war, leading to the signing of the Treaty of Paris on September 3, 1783, which solidified the sovereign establishment of the United States. === Westward expansion === By the late 18th century, Russia was established on the Pacific Northwest northern coastline, where it was engaged in maritime fur trade and was supported by various indigenous settlements in the region. As a result, the Spanish were showing more interest in controlling the trade on the Pacific coast and mapped most of its coastline. The first Spanish settlements were attempted in Alta California during that period. Numerous overland explorations associated with voyageurs, fur trade, and U.S. led expeditions, including the Lewis and Clark, Fremont and Wilkes expeditions, reached the Pacific. In 1803, during the presidency of Thomas Jefferson, the third U.S. president, Napoleon Bonaparte sold France's remaining North American territorial claims, which included regions west of the Mississippi River, to the U.S., in the Louisiana Purchase. Spain and the U.S. settled their western boundary dispute in 1819 in the Adams–Onís Treaty. Mexico fought a lengthy war for independence from Spain, winning it for Mexico (which included Central America at the time) in 1821. The U.S. sought further westward expansion and fought the Mexican–American War, gaining a vast territory that first Spain and then Mexico claimed but which they did not effectively control. Much of the area was in fact dominated by indigenous peoples, which did not recognize the claims of Spain, France, or the U.S. Russia sold its North American claims, which included the present-day U.S. state of Alaska, to the U.S in 1867. === Canada and Panama Canal === In 1867, colonial settlers north of the United States, unified as the dominion of Canada. The U.S. sought to dig a canal across the Isthmus of Panama in present-day Panama in Central America, then a part of present-day Colombia. The U.S. aided Panamanians in a war that resulted in its separation from Colombia. The U.S. subsequently carved out the Panama Canal Zone, and claimed sovereignty over it. After decades of work, the Panama Canal was completed, which connected the Atlantic and Pacific oceans in 1913 and greatly facilitated global shipping navigation. == Demographics == Canada and the United States are the wealthiest and most developed nations on the continent followed by Mexico, a newly industrialized country. The countries of Central America and the Caribbean are at various levels of economic and human development. For example, small Caribbean island-nations, such as Barbados, Trinidad and Tobago, and Antigua and Barbuda, have a higher GDP (PPP) per capita than Mexico due to their smaller populations. Panama and Costa Rica have a significantly higher Human Development Index and GDP than the rest of the Central American nations. Additionally, despite Greenland's vast resources in oil and minerals, much of them remain untapped, and the island is economically dependent on fishing, tourism, and subsidies from Denmark. Nevertheless, the island is highly developed.Demographically, North America is ethnically diverse. Its three main groups are Whites, Mestizos and Blacks. There is a significant minority of Indigenous Americans and Asians among other less numerous groups. === Languages === The dominant languages in North America are English, Spanish, and French. Danish is prevalent in Greenland alongside Greenlandic, and Dutch is spoken side by side local languages in the Dutch Caribbean. The term Anglo-America is used to refer to the anglophone countries of the Americas: namely Canada (where English and French are co-official) and the U.S., but also sometimes Belize and parts of the tropics, especially the Commonwealth Caribbean. Latin America refers to the other areas of the Americas (generally south of the U.S.) where the Romance languages, derived from Latin, of Spanish and Portuguese, (but French-speaking countries are not usually included) predominate: the other republics of Central America (but not always Belize), part of the Caribbean (not the Dutch-, English-, or French-speaking areas), Mexico, and most of South America (except Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana [France], and the Falkland Islands [UK]). The French language has historically played a significant role in North America and now retains a distinctive presence in some regions. Canada is officially bilingual. French is the official language of the Province of Quebec, where 95% of the people speak it as either their first or second language, and it is co-official with English in the Province of New Brunswick. Other French-speaking locales include the Province of Ontario (the official language is English, but there are an estimated 600,000 Franco-Ontarians), the Province of Manitoba (co-official as de jure with English), the French West Indies and Saint-Pierre et Miquelon, as well as the U.S. state of Louisiana, where French is also an official language. Haiti is included with this group based on historical association but Haitians speak both Creole and French. Similarly, French and French Antillean Creole is spoken in Saint Lucia and the Commonwealth of Dominica alongside English. A significant number of Indigenous languages are spoken in North America, with 372,000 people in the U.S. speaking an indigenous language at home, about 225,000 in Canada and roughly 6 million in Mexico. In the U.S. and Canada, there are approximately 150 surviving indigenous languages of the 300 spoken prior to European contact. === Religions === Christianity is the largest religion in the United States, Canada, and Mexico. According to a 2012 Pew Research Center survey, 77% of the population considered themselves Christians. Christianity also is the predominant religion in the 23 dependent territories in North America. The U.S. has the largest Christian population in the world, with nearly 247 million Christians (70%), although other countries have higher percentages of Christians among their populations. Mexico has the world's second largest number of Catholics, surpassed only by Brazil.According to the same study, the religiously unaffiliated (including agnostics and atheists) make up about 17% of the population of Canada and the U.S. Those with no religious affiliation make up about 24% of Canada's total population.Canada, the U.S. and Mexico host communities of Jews (6 million or about 1.8%), Buddhists (3.8 million or 1.1%) and Muslims (3.4 million or 1.0%). The largest number of Jews can be found in the U.S. (5.4 million), Canada (375,000) and Mexico (67,476). The U.S. hosts the largest Muslim population in North America with 2.7 million or 0.9%, while Canada hosts about one million Muslims or 3.2% of the population. In Mexico there were 3,700 Muslims in 2010. In 2012, U-T San Diego estimated U.S. practitioners of Buddhism at 1.2 million people, of whom 40% are living in Southern California.The predominant religion in Mexico and Central America is Christianity (96%). Beginning with the Spanish colonization of Mexico in the 16th century, Roman Catholicism was the only religion permitted by Spanish crown and Catholic church. A vast campaign of religious conversion, the so-called ""spiritual conquest"", was launched to bring the indigenous peoples into the Christian fold. The Inquisition was established to assure orthodox belief and practice. The Catholic Church remained an important institution, so that even after political independence, Roman Catholicism remained the dominant religion. Since the 1960s, there has been an increase in other Christian groups, particularly Protestantism, as well as other religious organizations, and individuals identifying themselves as having no religion. Christianity is also the predominant religion in the Caribbean (85%). Other religious groups in the region are Hinduism, Islam, Rastafari (in Jamaica), and Afro-American religions such as Santería and Vodou. === Populace === North America is the fourth most populous continent after Asia, Africa, and Europe. Its most populous country is the U.S. with 329.7 million persons. The second largest country is Mexico with a population of 112.3 million. Canada is the third most populous country with 37.0 million. The majority of Caribbean island-nations have national populations under a million, though Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Puerto Rico (a territory of the U.S.), Jamaica, and Trinidad and Tobago each have populations higher than a million. Greenland has a small population of 55,984 for its massive size (2,166,000 km2 or 836,300 mi2), and therefore, it has the world's lowest population density at 0.026 pop./km2 (0.067 pop./mi2).While the U.S., Canada, and Mexico maintain the largest populations, large city populations are not restricted to those nations. There are also large cities in the Caribbean. The largest cities in North America, by far, are Mexico City and New York City. These cities are the only cities on the continent to exceed eight million, and two of three in the Americas. Next in size are Los Angeles, Toronto, Chicago, Havana, Santo Domingo, and Montreal. Cities in the Sun Belt regions of the U.S., such as those in Southern California and Houston, Phoenix, Miami, Atlanta, and Las Vegas, are experiencing rapid growth. These causes included warm temperatures, retirement of Baby Boomers, large industry, and the influx of immigrants. Cities near the U.S. border, particularly in Mexico, are also experiencing large amounts of growth. Most notable is Tijuana, a city bordering San Diego that receives immigrants from all over Latin America and parts of Europe and Asia. Yet as cities grow in these warmer regions of North America, they are increasingly forced to deal with the major issue of water shortages.Eight of the top ten metropolitan areas are located in the U.S. These metropolitan areas all have a population of above 5.5 million and include the New York City metropolitan area, Los Angeles metropolitan area, Chicago metropolitan area, and the Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex. Whilst the majority of the largest metropolitan areas are within the U.S., Mexico is host to the largest metropolitan area by population in North America: Greater Mexico City. Canada also breaks into the top ten largest metropolitan areas with the Toronto metropolitan area having six million people. The proximity of cities to each other on the Canada–U.S. border and Mexico–U.S. border has led to the rise of international metropolitan areas. These urban agglomerations are observed at their largest and most productive in Detroit–Windsor and San Diego–Tijuana and experience large commercial, economic, and cultural activity. The metropolitan areas are responsible for millions of dollars of trade dependent on international freight. In Detroit-Windsor the Border Transportation Partnership study in 2004 concluded US$13 billion was dependent on the Detroit–Windsor international border crossing while in San Diego-Tijuana freight at the Otay Mesa Port of Entry was valued at US$20 billion. North America has also been witness to the growth of megapolitan areas. In the U.S. exists eleven megaregions that transcend international borders and comprise Canadian and Mexican metropolitan regions. These are the Arizona Sun Corridor, Cascadia, Florida, Front Range, Great Lakes Megalopolis, Gulf Coast, Northeast, Northern California, Piedmont Atlantic, Southern California, and the Texas Triangle. Canada and Mexico are also the home of megaregions. These include the Quebec City–Windsor Corridor, Golden Horseshoe—both of which are considered part of the Great Lakes Megalopolis—and the Central Mexico megalopolis. Traditionally the largest megaregion has been considered the Boston-Washington, DC Corridor, or the Northeast, as the region is one massive contiguous area. Yet megaregion criterion have allowed the Great Lakes Megalopolis to maintain status as the most populated region, being home to 53,768,125 people in 2000. †2011 Census figures == Economy == North America's GDP per capita was evaluated in October 2016 by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to be $41,830, making it the richest continent in the world, followed by Oceania.Canada, Mexico, and the U.S. have significant and multifaceted economic systems. The U.S. has the largest economy of all three countries and in the world. In 2016, the U.S. had an estimated per capita gross domestic product (PPP) of $57,466 according to the World Bank, and is the most technologically developed economy of the three. The U.S.'s services sector comprises 77% of the country's GDP (estimated in 2010), industry comprises 22% and agriculture comprises 1.2%. The U.S. economy is also the fastest growing economy in North America and the Americas as a whole, with the highest GDP per capita in the Americas as well.Canada shows significant growth in the sectors of services, mining and manufacturing. Canada's per capita GDP (PPP) was estimated at $44,656 and it had the 11th largest GDP (nominal) in 2014. Canada's services sector comprises 78% of the country's GDP (estimated in 2010), industry comprises 20% and agriculture comprises 2%. Mexico has a per capita GDP (PPP) of $16,111 and as of 2014 is the 15th largest GDP (nominal) in the world. Being a newly industrialized country, Mexico maintains both modern and outdated industrial and agricultural facilities and operations. Its main sources of income are oil, industrial exports, manufactured goods, electronics, heavy industry, automobiles, construction, food, banking and financial services.The North American economy is well defined and structured in three main economic areas. These areas are those under the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), the Caribbean Community and Common Market (CARICOM), and the Central American Common Market (CACM). Of these trade blocs, the U.S. takes part in two. In addition to the larger trade blocs there is the Canada-Costa Rica Free Trade Agreement among numerous other free-trade relations, often between the larger, more developed countries and Central American and Caribbean countries. NAFTA formed one of the four largest trade blocs in the world. Its implementation in 1994 was designed for economic homogenization with hopes of eliminating barriers of trade and foreign investment between Canada, the U.S. and Mexico. While Canada and the U.S. already conducted the largest bilateral trade relationship—and to present day still do—in the world and Canada–U.S. trade relations already allowed trade without national taxes and tariffs, NAFTA allowed Mexico to experience a similar duty-free trade. The free-trade agreement allowed for the elimination of tariffs that had previously been in place on U.S.–Mexico trade. Trade volume has steadily increased annually and in 2010, surface trade between the three NAFTA nations reached an all-time historical increase of 24.3% or US$791 billion. The NAFTA trade bloc GDP (PPP) is the world's largest with US$17.617 trillion. This is in part attributed to the fact that the economy of the U.S. is the world's largest national economy; the country had a nominal GDP of approximately $14.7 trillion in 2010. The countries of NAFTA are also some of each other's largest trade partners. The U.S. is the largest trade partner of Canada and Mexico, while Canada and Mexico are each other's third largest trade partners. In 2018, the NAFTA was replaced by the U.S.–Mexico–Canada Agreement. The Caribbean trade bloc (CARICOM) came into agreement in 1973 when it was signed by 15 Caribbean nations. As of 2000, CARICOM trade volume was US$96 billion. CARICOM also allowed for the creation of a common passport for associated nations. In the past decade the trade bloc focused largely on free-trade agreements and under the CARICOM Office of Trade Negotiations free-trade agreements have been signed into effect. Integration of Central American economies occurred under the signing of the Central American Common Market agreement in 1961; this was the first attempt to engage the nations of this area into stronger financial cooperation. The 2006 implementation of the Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA) left the future of the CACM unclear. The Central American Free Trade Agreement was signed by five Central American countries, the Dominican Republic, and the U.S. The focal point of CAFTA is to create a free trade area similar to that of NAFTA. In addition to the U.S., Canada also has relations in Central American trade blocs. These nations also take part in inter-continental trade blocs. Mexico takes a part in the G3 Free Trade Agreement with Colombia and Venezuela and has a trade agreement with the EU. The U.S. has proposed and maintained trade agreements under the Transatlantic Free Trade Area between itself and the European Union; the U.S.–Middle East Free Trade Area between numerous Middle Eastern nations and itself; and the Trans-Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership between Southeast Asian nations, Australia, and New Zealand. === Transport === The Pan-American Highway route in the Americas is the portion of a network of roads nearly 48,000 km (30,000 mi) in length which travels through the mainland nations. No definitive length of the Pan-American Highway exists because the U.S. and Canadian governments have never officially defined any specific routes as being part of the Pan-American Highway, and Mexico officially has many branches connecting to the U.S. border. However, the total length of the portion from Mexico to the northern extremity of the highway is roughly 26,000 km (16,000 mi). The first transcontinental railroad in the U.S. was built in the 1860s, linking the railroad network of the eastern U.S. with California on the Pacific coast. Finished on 10 May 1869 at the famous golden spike event at Promontory Summit, Utah, it created a nationwide mechanized transportation network that revolutionized the population and economy of the American West, catalyzing the transition from the wagon trains of previous decades to a modern transportation system. Although an accomplishment, it achieved the status of first transcontinental railroad by connecting myriad eastern U.S. railroads to the Pacific and was not the largest single railroad system in the world. The Canadian Grand Trunk Railway had, by 1867, already accumulated more than 2,055 km (1,277 mi) of track by connecting Ontario with the Canadian Atlantic provinces west as far as Port Huron, Michigan, through Sarnia, Ontario. === Communications === A shared telephone system known as the North American Numbering Plan (NANP) is an integrated telephone numbering plan of 24 countries and territories: the U.S. and its territories, Canada, Bermuda, and 17 Caribbean nations. == Culture == The cultures of North America are diverse. The U.S. and English Canada have many cultural similarities, while French Canada has a distinct culture from Anglophone Canada, which is protected by law. Since the U.S. was formed from portions previously part of the Spanish Empire and then independent Mexico, and there has been considerable and continuing immigration of Spanish speakers from south of the U.S.–Mexico border. In the southwest of the U.S. there are many Hispanic cultural traditions and considerable bilingualism. Mexico and Central America are part of Latin America and are culturally distinct from anglophone and francophone North America. However, they share with the United States the establishment of post-independence governments that are federated representative republics with written constitutions dating from their founding as nations. Canada is a federated parliamentary democracy under a constitutional monarchy. Canada's constitution dates to 1867, with confederation, in the British North America Act, but not until 1982 did Canada have the power to amend its own constitution. Canada's Francophone heritage has been enshrined in law since the British parliament passed the Quebec Act of 1774. In contrast to largely Protestant Anglo settlers in North America, French-speaking Canadians were Catholic and with the Quebec Act were guaranteed freedom to practice their religion, restored the right of the Catholic Church to impose tithes for its support, and established French civil law in most circumstances. The distinctiveness of French language and culture has been codified in Canadian law, so that both English and French are designated official languages. The U.S. has no official language, but its national language is English. The Canadian government took action to protect Canadian culture by limiting non-Canadian content in broadcasting, creating the Canadian Radio and Telecommunications Commission to monitor Canadian content. In Quebec, the provincial government established the Quebec Office of the French Language, often called the ""language police"" by Anglophones, which mandates the use of French terminology and signage in French. Since 1968 the unicameral legislature has been called the Quebec National Assembly. Saint-Jean-Baptiste Day, 24 June, is the national holiday of Quebec and celebrated by francophone Canadians throughout Canada. In Quebec, the school system was divided into Catholic and Protestant, so-called confessional schools. Anglophone education in Quebec has been increasingly undermined.Latino culture is strong in the southwest of the U.S., as well as Florida, which draws Latin Americans from many countries in the hemisphere. Northern Mexico, particularly in the cities of Monterrey, Tijuana, Ciudad Juárez, and Mexicali, is strongly influenced by the culture and way of life of the U.S. Monterrey, a modern city with a significant industrial group, has been regarded as the most Americanized city in Mexico. Northern Mexico, the Western U.S. and Alberta, Canada share a cowboy culture. The Anglophone Caribbean states have witnessed and participated in the decline of the British Empire and its influence on the region, and its replacement by the economic influence of Northern America in the Anglophone Caribbean. This is partly due to the relatively small populations of the English-speaking Caribbean countries, and also because many of them now have more people living abroad than those remaining at home.Greenland has experienced many immigration waves from Northern Canada, e.g. the Thule people. Therefore, Greenland shares some cultural ties with the indigenous peoples of Canada. Greenland is also considered Nordic and has strong Danish ties due to centuries of colonization by Denmark. === Popular culture – sports === The U.S. and Canada have major sports teams that compete against each other, including baseball, basketball, hockey, and soccer/football. Canada, Mexico and the U.S. will host the 2026 FIFA World Cup. The following table shows the most prominent sports leagues in North America, in order of average revenue. Canada has a separate Canadian Football League from the U.S. teams. The Native American game of lacrosse is considered a national sport in Canada. Curling is an important winter sport in Canada, and the Winter Olympics includes it in the roster. The English sport of cricket is popular in parts of anglophone Canada and very popular in parts of the former British empire, but in Canada is considered a minor sport. Boxing is also a major sport in some countries, such as Mexico, Panama and Puerto Rico, and it is considered one of the main individual sports in the U.S. == See also == Flags of North America List of cities in North America North American Union Outline of North America Table manners in North America == References == === Footnotes === === Citations === == Further reading == == External links == North America web resources provided by GovPubs at the University of Colorado Boulder Libraries North America at the Encyclopædia Britannica North America: Human Geography at the National Geographic Society European Colonization of North America at the National Geographic Society North America at Curlie ""North America"" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 19 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 760–765. The Columbia Gazetteer of the World Online Columbia University Press ""Colonial North America at Harvard Library"". Cambridge (Mass.): Harvard Library. 2015. LCCN 2019234716. Archived from the original on 25 March 2023. Retrieved 25 March 2023. Interactive SVG version of Non-Native American Nations Control over N America 1750–2008 animation" Continents,Oceania,"Oceania (UK: OH-s(h)ee-AH-nee-ə, -⁠AY-, US: (listen) OH-shee-AN-ee-ə, -⁠AHN-) is a geographical region that is described as a continent in some parts of the world. It includes Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. Spanning the Eastern and Western hemispheres, Oceania is estimated to have a land area of 8,525,989 square kilometres (3,291,903 sq mi) and a population of around 44.4 million as of 2022. Oceania is described as a geographical region in most of the English-speaking world, but outside of the English-speaking world, Oceania is described as one of the continents. In this model of the world, Australia is only seen as an island nation contained inside of the continent of Oceania, and not a continent by itself. When compared to the other continents, Oceania is the smallest in land area and the second-least populated after Antarctica. Oceania has a diverse mix of economies from the highly developed and globally competitive financial markets of Australia, French Polynesia, Hawaii, New Caledonia, and New Zealand, which rank high in quality of life and Human Development Index, to the much less developed economies of Kiribati, Papua New Guinea, Tuvalu, Vanuatu, and Western New Guinea, while also including medium-sized economies of Pacific islands such as Fiji, Palau, and Tonga. The largest and most populous country in Oceania is Australia, and the largest city is Sydney. Puncak Jaya in Highland Papua, Indonesia, is the highest peak in Oceania at 4,884 m (16,024 ft).The first settlers of Australia, New Guinea, and the large islands just to the east arrived more than 60,000 years ago. Oceania was first explored by Europeans from the 16th century onward. Portuguese explorers, between 1512 and 1526, reached the Tanimbar Islands, some of the Caroline Islands and west New Guinea. Spanish and Dutch explorers followed, then British and French. On his first voyage in the 18th century, James Cook, who later arrived at the highly developed Hawaiian Islands, went to Tahiti and followed the east coast of Australia for the first time.The arrival of European settlers in subsequent centuries resulted in a significant alteration in the social and political landscape of Oceania. The Pacific theatre saw major action during the Second World War, mainly between Allied powers the United States, Philippines (a U.S. Commonwealth at the time) and Australia, and Axis power Japan. The rock art of Aboriginal Australians is the longest continuously practiced artistic tradition in the world. Most Oceanian countries are multi-party representative parliamentary democracies, with tourism being a large source of income for the Pacific island nations. == Definitions and extent == === Characteristics === Definitions of Oceania vary. The broadest definition of Oceania encompasses the many islands between mainland Asia and the Americas; The island nation of Australia is the only piece of land in the area which is large enough to typically be considered a continent. The culture of the people who lived on these islands was often distinct from that of Asia and pre-Columbian America, hence a lack of association with either. Before Europeans arrived in the area, the sea shielded Australia and south central Pacific islands from cultural influences that spread through large continental landmasses and adjacent islands. The islands of the Malay Archipelago, north of Australia, mainly lie on the continental shelf of Asia, and their inhabitants had more exposure to mainland Asian culture as a result of this closer proximity. The island of Taiwan similarly lies on the continental shelf of Asia, with their inhabitants historically having had exchange with mainland Asia. The geographer Conrad Malte-Brun coined the French expression Terres océaniques (Oceanic lands) c. 1804, then in 1814 another French cartographer, Adrien-Hubert Brué, coined from this expression the shorter ""Océanie"" putting it on a map, ""Océanie, ou cinquième partie du monde, comprenant l'archipel d'Asie, l'Australasie et la Polynésie (ou le continent de la Nouvelle Hollande et les îles du Grand Océan)"". Océanie derives from the Latin word oceanus, and this from the Greek word ὠκεανός (ōkeanós), ""ocean"". The term Oceania is used because, unlike the other continental groupings, it is the ocean that links the parts of the region together. John Eperjesi's 2005 book The Imperialist Imaginary: Visions of Asia and the Pacific in American Culture says that it has ""been used by Western cartographers since the mid-19th century to give order to the complexities of the Pacific area."" The Handbook of Religion (2014) states that it was ""introduced by westerners"" and in the 19th century helped describe ""a sociopolitical reality of the islands of the southwest Pacific and Australia."" In the 19th century, many geographers divided up Oceania into mostly racially based subdivisions; Australasia, Malesia (encompassing the Malay archipelago), Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia. The 2011 book Maritime Adaptations of the Pacific, by Richard W. Casteel and Jean-Claude Passeron, states that, ""for the purpose of anthropology, Oceania has long been a continent like Africa, Asia and America."" Scottish geographer John Bartholomew wrote in 1873 that, ""the New World consists of North America, and the peninsula of South America attached to it. These divisions [are] generally themselves spoken as continents, and to them has been added another, embracing the large island of Australia and numerous others in the [Pacific] Ocean, under the name of Oceania. There are thus six great divisions of the earth — Europe, Asia, Africa, North America, South America and Oceania."" American author Samuel Griswold Goodrich wrote in his 1854 book History of All Nations that, ""geographers have agreed to consider the island world of the Pacific Ocean as a third continent, under the name Oceania."" In this book, the other two continents were categorized as being the New World (consisting of the Americas) and the Old World (consisting of Afro-Eurasia). One study from 1884 describes Oceania as a continent, stating that ""South of the continent of Asia is found a large island nearly as large as the continent of Europe. This, with a great number of small islands in the neighbourhood, is regarded as forming a fourth continent known as Oceania."" Other studies from the early twentieth Century also described Oceania as a continent. In his 1879 book Australasia, British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace commented that, ""Oceania is the word often used by continental geographers to describe the great world of islands we are now entering upon"" and that ""Australia forms its central and most important feature."" He did not explicitly label Oceania a continent in the book, but did note that it was one of the six major divisions of the world. The Oxford Handbook of World History (2011) describes the areas encompassed in Oceania as being ""afterthoughts in world history texts, lumped together and included at the end of global surveys as areas largely marginal to the main events of world history"".In most non-English-speaking countries Oceania is treated as a continent in the sense that it is ""one of the parts of the world"", and Australia is only seen as an island nation. While in other non-English-speaking countries Australia and Eurasia are thought of as continents, while Asia, Europe, and Oceania are regarded as ""parts of the world"". Prior to the 1950s, before the popularization of the theory of plate tectonics, Antarctica, Australia, and Greenland were sometimes described as island continents, but none were usually taught as one of the world's continents in the English-speaking countries. In his 1961 book The United States and the Southwest Pacific, American author Clinton Hartley Grattan commented that, ""the use of the word Oceania to cover Australia, New Zealand, and the [Pacific] islands now has a slightly old-fashioned flavor."" Australia is a founding member of the Pacific Islands Forum in 1971, and at times has been interpreted as the largest Pacific island. For example, Tony deBrum, Foreign Minister for the Marshall Islands, stated in 2014, ""not only [is Australia] our big brother down south, Australia is a member of the Pacific Islands Forum and Australia is a Pacific island, a big island, but a Pacific island."" Some geographers group the Australian tectonic plate with others in the Pacific to form a geological continent. National Geographic states that the term Oceania ""establishes the Pacific Ocean as the defining characteristic of the continent."" Others have labelled it as the ""liquid continent"". The Pacific Ocean itself has been labelled as a ""continent of islands"", and contains approximately 25,000, which is more than all the other major oceans combined. In a 1991 article for the Submerged Resources Center, American archeologist Toni L. Carrell wrote, ""the immensity of and great distances within the Pacific Basin often make it difficult to conceptualize the basin as a single earth feature."" He adds that most islands in the Pacific are ""close enough together to be easily clustered into archipelagos or groups. The notable exceptions, those islands more than 400 statute miles from any other, are: Clipperton Island, Easter Island, Johnston Atoll, Marcus Island, Norfolk Island, Parece Vela, and Salas and Gómez Island."" In his 2013 book Reptiles and Amphibians of the Pacific Islands: A Comprehensive Guide, American herpetologist George R. Zug wrote, ""what is and is not part of the Pacific—particularly the western Pacific—is variously delimited"", adding that ""a majority viewpoint accepts the landmasses of Japan, Taiwan, the Philippines, New Guinea, and eastern Australia, which face the open waters of the Pacific, as its western edge."" Islands in Indonesia's North Maluku and North Sulawesi regions are considered to border the open Pacific Ocean, with the rest of the Indonesian islands being located in marginal seas of the Pacific, or the Indian Ocean. Oceania's subregions of Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia cover two major plates; the Australian Plate (also known as the Indo-Australian Plate) and the Pacific Plate, in addition to two minor plates; the Nazca Plate and the Philippine Sea Plate. The Australian Plate includes Australia, Fiji, New Caledonia, Papua New Guinea, Vanuatu, and parts of New Zealand. The Pacific Plate covers the Solomon Islands and parts of New Zealand, as well as Micronesia (excluding the westernmost islands near the Philippine Sea Plate) and Polynesia (excluding Easter Island). The Nazca Plate, which includes Easter Island, neighbors the South American Plate, and is still considered to be a separate tectonic plate, despite only containing a handful of islands. The new terms Near Oceania and Remote Oceania were proposed in 1973 by anthropologists Roger Green and Andrew Pawley. By their definition, Near Oceania consists of New Guinea, the Bismarck Archipelago and the Solomon Islands, with the exception of the Santa Cruz Islands. They are designed to dispel the outdated categories of Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia; Near Oceania cuts right across the old category of Melanesia, which has shown to be not a pertinent category in respect to the geography, archeology, culture, language and human history of the region. The old categories have been in use since they were proposed in 1832 by French explorer Jules Dumont d'Urville. Many scholars now replace those categories with Green's terms since the early 1990s, but the old categories are still used in science, popular culture and general usage. === Boundaries === Islands at the geographic extremes of Oceania are generally considered to be the Bonin Islands, a politically integral part of Japan; Hawaii, a state of the United States; Clipperton Island, a possession of France; the Juan Fernández Islands, belonging to Chile; and Macquarie Island, belonging to Australia. ==== United Nations interpretation ==== The United Nations (UN) has used its own geopolitical definition of Oceania since its foundation in 1947, which utilizes four of the five subregions from the 19th century; Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. This definition consists of discrete political entities, and so excludes the Bonin Islands, Hawaii, Clipperton Island and the Juan Fernández Islands, along with Easter Island — which was annexed by Chile in 1888. It is used in statistical reports, by the International Olympic Committee, and by many atlases. The UN categorizes Oceania, and by extension the Pacific area, as one of the major continental divisions of the world, along with Africa, Asia, Europe and the Americas. Their definition includes American Samoa, Australia and their external territories, the Cook Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, French Polynesia, Fiji, Guam, Kiribati, the Marshall Islands, Nauru, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Niue, the Northern Mariana Islands, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Pitcairn Islands, Samoa, the Solomon Islands, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu, Wallis and Futuna, and the United States Minor Outlying Islands (Baker Island, Howland Island, Jarvis Island, Midway Atoll, Palmyra Atoll, and Wake Island). The original UN definition of Oceania from 1947 included these same countries and semi-independent territories, which were mostly still colonies at that point. Hawaii had not yet become a U.S. state in 1947, and as such was part of the original UN definition of Oceania. The island states of Indonesia, Japan, the Philippines, Singapore and Taiwan, all located within the bounds of the Pacific or associated marginal seas, are excluded from the UN definition. The states of Hong Kong and Malaysia, located in both mainland Asia and marginal seas of the Pacific, are also excluded, as is the nation of Brunei, which shares the island of Borneo with Indonesia and Malaysia. Further excluded are East Timor and Indonesian New Guinea/Western New Guinea, areas which are biogeographically or geologically associated with the Australian landmass. The CIA World Factbook also categorizes Oceania as one of the major continental divisions of the world, but the name ""Australia and Oceania"" is used. Their definition does not include all of Australia's external territories, but is otherwise the same as the UN's definition, and is also used for statistical purposes. In a 2008 article for the India Quarterly journal titled Oceania and Security: A Perspective from New Zealand, author Peter Cozens stated, ""the region of Oceania is characterised by vast distances across the sea between continental land masses [...] It is difficult to be precise about the term Oceania and its exact delimitation"", adding that ""the principal regional political grouping is contained within the Pacific Island Forum (PIF) - the 16 states making up the Forum are: Australia, Cook Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Nauru, New Zealand, Niue, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu and Vanuatu - in general terms this is the area referred to as Oceania by the United Nations and similar agencies."" The Pacific Islands Forum expanded during the early 2010s, and areas that were already included in the UN definition of Oceania, such as French Polynesia, gained membership. ==== Early interpretations ==== French writer Gustave d'Eichthal remarked in 1844 that, ""the boundaries of Oceania are in reality those of the great ocean itself."" Conrad Malte-Brun in 1824 defined Oceania as covering Australia, New Zealand, the islands of Polynesia (which then included all the Pacific islands) and the Malay archipelago. American lexicographer Joseph Emerson Worcester wrote in 1840 that Oceania is ""a term applied to a vast number of islands which are widely dispersed in the Pacific Ocean […] they are considered as forming a fifth grand division of the world."" He also viewed Oceania as covering Australia, New Zealand, the Malay archipelago and the islands of Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia. In 1887, the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland referred to Australia as the area's westernmost land, while in 1870, British Reverend Alexander Mackay identified the Bonin Islands as its northernmost point, and Macquarie Island as its southernmost point. The Bonin Islands (adjacent to Micronesia) at that time were a possession of Britain; Macquarie Island, to the south of Tasmania, is a subantarctic island in the Pacific. It was politically associated with Australia and Tasmania by 1870.Alfred Russel Wallace believed in 1879 that Oceania extended to the Aleutian Islands, which are among the northernmost islands of the Pacific. The islands, now politically associated with Alaska, have historically had inhabitants that were related to Indigenous Americans, in addition to having non-tropical biogeography similar to that of Alaska and Siberia. Wallace insisted while the surface area of this wide definition was greater than that of Asia and Europe combined, the land area was only a little greater than that of Europe. American geographer Sophia S. Cornell claimed that the Aleutian Islands were not part of Oceania in 1857. She stated that Oceania was divided up into three groups; Australasia (which included Australia, New Zealand and the Melanesian islands), Malesia (which included all present-day countries within the Malay archipelago, not the modern country of Malaysia) and Polynesia (which included both the Polynesian and Micronesian islands in her definition). Aside from mainland Australia, areas that she identified as of high importance were Borneo, Hawaii, Indonesia's Java and Sumatra, New Guinea, New Zealand, the Philippines, French Polynesia's Society Islands, Tasmania, and Tonga.American geographer Jesse Olney's 1845 book A Practical System of Modern Geography stated that it ""comprises the numerous isles of the Pacific, lying south east of Asia."" Olney divided up Oceania into three groups; Australasia (which included Australia, New Guinea and New Zealand), Malesia and Polynesia (which included the combined islands of Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia in his definition). Publication Missionary Review of the World claimed in 1895 that Oceania was divided up into five groups; Australasia, Malesia, Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia. It did not consider Hawaii to be part of Polynesia, due to its geographic isolation, commenting that Oceania also included, ""isolated groups and islands, such as the Hawaiian and Galápagos."" In his 1876 book The Earth and Its Inhabitants: Oceanica, French geographer Élisée Reclus labelled Australia's flora as ""one of the most characteristic on the globe"", adding that ""the Hawaiian archipelago also constitutes a separate vegetation zone; of all tropical insular groups it possesses the relatively largest number of endemic plants. In the Galápagos group also more than half of the species are of local origin."" Rand McNally & Company, an American publisher of maps and atlases, claimed in 1892 that, ""Oceania comprises the large island of Australia and the innumerable islands of the Pacific Ocean"" and also that the islands of the Malay archipelago ""should be grouped in with Asia."" British linguist Robert Needham Cust argued in 1887 that the Malay archipelago should be excluded since it had participated in Asian civilization. Cust considered Oceania's four subregions to be Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia. New Zealand were categorized by him as being in Polynesia; and the only country in his definition of Australasia was Australia. His definition of Polynesia included both Easter Island and Hawaii, which had not yet been annexed by either Chile or the United States.The Journal of the Royal Statistical Society stated in 1892 that Australia was a large island within Oceania rather than a small continent. It additionally commented, ""it is certainly not necessary to consider the Hawaiian Islands and Australia as being in the same part of the world, it is however permissible to unite in one group all the islands which are scattered over the great ocean. It should be remarked that if we take the Malay archipelago away from Oceania, as do generally the German geographers, the insular world contained in the great ocean is cut in two, and the least populated of the five parts of the world is diminished in order to increase the number of inhabitants of the most densely populated continent."" Regarding Australia and the Pacific, Chambers's New Handy Volume American Encyclopædia observed in 1885 that, ""the whole region has sometimes been called Oceania, and sometimes Australasia—generally, however, in modern times, to the exclusion of the islands in the [Malay] archipelago, to which certain writers have given the name of Malesia."" It added there was controversy over the exact limits of Oceania, saying that, ""scarcely any two geographers appear to be quite agreed upon the subject"". British physician and ethnologist James Cowles Prichard claimed in 1847 that the Aleutian Islands and the Kuril Islands form ""the northern boundary of this fifth region of the world, and with the coasts of Asia and America completing its literal termination."" However, he wrote that these islands ""are not usually reckoned as belonging to it, because they are known to be inhabited by races of people who came immediately from the adjacent continents and are unconnected with those tribes of the human race who peopled the remote islands of this great ocean."" He added that Hawaii was the most northerly area to be inhabited by races associated with Oceania.The 1926 book Modern World History, 1776-1926: A Survey of the Origins and Development of Contemporary Civilization, by Alexander Clarence Flick, considered Oceania to include all islands in the Pacific, and associated the term with the Malay archipelago, the islands of Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia, the Aleutian Islands, Japan's Ryukyu Islands, Taiwan (then known as Formosa) and the Kuril Islands (currently administered by Russia, but which were then partly split between Japan and Russia). He further included in his definition Sakhalin, an island which is geologically part of the Japanese archipelago, but that has been administered by Russia since World War II. It is located within a marginal sea of the Pacific (the Sea of Okhotsk), unlike the rest of the Japanese archipelago and the neighboring Kuril Islands, which border the open Pacific Ocean. Hong Kong, partly located in another marginal sea of the Pacific (the South China Sea) was also included in his definition. Australia and New Zealand were grouped together by Flick as Australasia, and categorized as being in the same area of the world as the islands of Oceania. Flick estimated this definition of Oceania had a population of 70,000,000, and commented that, ""brown and yellow races constitute the vast majority"" and that the minority of whites were mainly ""owners and rulers"". He added, ""through trade relations, the work of missionaries and teachers, and political control, western civilization is slowly penetrating these out of the way places either directly, or indirectly through Europeanized powers like Japan."" Hutton Webster's 1919 book Medieval and Modern History also considered Oceania to encompass all islands in the Pacific, stating that, ""the term Oceania, or Oceanica, in its widest sense applies to all the Pacific Islands."" Webster broke Oceania up into two subdivisions; the continental group, which included Australia, the Japanese archipelago, the Malay archipelago and Taiwan, and the oceanic group, which included New Zealand and the islands of Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia. In his 1846 book A Universal Pronouncing Gazetteer, author Thomas Baldwin wrote that Oceania includes Australia and Pacific islands which ""are considered, from their proximity, not to belong to the continents of Asia or America."" He defined Oceania as including the Malay archipelago, but not Japan or Taiwan, and noted that ""its limits are somewhat indefinite.""Charles Marion Tyler's 1885 book The Island World of the Pacific Ocean considered Oceania to ethnographically encompass Australia, New Zealand, the Malay archipelago and the islands of Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia. However, Tyler included other Pacific islands in his book as well, such as the Aleutian Islands, the Bonin Islands, the Japanese archipelago, the Juan Fernández Islands, the Kuril Islands, the Ryukyu Islands, Taiwan, California's Channel Islands and Farallon Islands, Canada's Vancouver Island and Queen Charlotte Islands (now known as Haida Gwaii), Chile's Chiloé Island, Ecuador's Galápagos Islands, Mexico's Guadalupe Island, Revillagigedo Islands, San Benito Islands and Tres Marías Islands, and Peru's Chincha Islands. Islands in marginal seas of the Pacific were also covered in the book, including Alaska's Pribilof Islands (located to the north of the Aleutian chain in the subarctic Bering Sea) and China's Hainan (located in the South China Sea). Tyler additionally profiled the Anson archipelago, which during the 19th century was a designation for a widely scattered group of purported islands in the Northwestern Pacific Ocean between Japan and Hawaii. The Anson archipelago included phantom islands such as Ganges Island and Los Jardines which were proven to not exist, as well as real islands such as Marcus Island and Wake Island. Tyler described Australia as ""the leviathan of the island groups of the world"", and stated that the Juan Fernández Islands ""will always retain a marked prominence in island histories, being at one time the home of that celebrated castaway Alexander Selkirk, whose life and adventures have been made so intensely interesting to youthful minds, and older ones too, for that matter, by Defoe in his wonderful book Robinson Crusoe."" In his 1857 book A Treatise on Physical Geography, Francis B. Fogg commented that ""the Pacific and its dependencies may be said to contain that portion of the globe termed Oceanica or 'the Maritime World', which is divided into Australasia, Malesia and Polynesia."" Fogg defined Polynesia as covering the combined islands of Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia, as well as the Ryukyu Islands. He added that, ""besides the proceeding, the Pacific contains many other islands, of which the most important are Hainan and Formosa, on the coast of China, the Japan isles, the Kuriles, the Aleutian Islands (stretching from the New World to the Old), Vancouver Island, the Galápagos, Juan Fernández and Chiloé."" Scottish academic John Merry Ross in 1879 considered Polynesia to cover the entire South and Central Pacific area, not just islands ethnographically within Polynesia. He wrote in The Globe Encyclopedia of Universal Information that, ""literally interpreted, the name would include all the groups from Sumatra to the Galápagos, together with Australia."" Ross further wrote, ""and to this vast region the term Oceania has been applied. It is more usual at the present time, however, to exclude the [Malay] archipelago."" ==== Historical and contemporary interpretations ==== In a 1972 article for the Music Educators Journal titled Musics of Oceania, author Raymond F. Kennedy wrote, ""many meanings have been given to the word Oceania. The most inclusive–but not always the most useful–embraces about 25,000 land areas between Asia and the Americas. A more popular and practical definition excludes Indonesia, East Malaysia (Borneo), the Philippines, Taiwan, Japan and other islands closely related to the Asian mainland, as well as the Aleutians and the small island groups situated near the Americas. Thus, Oceania most commonly refers to the land areas of the South and Central Pacific."" Kennedy defined Oceania as including Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. The U.S. Government Publishing Office's Area Handbook for Oceania from 1971 states that Australia and New Zealand are the principal large sovereignties of the area. It further states, ""In its broadest definition Oceania embraces all islands and island groups of the Pacific Ocean that lie between Asia and the two American continents. In popular usage, however, the designation has a more restricted application. The islands of the North Pacific, such as the Aleutians and the Kuriles, usually are excluded. In addition, the series of sovereign island nations fringing Asia (Japan, Taiwan, the Philippines, East Malaysia, the Republic of Indonesia) are not ordinarily considered to be part of the area."" In 1948, American military journal Armed Forces Talk broke the islands of the Pacific up into five major subdivisions; Indonesia, Melanesia, Micronesia, Polynesia and the non-tropical Islands. The Indonesia subdivision consisted of the islands of the Malay archipelago, while the non-tropical islands were categorized as being North Pacific islands such as Alaska's Kodiak archipelago, the Aleutian Islands, Japan, the Kuril Islands and Sakhalin. Japan's Bonin and Ryukyu Islands are also considered to be subtropical islands, with the main Japanese archipelago being non-tropical. The journal associated the term Oceania with the Melanesian, Micronesian and Polynesian subdivisions, but not with the Indonesian or non-tropical subdivisions. The Pacific Islands Handbook (1945), by Robert William Robson, stated that, ""Pacific Islands generally are regarded as Pacific islands lying within the tropics. There are a considerable number of Pacific Islands outside the tropics. Most of them have little economic or political importance."" He noted the political significance of the Aleutian Islands, which were invaded by the Japanese military in World War II, and categorized New Zealand's Antipodes Islands, Auckland Islands, Bounty Islands, Campbell Islands, Chatham Island and Kermadec Islands as being non-tropical islands of the South Pacific, along with Australia's Lord Howe Island and Norfolk Island. The Kermadec Islands, Lord Howe Island and Norfolk Island are also considered to be subtropical islands. Other non-tropical areas below the equator, such as Chiloé Island, Macquarie Island, Tasmania, and the southern portions of mainland Australia and New Zealand, were not included in this category.According to the 1998 book Encyclopedia of Earth and Physical Sciences, Oceania refers to Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia, Polynesia, and more than 10,000 islands scattered across the Pacific Ocean. It notes that, ""the term [has] also come under scrutiny by many geographers. Some experts insist that Oceania encompasses even the cold Aleutian Islands and the islands of Japan. Disagreement also exists over whether or not Indonesia, the Philippines and Taiwan should be included in Oceania."" The Japanese archipelago, the Malay archipelago and Taiwan and other islands near China are often deemed as a geological extension of Asia, since they do not have oceanic geology, instead being detached fragments of the Eurasian continent that were once physiologically connected. Certain Japanese islands off the main archipelago are not geologically associated with Asia. The book The World and Its Peoples: Australia, New Zealand, Oceania (1966) asserts that, ""Japan, Taiwan, the Aleutian Islands, Indonesia, the Philippines and Malaysia [and] the Pacific archipelagos bordering upon the Far East Asian mainland are excluded from Oceania"", and that ""all the islands lying between Australia and the Americas, including Australia, are part of Oceania."" Furthermore, the book adds that Hawaii is still within Oceania, despite being politically integrated into the U.S., and that the Pacific Ocean ""gives unity to the whole"" since ""all these varied lands emerge from or border upon the Pacific.""The 1876 book The Countries of the World: Volume 4, by British scientist and explorer Robert Brown, labelled the Malay archipelago as Northwestern Oceania, but Brown still noted that these islands belonged more to the Asian continent. They are now often referred to as Maritime Southeast Asia, with Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines and Singapore being founding members of the ASEAN regional organization for Southeast Asia in 1967 (Brunei and East Timor did not exist as independent nations at that point). Brown also categorized Japan and Taiwan as being in the same part of the world as the islands of Oceania, and excluded them from The Countries of the World: Volume 5, which covered mainland Asia and Hong Kong. However, Brown did not explicitly associate Japan or Taiwan with the term Oceania. He divided Oceania into two subregions; Eastern Oceania, which included the islands of Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia, and Southwestern Oceania, which included Australia and New Zealand. The Galápagos Islands, the Juan Fernández Islands and the Revillagigedo Islands were identified as the easternmost areas of Oceania in the book. Brown wrote, ""they lie nearest the American continent of all oceanic islands, and though rarely associated with Polynesia, and never appearing to have been inhabited by any aboriginal races, are, in many ways, remarkable and interesting."" Brown went on to add, ""the small islands lying off the continent, like the Queen Charlotte's in the North Pacific, the Farallones off California, and the Chinchas off Peru are — to all intents and purposes, only detached bits of the adjoining shores. But in the case of the Galápagos, at least, this is different."" He also claimed that they are ""often cited as illustrating the peculiar relation of such islands to continents. Mr. Darwin has, for instance, adducted them as an illustration of the fact that such islands are inhabited by plants and animals closely allied to those of the nearest mainland, without actually being the same."" The Juan Fernández Islands and the neighboring Desventuradas Islands are today seen as the easternmost extension of the Indo-West Pacific biogeographic region. The islands lie on the Nazca Plate with Easter Island and the Galápagos Islands, and have a significant south central Pacific component to their marine fauna. According to scientific journal PLOS One, the Humboldt Current helps create a biogeographic barrier between the marine fauna of these islands and South America. Chile's government have occasionally considered them to be within Oceania along with Easter Island. Chile's government also categorize Easter Island, the Desventuradas Islands and the Juan Fernández Islands as being part of a region titled Insular Chile. They further include in this region Salas y Gómez, a small uninhabited island to the east of Easter Island. PLOS One describe Insular Chile as having ""cultural and ecological connections to the broader insular Pacific."" In her 1997 book Australia and Oceania, Australian historian Kate Darian-Smith defined the area as covering Australia, New Zealand and the islands of the Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia. She excluded Hawaii from her definition, but not Easter Island. The International Union for Conservation of Nature stated in a 1986 report that they include Easter Island in their definition of Oceania ""on the basis of its Polynesian and biogeographic affinities even though it is politically apart"", further noting that other oceanic islands administered by Latin American countries had been included in definitions of Oceania. In 1987, The Journal of Australasian Cave Research described Oceania as being ""the region from Irian Jaya (Western New Guinea, a province of New Guinea) in the west to Galápagos Islands (Equador) and Easter Island (Chile) in the east."" In a 1980 report on venereal diseases in the South Pacific, the British Journal of Venereal Diseases categorized the Desventuradas Islands, Easter Island, the Galápagos Islands and the Juan Fernández Islands as being in an eastern region of the South Pacific, along with areas such as Pitcairn Islands and French Polynesia, but noted that the Galápagos Islands were not a member of the South Pacific Commission, like other islands in the South Pacific. The South Pacific Commission is a developmental organization formed in 1947 and is currently known as the Pacific Community; its members include Australia and other Pacific Islands Forum members. In a 1947 article on the formation of the South Pacific Commission for the Pacific Affairs journal, author Roy E. James stated the organization's scope encompassed all non-self governing islands below the equator to the east of Papua New Guinea (which itself was included in the scope and then known as Dutch New Guinea). Easter Island and the Galápagos Islands were defined by James as falling within the organization's geographical parameters. The 2007 book Asia in the Pacific Islands: Replacing the West, by New Zealand Pacific scholar Ron Crocombe, defined the term ""Pacific Islands"" as being islands in the South Pacific Commission, and stated that such a definition ""does not include Galápagos and other [oceanic] islands off the Pacific coast of the Americas; these were uninhabited when Europeans arrived, then integrated with a South American country and have almost no contact with other Pacific Islands."" He adds, ""Easter Island still participates in some Pacific Island affairs because its people are Polynesian.""Thomas Sebeok's two volume 1971 book Linguistics in Oceania defines Easter Island, the Galápagos Islands, the Juan Fernández Islands, Costa Rica's Cocos Island and Colombia's Malpelo Island (all oceanic) as making up a Spanish language segment of Oceania. Cocos Island and Malpelo Island are the only landmasses located on the Cocos Plate, which is to the north of the Nazca Plate. The book observed that a native Polynesian language was still understood on Easter Island, unlike with the other islands, which were uninhabited when discovered by Europeans and mostly being used as prisons for convicts. Additionally, the book includes Taiwan and the entire Malay archipelago as part of Oceania. While not oceanic in nature, Taiwan and Malay archipelago countries like Indonesia and the Philippines share Austronesian ethnolinguistic origins with Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia, hence their inclusion in the book. Hainan, which neighbors Taiwan, also has Austronesian ethnolinguistic origins, although it was not included in the book. The book defined Oceania's major subregions as being Australia, Indonesia (which included all areas associated with the Malay archipelago), Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia. In 2010, Australian historian Bronwen Douglas claimed in The Journal of Pacific History that ""a strong case could be made for extending Oceania to at least Taiwan, the homeland of the Austronesian language family whose speakers colonized significant parts of the region about 6,000 years ago."" For political reasons, Taiwan was a member of the Oceania Football Confederation during the 1970s and 1980s, rather than the Asian Football Confederation.Ian Todd's 1974 book Island Realm: A Pacific Panorama also defines oceanic Latin American islands as making up a Spanish language segment of Oceania, and included the Desventuradas Islands, Easter Island, the Galápagos Islands, Guadalupe Island, the Juan Fernández Islands, the Revillagigedo Islands and Salas y Gómez. Cocos Island and Malpelo Island were not explicitly referenced in the book, despite being areas which would fall within this range. All other islands associated with Latin American countries were excluded, as they are continental in nature, unlike Guadalupe Island and the Revillagigedo Islands (both situated on the Pacific Plate) and the oceanic islands situated on the Cocos Plate and Nazca Plate. Todd defined the oceanic Bonin Islands as making up a Japanese language segment of Oceania, and excluded the main Japanese archipelago. Todd further included the Aleutian Islands in his definition of Oceania. The island chain borders both the Pacific Plate and the North American Plate, and is geologically a partially submerged volcanic extension of the Aleutian Range on the Alaskan mainland, that stretches for another 1,600 kilometers. He did not include the volcanic Kuril Islands and Ryukyu Islands, which similarly border both the Eurasian Plate and the Pacific Plate, nor did he include the neighboring Kodiak archipelago in the North Pacific Ocean, which is firmly situated on the North American Plate. The Stockholm Journal of East Asian Studies stated in 1996 that Oceania was defined as Australia and an ensemble of various Pacific Islands, ""particularly those in the central and south Pacific [but] never those in the extreme north, for example the Aleutian chain."" In the Pacific Ocean Handbook (1945), author Eliot Grinnell Mears claimed, ""it is customary to exclude the Aleutians of the North Pacific, the American coastal islands and the Netherlands East Indies"", and that he included Australia and New Zealand in Oceania for ""scientific reasons; Australia's fauna is largely continental in character, New Zealand's are clearly insular; and neither Commonwealth realm has close ties with Asia."" In his 2002 book Oceania: An Introduction to the Cultures and Identities of Pacific Islanders, Andrew Strathern excluded Okinawa and the rest of the Ryukyu Islands from his definition of Oceania, but noted that the islands and their indigenous inhabitants ""show many parallels with Pacific island societies.""In his 1994 book Familia Gekkonidae (Reptilia, Sauria). Part 1: Australia and Oceania, German herpetologist Klaus Henle referred to the area as the Pacific region, and defined it as covering Australia, New Zealand and the islands of Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia. Henle included the Indonesian half of New Guinea, but excluded the rest of Indonesia and the Malay archipelago, as well as all Japanese islands and oceanic Latin American islands (with the exception of Easter Island). In the 2006 book Extinction and Biogeography of Tropical Pacific Birds, American paleontologist David Steadman wrote, ""no place on earth is as perplexing as the 25,000 islands that make Oceania."" Steadman viewed Oceania as encompassing Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia (including Easter Island and Hawaii). He excluded from his definition the larger islands of New Guinea and New Zealand, and argued that Cocos Island, the Galápagos Islands, the Revillagigedo Islands and other oceanic islands nearing the Americas were not part of Oceania, due to their biogeographical affinities with that area and lack of prehistoric indigenous populations. In his 2018 book Regionalism in South Pacific, Chinese author Yu Changsen wrote that some ""stress a narrow vision of the Pacific as those Pacific Islands excluding Australia and even sometimes New Zealand"", adding that the term Oceania ""promotes a broader concept that has room for Australia and New Zealand.""American marine geologist Anthony A. P. Koppers wrote in the 2009 book Encyclopedia of Islands that, ""as a whole, the islands of the Pacific Region are referred to as Oceania, the tenth continent on earth. Inherent to their remoteness and because of the wide variety of island types, the Pacific Islands have developed unique social, biological and geological characteristics."" Koppers considered Oceania to encompass the entire 25,000 islands of the Pacific Ocean. In this book, he included the Aleutian Islands, the Galápagos Islands, the Japanese archipelago, the Kuril Islands and continental islands off the coast of the Americas such as the Channel Islands, the Farallon Islands and Vancouver Island; all of these islands lie in or close to the Pacific Ring of Fire, as is the case with New Guinea and New Zealand, which were also included. In the 2013 book The Environments of the Poor in Southeast Asia, East Asia and the Pacific, Paul Bullen critiqued the definition of Oceania in Encyclopedia of Islands, and wrote that since Koppers included areas such as Vancouver Island, it is ""not clear what the referents of 'Pacific Region', 'Oceania' or 'Pacific Islands' are."" Bullen added that, ""Asia, Europe and the Maritime Continent are not literal geographic continents. The 'Asia-Pacific region' would comprise two quasi-continents. 'The Pacific' would not refer to the Pacific Ocean and everything in it e.g., the Philippines."" The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Place Names (2017), by John Everett-Heath, states that Oceania is ""a collective name for more than 10,000 islands in the Pacific Ocean"" and that ""it is generally accepted that Indonesia, Japan, the Philippines, Taiwan, and the islands north of Japan (the Kurils and Aleutians) are excluded."" In his 1993 book A New Oceania: Rediscovering Our Sea of Islands, New Guinea-born Fijian scholar Epeli Hauʻofa wrote that, ""Pacific Ocean islands from Japan, through the Philippines and Indonesia, which are adjacent to the Asian mainland, do not have oceanic cultures, and are therefore not part of Oceania.""The Oxford Handbook of Prehistoric Oceania (2018) defined Oceania as only covering Austronesian-speaking islands in Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia, with this definition including New Guinea and New Zealand. Other Austronesian areas such as Indonesia and the Philippines were not included, due to their closer cultural proximity to mainland Asia. Australia was also not included, as it was settled several thousands of years before the arrival of Austronesian-speaking peoples in Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia. The book stated, ""this definition of Oceania might seem too restrictive: Why not include Australia, for example, or even too broad, for what does Highland New Guinea have to do with Hawai'i?"", further noting that, ""a few other islands in the Pacific such as those of Japan or the Channel Islands off the southern California coast are not typically considered Oceania as the indigenous populations of these places do not share a common ancestry with Oceanic groups, except for a time far before humans sailed Pacific waters."" It has been theorized that the indigenous Jōmon people of the Japanese archipelago are related to Austronesians, along with the indigenous inhabitants of the Ryukyu Islands. Some also theorize that Indigenous Australians are related to the Ainu people, who are the original inhabitants of Japan's Hokkaido, the Kuril Islands and the southern part of Sakhalin. In their 2019 book Women and Violence: Global Lives in Focus, Kathleen Nadeau and Sangita Rayamajhi wrote that, ""the Philippines, Malaysia, Brunei, and most of Indonesia are not usually considered to be part of the region of Oceania as it is understood today. These regions are usually considered to be part of Maritime Southeast Asia. Although these regions, as well as the large East Asian islands of Taiwan, Hainan and the Japanese archipelago, have varying degrees of cultural connections.""In Reptiles and Amphibians of the Pacific Islands: A Comprehensive Guide (2013), George R. Zug claimed that ""a standard definition of Oceania includes Australia, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, New Caledonia, and New Zealand and the oceanic islands of Polynesia, Micronesia, and Melanesia."" He went on to write that his preferred definition of Oceania emphasis islands with oceanic geology, stating that oceanic islands are, ""islands with no past connections to a continental landmass"" and that, ""these boundaries encompass the Hawaiian and Bonin Islands in the north and Easter Island in the south, and the Palau Islands in the west to the Galápagos Islands in the east."" Australia, New Guinea, New Zealand and New Caledonia (which is geologically associated with New Zealand) were all excluded, as these areas are descendants of the ancient Pangaea supercontinent, along with landmasses such as the Americas and Afro-Eurasia. Volcanic islands which are geologically associated with continental landmasses, such as the Aleutian Islands, Japan's Izu Islands, the Kuril Islands, the Ryukyu Islands and most of the Solomon Islands, were also excluded from his definition. Unlike the United Nations, the World Factbook defines the still-uninhabited Clipperton Island as being a discrete political entity, and they categorize it as part of North America, presumably due to its relative proximity (situated 1,200 kilometers off Mexico on the Pacific Plate). Clipperton is not politically associated with the Americas, as is the case with other oceanic islands nearing the Americas, having had almost no interaction with the continent throughout its history. From the early 20th century to 2007, the island was administratively part of French Polynesia, which itself was known as French Oceania up until 1957. In terms of marine fauna, Clipperton shares similarities with areas of the Pacific which are much farther removed from the Americas. Scottish author Robert Hope Moncrieff considered Clipperton to be the easternmost point of Oceania in 1907, while Ian Todd also included it in his definition of Oceania in Island Realm: A Pacific Panorama.Other uninhabited Pacific Ocean landmasses have been explicitly associated with Oceania, including the highly remote Baker Island and Wake Island (now administered by the U.S. military). This is due to their location in the center of the Pacific, their biogeography and their oceanic geology. Less isolated oceanic islands that were once uninhabited, such as the Bonin Islands, the Galápagos Islands and the Juan Fernández Islands, have since been sparsely populated by citizens of their political administrators. Archaeological evidence suggests that Micronesians may have lived on the Bonin Islands c. 2,000 years ago, but they were uninhabited at the time of European discovery in the 16th century. ==== Boundaries between subregions ==== Depending on the definition, New Zealand could be part of Polynesia, or part of Australasia with Australia. New Zealand was originally settled by the Polynesian Māori, and has long maintained a political influence over the subregion. Through immigration and high Māori birth rates, New Zealand has attained the largest population of Polynesians in the world, while Australia has the third largest Polynesian population (consisting entirely of immigrants). Modern-day Indigenous Australians are loosely related to Melanesians, and Australia maintains political influence over Melanesia, which is mostly located on the same tectonic plate. Despite this, Australia is rarely seen as a part of the subregion. As with Australia and New Zealand, Melanesia's New Caledonia has a significant non-indigenous European population, numbering around 71,000. Conversely, New Caledonia has still had a similar history to the rest of Melanesia, and their French-speaking Europeans make up only 27% of the total population. As such, it is not also culturally considered a part of the predominantly English-speaking Australasia. Some cultural and political definitions of Australasia include most or all of Melanesia, due to its geographical proximity to Australia and New Zealand, but these are rare. Australia, New Zealand and the islands of Melanesia are more commonly grouped together as part of the Australasian biogeographical realm. The UN's name for the Australasia subregion is ""Australia and New Zealand""; their definition includes New Zealand, but places Papua New Guinea in Melanesia. Papua New Guinea is geographically the closest country to Australia, and is often geologically associated with Australia as it was once physiologically connected. The UN's definition of this subregion also includes Australia's Indian Ocean external territories of Christmas Island and Cocos (Keeling) Islands. These tropical islands are situated within the bounds of the Australian Plate and have been geographically associated with Southeast Asia, due to their proximity to western Indonesia. Both were uninhabited when discovered by Europeans during the 17th century. Approximately half of the population on these islands are European Australian mainlanders (with smaller numbers being European New Zealanders), while the other half are immigrants from China or the nearby Malay archipelago. The UN further define the subregion as including Australia's Indian Ocean external territory Heard Island and McDonald Islands. These islands lie on the Antarctic Plate and are also thought of as being in Antarctica or no region at all, due to their extreme geographical isolation. The World Factbook define Heard Island and McDonald Islands as part of Antarctica, while placing Christmas Island and Cocos (Keeling) Islands as the westernmost extent of Oceania.Norfolk Island, an external territory of Australia, was inhabited in prehistoric times by either Melanesians or Polynesians, and is geographically adjacent to the islands of Melanesia. The current inhabitants are mostly European Australians, and the UN categorize it as being in the Australasia subregion. The 1982 edition of the South Pacific Handbook, by David Stanley, groups Australia, New Zealand, Norfolk Island, and Hawaiʻi together under an ""Anglonesia"" category. This is in spite of the geographical distance separating these areas from Hawaiʻi, which technically lies in the North Pacific. The 1985 edition of the South Pacific Handbook also groups the Galápagos Islands as being in Polynesia, while noting that they are not culturally a part of the subregion. The islands are typically grouped with others in the southeastern Pacific that were never inhabited by Polynesians.The Bonin Islands are in the same biogeographical realm as the geographically adjacent Micronesia, and are often grouped in with the subregion because of this. == History == === Australia === Indigenous Australians are the original inhabitants of the Australian continent and nearby islands who migrated from Africa to Asia c. 70,000 years ago and arrived in Australia c. 50,000 years ago. They are believed to be among the earliest human migrations out of Africa. Although they likely migrated to Australia through Southeast Asia they are not demonstrably related to any known Asian or Polynesian population. There is evidence of genetic and linguistic interchange between Australians in the far north and the Austronesian peoples of modern-day New Guinea and the islands, but this may be the result of recent trade and intermarriage.They reached Tasmania c. 40,000 years ago by migrating across a land bridge from the mainland that existed during the last ice age. It is believed that the first early human migration to Australia was achieved when this landmass formed part of the Sahul continent, connected to the island of New Guinea via a land bridge. The Torres Strait Islanders are indigenous to the Torres Strait Islands, which are at the northernmost tip of Queensland near Papua New Guinea. The earliest definite human remains found in Australia are that of Mungo Man, which have been dated at c. 40,000 years old. === Melanesia === The original inhabitants of the group of islands now named Melanesia were likely the ancestors of the present-day Papuan-speaking people. Migrating from South-East Asia, they appear to have occupied these islands as far east as the main islands in the Solomon Islands archipelago, including Makira and possibly the smaller islands farther to the east.Particularly along the north coast of New Guinea and in the islands north and east of New Guinea, the Austronesian people, who had migrated into the area somewhat more than 3,000 years ago, came into contact with these pre-existing populations of Papuan-speaking peoples. In the late 20th century, some scholars theorized a long period of interaction, which resulted in many complex changes in genetics, languages, and culture among the peoples. === Micronesia === Micronesia began to be settled several millennia ago, although there are competing theories about the origin and arrival of the first settlers. There are numerous difficulties with conducting archaeological excavations in the islands, due to their size, settlement patterns and storm damage. As a result, much evidence is based on linguistic analysis.The earliest archaeological traces of civilization have been found on the island of Saipan, dated to 1500 BCE or slightly before. The ancestors of the Micronesians settled there over 4,000 years ago. A decentralized chieftain-based system eventually evolved into a more centralized economic and religious culture centered on Yap and Pohnpei. The prehistories of many Micronesian islands such as Yap are not known very well.The first people of the Northern Mariana Islands navigated to the islands and discovered it at some period between 4000 BCE to 2000 BCE from South-East Asia. They became known as the Chamorros. Their language was named after them. The ancient Chamorro left a number of megalithic ruins, including Latte stone. The Refaluwasch or Carolinian people came to the Marianas in the 1800s from the Caroline Islands. Micronesian colonists gradually settled the Marshall Islands during the 2nd millennium BCE, with inter-island navigation made possible using traditional stick charts. === Polynesia === The Polynesian people are considered to be by linguistic, archaeological and human genetic ancestry a subset of the sea-migrating Austronesian people and tracing Polynesian languages places their prehistoric origins in the Malay Archipelago, and ultimately, in Taiwan. Between c. 3000 and 1000 BCE, speakers of Austronesian languages began spreading from Taiwan into Island South-East Asia, as tribes whose natives were thought to have arrived through South China c. 8,000 years ago to the edges of western Micronesia and on into Melanesia. In the archaeological record there are well-defined traces of this expansion which allow the path it took to be followed and dated with some certainty. It is thought that by roughly 1400 BCE, ""Lapita Peoples"", so-named after their pottery tradition, appeared in the Bismarck Archipelago of north-west Melanesia.Easter Islanders claimed that a chief Hotu Matuꞌa discovered the island in one or two large canoes with his wife and extended family. They are believed to have been Polynesian. Around 1200, Tahitian explorers discovered and began settling the area. This date range is based on glottochronological calculations and on three radiocarbon dates from charcoal that appears to have been produced during forest clearance activities. Moreover, a recent study which included radiocarbon dates from what is thought to be very early material suggests that the island was discovered and settled as recently as 1200. === European exploration === Oceania was first explored by Europeans from the 16th century onwards. Portuguese navigators, between 1512 and 1526, reached the Maluku Islands (by António de Abreu and Francisco Serrão in 1512), Timor, the Aru Islands (Martim A. Melo Coutinho), the Tanimbar Islands, some of the Caroline Islands (by Gomes de Sequeira in 1525), and west Papua New Guinea (by Jorge de Menezes in 1526). In 1519, a Spanish expedition led by Ferdinand Magellan sailed down the east coast of South America, found and sailed through the strait that bears his name and on 28 November 1520 entered the ocean which he named ""Pacific"". The three remaining ships, led by Magellan and his captains Duarte Barbosa and João Serrão, then sailed north and caught the trade winds which carried them across the Pacific to the Philippines where Magellan was killed. One surviving ship led by Juan Sebastián Elcano returned west across the Indian Ocean and the other went north in the hope of finding the westerlies and reaching Mexico. Unable to find the right winds, it was forced to return to the East Indies. The Magellan-Elcano expedition achieved the first circumnavigation of the world and reached the Philippines, the Mariana Islands, and other islands of Oceania. From 1527 to 1595 a number of other large Spanish expeditions crossed the Pacific Ocean, leading to the arrival in Marshall Islands and Palau in the North Pacific, as well as Tuvalu, the Marquesas Islands, the Solomon Islands archipelago, the Cook Islands, and the Admiralty Islands in the South Pacific.In the quest for Terra Australis, Spanish explorations in the 17th century, such as the expedition led by the Portuguese navigator Pedro Fernandes de Queirós, sailed to Pitcairn and Vanuatu archipelagos, and sailed the Torres Strait between Australia and New Guinea, named after navigator Luís Vaz de Torres. Willem Janszoon, made the first completely documented European landing in Australia (1606), in Cape York Peninsula. Abel Tasman circumnavigated and landed on parts of the Australian continental coast and discovered Van Diemen's Land (now Tasmania), New Zealand in 1642, and Fiji. He was the first known European explorer to reach these islands.On 23 April 1770, British explorer James Cook made his first recorded direct observation of Aboriginal Australians at Brush Island near Bawley Point. On 29 April, Cook and crew made their first landfall on the mainland of the continent at a place now known as the Kurnell Peninsula. It is here that James Cook made first contact with an aboriginal tribe known as the Gweagal. His expedition became the first recorded Europeans to have encountered its eastern coastline of Australia. ==== European settlement and colonisation ==== In 1789, the mutiny on the Bounty against William Bligh led to several of the mutineers escaping the Royal Navy and settling on Pitcairn Islands, which later became a British colony. Britain also established colonies in Australia in 1788, New Zealand in 1840 and Fiji in 1872, with much of Oceania becoming part of the British Empire. The Gilbert Islands (now known as Kiribati) and the Ellice Islands (now known as Tuvalu) came under Britain's sphere of influence in the late 19th century.French Catholic missionaries arrived on Tahiti in 1834; their expulsion in 1836 caused France to send a gunboat in 1838. In 1842, Tahiti and Tahuata were declared a French protectorate, to allow Catholic missionaries to work undisturbed. The capital of Papeetē was founded in 1843. On 24 September 1853, under orders from Napoleon III, Admiral Febvrier Despointes took formal possession of New Caledonia and Port-de-France (Nouméa) was founded 25 June 1854.The Spanish explorer Alonso de Salazar landed in the Marshall Islands in 1529. They were named by Krusenstern, after English explorer John Marshall, who visited them together with Thomas Gilbert in 1788, en route from Botany Bay to Canton (two ships of the First Fleet). In 1905 the British government transferred some administrative responsibility over south-east New Guinea to Australia (which renamed the area ""Territory of Papua""); and in 1906, transferred all remaining responsibility to Australia. The Marshall Islands were claimed by Spain in 1874. Germany established colonies in New Guinea in 1884, and Samoa in 1900. The United States also expanded into the Pacific, beginning with Baker Island and Howland Island in 1857, and with Hawaiʻi becoming a U.S. territory in 1898. Disagreements between the US, Germany and UK over Samoa led to the Tripartite Convention of 1899. === Modern history === One of the first land offensives in Oceania was the Occupation of German Samoa in August 1914 by New Zealand forces. The campaign to take Samoa ended without bloodshed after over 1,000 New Zealanders landed on the German colony. Australian forces attacked German New Guinea in September 1914. A company of Australians and a British warship besieged the Germans and their colonial subjects, ending with a German surrender.The attack on Pearl Harbor by the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters, was a surprise military strike conducted by the Imperial Japanese Navy against the United States naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, on the morning of 7 December 1941. The attack led to the United States' entry into World War II. The Japanese subsequently invaded New Guinea, Solomon Islands and other Pacific islands. The Japanese were turned back at the Battle of the Coral Sea and the Kokoda Track campaign before they were finally defeated in 1945. Some of the most prominent Oceanic battlegrounds were the Battle of Bita Paka, the Solomon Islands campaign, the Air raids on Darwin, the Kokada Track, and the Borneo campaign. The United States fought the Battle of Guam from 21 July to 10 August 1944, to recapture the island from Japanese military occupation.Australia and New Zealand became dominions in the 20th century, adopting the Statute of Westminster Act in 1942 and 1947 respectively. In 1946, Polynesians were granted French citizenship and the islands' status was changed to an overseas territory; the islands' name was changed in 1957 to Polynésie Française (French Polynesia). Hawaii became a U.S. state in 1959. Fiji and Tonga became independent in 1970. On 1 May 1979, in recognition of the evolving political status of the Marshall Islands, the United States recognized the constitution of the Marshall Islands and the establishment of the Government of the Republic of the Marshall Islands. The South Pacific Forum was founded in 1971, which became the Pacific Islands Forum in 2000. == Geography == Under a four subregion model, the islands of Oceania extend to New Guinea in the west, the Bonin Islands in the northwest, the Hawaiian Islands in the northeast, Easter Island and Sala y Gómez Island in the east, and Macquarie Island in the south. Excluded under most definitions of Oceania are the Pacific landmasses of Taiwan, the Ryukyu Islands, and the Japanese archipelago, which are all on the margins of Asia, as well as the Aleutian Islands and other Alaskan or Canadian islands. In its periphery, Oceania's islands would sprawl 28 degrees north to the Bonin Islands in the Northern Hemisphere, and 55 degrees south to Macquarie Island in the Southern Hemisphere.Oceanian islands are of four basic types: continental islands, high islands, coral reefs and uplifted coral platforms. High islands are of volcanic origin, and many contain active volcanoes. Among these are Bougainville, Hawaiʻi, and Solomon Islands.Oceania is one of eight terrestrial biogeographic realms, which constitute the major ecological regions of the planet. Related to these concepts are Near Oceania, that part of western Island Melanesia which has been inhabited for tens of millennia, and Remote Oceania which is more recently settled. Although the majority of the Oceanian islands lie in the South Pacific, a few of them are not restricted to the Pacific Ocean – Kangaroo Island and Ashmore and Cartier Islands, for instance, are situated in the Southern Ocean and Indian Ocean, respectively, and Tasmania's west coast faces the Southern Ocean. The coral reefs of the South Pacific are low-lying structures that have built up on basaltic lava flows under the ocean's surface. One of the most dramatic is the Great Barrier Reef off northeastern Australia with chains of reef patches. A second island type formed of coral is the uplifted coral platform, which is usually slightly larger than the low coral islands. Examples include Banaba (formerly Ocean Island) and Makatea in the Tuamotu group of French Polynesia. === Regions === Micronesia, which lies north of the equator and west of the International Date Line, includes the Mariana Islands in the northwest, the Caroline Islands in the center, the Marshall Islands to the west and the islands of Kiribati in the southeast.Melanesia, to the southwest, includes New Guinea, the world's second largest island after Greenland and by far the largest of the Pacific islands. The other main Melanesian groups from north to south are the Bismarck Archipelago, the Solomon Islands, the Santa Cruz Islands, Vanuatu, Fiji and New Caledonia.Polynesia, stretching from Hawaii in the north to New Zealand in the south, also encompasses Tuvalu, Tokelau, Samoa, Tonga, and the Kermadec Islands to the west, the Cook Islands, Society Islands and Austral Islands in the center, and the Marquesas Islands, the Tuamotus, Mangareva Islands, and Easter Island to the east.Australasia comprises Australia, New Zealand, the island of New Guinea, and neighbouring islands in the Pacific Ocean. Along with India most of Australasia lies on the Indo-Australian Plate with the latter occupying the Southern area. It is flanked by the Indian Ocean to the west and the Southern Ocean to the south. === Geology === The Pacific Plate, which makes up most of Oceania, is an oceanic tectonic plate that lies beneath the Pacific Ocean. At 103 million square kilometres (40,000,000 sq mi), it is the largest tectonic plate. The plate contains an interior hot spot forming the Hawaiian Islands. It is almost entirely oceanic crust. The oldest member disappearing by way of the plate tectonics cycle is early-Cretaceous (145 to 137 million years ago).Australia became part of the Indo-Australian plate 45 to 40 million years ago and this is in the process of separating again with the Australian Plate being relevant to Oceania. It is the lowest, flattest, and oldest landmass on Earth and it has had a relatively stable geological history. Geological forces such as tectonic uplift of mountain ranges or clashes between tectonic plates occurred mainly in Australia's early history, when it was still a part of Gondwana. Australia is situated in the middle of the tectonic plate, has occasional middle-sized earthquakes, and currently has no active volcanism (but some volcanoes in southeast Australia erupted within the last 10,000 years).The geology of New Zealand is noted for its volcanic activity, earthquakes, and geothermal areas because of its position on the boundary of the Australian Plate and Pacific Plates. Much of the basement rock of New Zealand was once part of the super-continent of Gondwana, along with South America, Africa, Madagascar, India, Antarctica and Australia. The rocks that now form the continent of Zealandia were nestled between Eastern Australia and Western Antarctica.The Australia-New Zealand continental fragment of Gondwana split from the rest of Gondwana in the late Cretaceous time (95–90 Ma). By 75 Ma, Zealandia was essentially separate from Australia and Antarctica, although only shallow seas might have separated Zealandia and Australia in the north. The Tasman Sea, and part of Zealandia then locked together with Australia to form the Australian Plate (40 Ma), and a new plate boundary was created between the Australian Plate and Pacific Plate. Most islands in the Pacific are high islands (volcanic islands), such as, Easter Island, American Samoa and Fiji, among others, having peaks up to 1300 m rising abruptly from the shore. The Northwestern Hawaiian Islands were formed c. 7 to 30 million years ago, as shield volcanoes over the same volcanic hotspot that formed the Emperor Seamounts to the north and the Main Hawaiian Islands to the south. Hawaii's tallest mountain Mauna Kea is 4,205 m (13,796 ft) above mean sea level. === Flora === The most diverse country of Oceania when it comes to the environment is Australia, with tropical rainforests in the north-east, mountain ranges in the south-east, south-west and east, and dry desert in the centre. Desert or semi-arid land commonly known as the outback makes up by far the largest portion of land. The coastal uplands and a belt of Brigalow grasslands lie between the coast and the mountains, while inland of the dividing range are large areas of grassland. The northernmost point of the east coast is the tropical-rainforested Cape York Peninsula.Prominent features of the Australian flora are adaptations to aridity and fire which include scleromorphy and serotiny. These adaptations are common in species from the large and well-known families Proteaceae (Banksia), Myrtaceae (Eucalyptus – gum trees), and Fabaceae (Acacia – wattle). The flora of Fiji, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, and New Caledonia is tropical dry forest, with tropical vegetation that includes palm trees, premna protrusa, psydrax odorata, gyrocarpus americanus, and derris trifoliata.New Zealand's landscape ranges from the fjord-like sounds of the southwest to the tropical beaches of the far north. South Island is dominated by the Southern Alps. There are 18 peaks of more than 3000 metres (9800 ft) in the South Island. All summits over 2,900 m are within the Southern Alps, a chain that forms the backbone of the South Island; the highest peak of which is Aoraki / Mount Cook, at 3,754 metres (12,316 ft). Earthquakes are common, though usually not severe, averaging 3,000 per year. There is a wide variety of native trees, adapted to all the various micro-climates in New Zealand.In Hawaii, one endemic plant, Brighamia, now requires hand-pollination because its natural pollinator is presumed to be extinct. The two species of Brighamia – B. rockii and B. insignis – are represented in the wild by around 120 individual plants. To ensure these plants set seed, biologists rappel down 910-metre (3,000 ft) cliffs to brush pollen onto their stigmas. === Fauna === The aptly named Pacific kingfisher is found in the Pacific Islands, as is the Red-vented bulbul, Polynesian starling, Brown goshawk, Pacific Swallow and the Cardinal myzomela, among others. Birds breeding on Pitcairn include the fairy tern, common noddy, and red-tailed tropicbird. The Pitcairn reed warbler, endemic to Pitcairn Island, was added to the endangered species list in 2008.Native to Hawaii is the Hawaiian crow, which has been extinct in the wild since 2002. The brown tree snake is native to northern and eastern coasts of Australia, Papua New Guinea, Guam and Solomon Islands. Native to Australia, New Guinea and proximate islands are birds of paradise, honeyeaters, Australasian treecreeper, Australasian robin, kingfishers, butcherbirds, and bowerbirds.A unique feature of Australia's fauna is the relative scarcity of native placental mammals, and dominance of the marsupials – a group of mammals that raise their young in a pouch, including the macropods, possums, and dasyuromorphs. The passerines of Australia, also known as songbirds or perching birds, include wrens, the magpie group, thornbills, corvids, pardalotes, lyrebirds. Predominant bird species in the country include the Australian magpie, Australian raven, the pied currawong, crested pigeons and the laughing kookaburra. The koala, emu, platypus and kangaroo are national animals of Australia, and the Tasmanian devil is also one of the well-known animals in the country. The goanna is a predatory lizard native to the Australian mainland.The birds of New Zealand evolved into an avifauna that included a large number of endemic species. As an island archipelago New Zealand accumulated bird diversity and when Captain James Cook arrived in the 1770s he noted that the bird song was deafening. The mix includes species with unusual biology such as the kākāpō which is the world's only flightless, nocturnal, lek-breeding parrot, but also many species that are similar to neighboring land areas. Some of the more well known and distinctive bird species in New Zealand are the kiwi, kea, takahē, kakapo, mohua, tūī, and the bellbird. The tuatara is a notable reptile endemic to New Zealand.Australia, New Zealand, New Guinea, Wallacea, and the islands of the Pacific Ocean collectively possess 42% of the world's parrot species, including half of all Critically Endangered parrots, many of which are endemic to the region. === Climate === The Pacific Islands are ruled by a tropical rainforest and tropical savanna climate. In the tropical and subtropical Pacific, the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) affects weather conditions. In the tropical western Pacific, the monsoon and the related wet season during the summer months contrast with dry winds in the winter which blow over the ocean from the Asian landmass. November is the only month in which all the tropical cyclone basins are active.To the southwest of the region, in the Australian landmass, the climate is mostly desert or semi-arid, with the southern coastal corners having a temperate climate, such as oceanic and humid subtropical climate in the east coast and Mediterranean climate in the west. The northern parts of the country have a tropical climate. Snow falls frequently on the highlands near the east coast, in the states of Victoria, New South Wales, Tasmania and in the Australian Capital Territory.Most regions of New Zealand belong to the temperate zone with a maritime climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfb) characterised by four distinct seasons. Conditions vary from extremely wet on the West Coast of the South Island to almost semi-arid in Central Otago and subtropical in Northland. Snow falls in New Zealand's South Island and at higher altitudes in the North Island. It is extremely rare at sea level in the North Island.Hawaii, although being in the tropics, experiences many different climates, depending on latitude and its geography. The island of Hawaii for example hosts 4 (out of 5 in total) climate groups on a surface as small as 10,430 km2 (4,028 sq mi) according to the Köppen climate types: tropical, arid, temperate and polar. The Hawaiian Islands receive most of their precipitation during the winter months (October to April). A few islands in the northwest, such as Guam, are susceptible to typhoons in the wet season.The highest recorded temperature in Oceania occurred in Oodnadatta, South Australia (2 January 1960), where the temperature reached 50.7 °C (123.3 °F). The lowest temperature ever recorded in Oceania was −25.6 °C (−14.1 °F), at Ranfurly in Otago in 1903, with a more recent temperature of −21.6 °C (−6.9 °F) recorded in 1995 in nearby Ophir. Pohnpei of the Senyavin Islands in Micronesia is the wettest settlement in Oceania, and one of the wettest places on earth, with annual recorded rainfall exceeding 7,600 mm (300 in) each year in certain mountainous locations. The Big Bog on the island of Maui is the wettest place, receiving an average 10,271 mm (404.4 in) each year. == Demographics == The linked map below shows the exclusive economic zones (EEZs) of the islands of Oceania and neighbouring areas, as a guide to the following table (there are few land boundaries that can be drawn on a map of the Pacific at this scale). The demographic table below shows the subregions and countries of geopolitical Oceania. The countries and territories in this table are categorised according to the scheme for geographic subregions used by the United Nations. The information shown follows sources in cross-referenced articles; where sources differ, provisos have been clearly indicated. These territories and regions are subject to various additional categorisations, depending on the source and purpose of each description. === Largest city for regions === Australasia (metro, urban or proper largest city: Sydney) Melanesia (metro, urban or proper largest city: Jayapura) Micronesia (metro, urban or proper largest city: Tarawa) Polynesia (metro, urban or proper largest city: Honolulu) === Cities by metropolitan area === === Religion === The predominant religion in Oceania is Christianity (73%). A 2011 survey found that 92% in Melanesia, 93% in Micronesia and 96% in Polynesia described themselves as Christians. Traditional religions are often animist, and prevalent among traditional tribes is the belief in spirits (masalai in Tok Pisin) representing natural forces. In the 2018 census, 37% of New Zealanders affiliated themselves with Christianity and 48% declared no religion. In the 2016 Census, 52% of the Australian population declared some variety of Christianity and 30% stated ""no religion"".In recent Australian and New Zealand censuses, large proportions of the population say they belong to ""no religion"" (which includes atheism, agnosticism, deism, secular humanism). In Tonga, everyday life is heavily influenced by Polynesian traditions and especially by the Christian faith. The Ahmadiyya mosque in Marshall Islands is the only mosque in Micronesia. Another one in Tuvalu belongs to the same sect. The Baháʼí House of Worship in Tiapapata, Samoa, is one of seven designations administered in the Baháʼí Faith. Other religions in the region include Islam, Buddhism and Hinduism, which are prominent minority religions in Australia and New Zealand. Judaism, Sikhism and Jainism are also present. Sir Isaac Isaacs was the first Australian-born Governor General of Australia and was the first Jewish vice-regal representative in the British Empire. Prince Philip Movement is followed around Yaohnanen village on the southern island of Tanna in Vanuatu. === Languages === Native languages of Oceania fall into three major geographic groups: The large Austronesian language family, with such languages as Malay (Indonesian), and Oceanic languages such as Gilbertese, Fijian, Māori, and Hawaiʻian The Aboriginal Australian languages, including the large Pama–Nyungan family The Papuan languages of New Guinea and neighbouring islands, including the large Trans–New Guinea familyColonial languages include English in Australia, New Zealand, Hawaii, and many other territories; French in New Caledonia, French Polynesia, Wallis and Futuna; Japanese in the Bonin Islands; and Spanish on Easter Island and the Galápagos Islands. There are also Creoles formed from the interaction of Malay or the colonial languages with indigenous languages, such as Tok Pisin, Bislama, Chavacano, various Malay trade and creole languages, Hawaiian Pidgin, Norfuk, and Pitkern. Contact between Austronesian and Papuan resulted in several instances in mixed languages such as Maisin. Immigrants brought their own languages to the region, such as Mandarin, Tagalog, Hindi, Italian, Arabic, Portuguese, Polish, German, Spanish, Russian, Korean, Cantonese and Greek, among many others, namely in Australia and New Zealand, or Fiji Hindi in Fiji. === Immigration === The most multicultural areas in Oceania, which have a high degree of immigration, are Australia, New Zealand, and Hawaii. Since 1945, more than 7 million people have settled in Australia. From the late 1970s, there was a significant increase in immigration from Asian and other non-European countries, making Australia a multicultural country.Sydney is the most multicultural city in Oceania, having more than 250 different languages spoken with about 40% of residents speaking a language other than English at home. Furthermore, 36 percent of the population reported having been born overseas, with top countries being Italy, Lebanon, Vietnam and Iraq, among others. Melbourne is also fairly multicultural, having the largest Greek-speaking population outside of Europe, and the second largest Asian population in Australia after Sydney.European migration to New Zealand provided a major influx following the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840. Subsequent immigration has been chiefly from the British Isles, but also from continental Europe, the Pacific, The Americas and Asia. Auckland is home to over half (51.6 percent) of New Zealand's overseas born population, including 72 percent of the country's Pacific Island-born population, 64 percent of its Asian-born population, and 56 percent of its Middle Eastern and African born population. Hawaii is a majority-minority state. Chinese workers on Western trading ships settled in Hawaii starting in 1789. In 1820, the first American missionaries arrived to preach Christianity and teach the Hawaiians Western ways. As of 2015, a large proportion of Hawaii's population have Asian ancestry – especially Filipino, Japanese, Korean and Chinese. Many are descendants of immigrants brought to work on the sugarcane plantations in the mid-to-late 19th century. Almost 13,000 Portuguese immigrants had arrived by 1899; they also worked on the sugarcane plantations. Puerto Rican immigration to Hawaii began in 1899 when Puerto Rico's sugar industry was devastated by two hurricanes, causing a worldwide shortage of sugar and a huge demand for sugar from Hawaii.Between 2001 and 2007 Australia's Pacific Solution policy transferred asylum seekers to several Pacific nations, including the Nauru detention centre. Australia, New Zealand, and other nations took part in the Regional Assistance Mission to Solomon Islands between 2003 and 2017 after a request for aid. === Archaeogenetics === Archaeology, linguistics, and existing genetic studies indicate that Oceania was settled by two major waves of migration. The first migration of Australo-Melanesians took place c. 40 to 80 thousand years ago, and these migrants, Papuans, colonised much of Near Oceania. Approximately 3.5 thousand years ago, a second expansion of Austronesian speakers arrived in Near Oceania, and the descendants of these people spread to the far corners of the Pacific, colonising Remote Oceania.Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) studies quantify the magnitude of the Austronesian expansion and demonstrate the homogenising effect of this expansion. With regards to Papuan influence, autochthonous haplogroups support the hypothesis of a long history in Near Oceania, with some lineages suggesting a time depth of 60 thousand years. Santa Cruz, a population located in Remote Oceania, is an anomaly with extreme frequencies of autochthonous haplogroups of Near Oceanian origin.Large areas of New Guinea are unexplored by scientists and anthropologists due to extensive forestation and mountainous terrain. Known indigenous tribes in Papua New Guinea have very little contact with local authorities aside from the authorities knowing who they are. Many remain preliterate and, at the national or international level, the names of tribes and information about them is extremely hard to obtain. The Indonesian provinces of Papua and West Papua on the island of New Guinea are home to an estimated 44 uncontacted tribal groups. == Economy == === Australia === Australia and New Zealand are the only highly developed independent nations in the region, although the economy of Australia is by far the largest and most dominant economy in the region and one of the largest in the world. New Caledonia, Hawaiʻi, and French Polynesia are highly developed too but are not sovereign states. Australia's per-capita GDP is higher than that of the UK, Canada, Germany, and France in terms of purchasing power parity. New Zealand is also one of the most globalised economies and depends greatly on international trade.The Australian Securities Exchange in Sydney is the largest stock exchange in Australia and in the South Pacific. In 2012, Australia was the 12th largest national economy by nominal GDP and the 19th-largest measured by PPP-adjusted GDP.Mercer Quality of Living Survey ranks Sydney tenth in the world in terms of quality of living, making it one of the most livable cities. It is classified as an Alpha+ World City by GaWC. Melbourne also ranked highly in the world's most liveable city list, and is a leading financial centre in the Asia-Pacific region. The majority of people living in Australia work in health care, retail and education sectors. Australia boasts the largest amount of manufacturing in the region, producing cars, electrical equipment, machinery and clothes. === New Zealand === New Zealand's economy is the 53rd-largest in the world measured by nominal gross domestic product (GDP) and 68th-largest in the world measured by purchasing power parity (PPP). A major economic and cultural powerhouse of the Southern Hemisphere, Auckland is ranked as a Beta+ world city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. Auckland and Wellington are frequently ranked among the world's most liveable cities, with Auckland being ranked first in the world according to the Global Liveability Ranking.New Zealand has a large GDP for its population of 5.2 million, and sources of revenue are spread throughout the large island nation. The country has one of the most globalised economies and depends greatly on international trade – mainly with Australia, Canada, China, the European Union, Japan, Singapore, South Korea and the United States. New Zealand's 1983 Closer Economic Relations agreement with Australia means that the economy aligns closely with that of Australia. In 2005, the World Bank praised New Zealand as the most business-friendly country in the world. The economy diversified and by 2008, tourism had become the single biggest generator of foreign exchange. The New Zealand dollar is the 10th-most traded currency in the world. === Pacific Islands === The overwhelming majority of people living in the Pacific islands work in the service industry which includes tourism, education and financial services. Oceania's largest export markets include Japan, China, the United States and South Korea. The smallest Pacific nations rely on trade with Australia, New Zealand and the United States for exporting goods and for accessing other products. Australia and New Zealand's trading arrangements are known as Closer Economic Relations. Australia and New Zealand, along with other countries, are members of Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) and the East Asia Summit (EAS), which may become trade blocs in the future particularly EAS. The main produce from the Pacific is copra or coconut, but timber, beef, palm oil, cocoa, sugar, and ginger are also commonly grown across the tropics of the Pacific. Fishing provides a major industry for many of the smaller nations in the Pacific, although many fishing areas are exploited by other larger countries, namely Japan. Natural Resources, such as lead, zinc, nickel, and gold, are mined in Australia and Solomon Islands. Oceania's largest export markets include Japan, China, the United States, India, South Korea and the European Union. Endowed with forest, mineral, and fish resources, Fiji is one of the most developed of the Pacific island economies, though it remains a developing country with a large subsistence agriculture sector. Agriculture accounts for 18% of gross domestic product, although it employed some 70% of the workforce as of 2001. Sugar exports and the growing tourist industry are the major sources of foreign exchange. Sugar cane processing makes up one-third of industrial activity. Coconuts, ginger, and copra are also significant. The history of Hawaii's economy can be traced through a succession of dominant industries; sandalwood, whaling, sugarcane, pineapple, the military, tourism and education. Hawaiian exports include food and clothing. These industries play a small role in the Hawaiian economy, due to the shipping distance to viable markets, such as the West Coast of the contiguous U.S. The state's food exports include coffee, macadamia nuts, pineapple, livestock, sugarcane and honey. As of 2015, Honolulu was ranked high on world livability rankings, and was also ranked as the 2nd safest city in the U.S. === Tourism === Tourists mostly come from Japan, the United Kingdom and the United States. Fiji currently attracts almost half a million tourists each year, more than a quarter of whom come from Australia. This has contributed $1 billion or more to Fiji's economy since 1995, but the Government of Fiji likely underestimates these figures due to the invisible economy inside the tourism industry. Vanuatu is widely recognised as one of the premier vacation destinations for scuba divers wishing to explore coral reefs of the South Pacific region. Tourism has been promoted, in part, by Vanuatu being the site of several reality-TV shows. The ninth season of the reality TV series Survivor was filmed on Vanuatu, entitled Survivor: Vanuatu – Islands of Fire. Two years later, Australia's Celebrity Survivor was filmed at the same location used by the U.S. version. Tourism in Australia is an important component of the Australian economy. In the financial year 2014/15, tourism represented 3% of Australia's GDP contributing A$47.5 billion to the national economy. In 2015, there were 7.4 million visitor arrivals. Popular Australian destinations include the Sydney Harbour (Sydney Opera House, Sydney Harbour Bridge, Royal Botanic Garden, etc.), Gold Coast (theme parks such as Warner Bros. Movie World, Dreamworld and Sea World), Walls of Jerusalem National Park and Mount Field National Park in Tasmania, Royal Exhibition Building in Melbourne, the Great Barrier Reef in Queensland, The Twelve Apostles in Victoria, Uluru (Ayers Rock) and the Australian outback.Tourism in New Zealand contributes NZ$7.3 billion (or 4%) of the country's GDP in 2013, as well as directly supporting 110,800 full-time equivalent jobs (nearly 6% of New Zealand's workforce). International tourist spending accounted for 16% of New Zealand's export earnings (nearly NZ$10 billion). International and domestic tourism contributes, in total, NZ$24 billion to New Zealand's economy every year. Tourism New Zealand, the country's official tourism agency, is actively promoting the country as a destination worldwide. Milford Sound in South Island is acclaimed as New Zealand's most famous tourist destination.In 2003 alone, according to state government data, there were over 6.4 million visitors to the Hawaiian Islands with expenditures of over $10.6 billion. Due to the mild year-round weather, tourist travel is popular throughout the year. In 2011, Hawaiʻi saw increasing arrivals and share of foreign tourists from Canada, Australia, and China increasing 13%, 24% and 21% respectively from 2010. == Politics == === Australia === Australia is a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy with Charles III at its apex as the King of Australia, a role that is distinct from his position as monarch of the other Commonwealth realms. The King is represented in Australia by the Governor-General at the federal level and by the Governors at the state level, who by convention act on the advice of his ministers. There are two major political groups that usually form government, federally and in the states: the Australian Labor Party and the Coalition which is a formal grouping of the Liberal Party and its minor partner, the National Party. Within Australian political culture, the Coalition is considered centre-right and the Labor Party is considered centre-left. The Australian Defence Force is by far the largest military force in Oceania. === New Zealand === New Zealand is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary democracy, although its constitution is not codified. Charles III is the King of New Zealand and the head of state. The King is represented by the Governor-General, whom he appoints on the advice of the Prime Minister. The New Zealand Parliament holds legislative power and consists of the King and the House of Representatives. A parliamentary general election must be called no later than three years after the previous election. New Zealand is identified as one of the world's most stable and well-governed states, with high government transparency and among the lowest perceived levels of corruption. === Pacific Islands === In Samoan politics, the Prime Minister of Samoa is the head of government. The 1960 constitution, which formally came into force with independence from New Zealand in 1962, builds on the British pattern of parliamentary democracy, modified to take account of Samoan customs. The national government (malo) generally controls the legislative assembly. Politics of Tonga takes place in a framework of a constitutional monarchy, whereby the King of Tonga is the Head of State. Fiji has a multiparty system with the Prime Minister of Fiji as head of government. The executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Parliament of Fiji. Fiji's Head of State is the President. He is elected by Parliament of Fiji after nomination by the Prime Minister or the Leader of the Opposition, for a three-year term. In the politics of Papua New Guinea the Prime Minister is the head of government, and the head of state is the monarch of the United Kingdom, represented by a Governor-General. In Kiribati, a Parliamentary regime, the President of Kiribati is the head of state and government, and of a multi-party system. New Caledonia remains an integral part of the French Republic. Inhabitants of New Caledonia are French citizens and carry French passports. They take part in the legislative and presidential French elections. New Caledonia sends two representatives to the French National Assembly and two senators to the French Senate. Hawaii is dominated by the Democratic Party. As codified in the Hawaiian Constitution, there are three branches of government: executive, legislative and judicial. The governor is elected statewide. The lieutenant governor acts as the Secretary of State. The governor and lieutenant governor oversee twenty agencies and departments from offices in the State Capitol. == Culture == === Australia === Since 1788, the primary influence behind Australian culture has been Anglo-Celtic Western culture, with some Indigenous influences. The divergence and evolution that has occurred in the ensuing centuries has resulted in a distinctive Australian culture. Since the mid-20th century, American popular culture has strongly influenced Australia, particularly through television and cinema. Other cultural influences come from neighbouring Asian countries, and through large-scale immigration from non-English-speaking nations. The Story of the Kelly Gang (1906), the world's first feature length film, spurred a boom in Australian cinema during the silent film era. The Australian Museum in Sydney and the National Gallery of Victoria in Melbourne are the oldest and largest museums in Oceania. The city's New Year's Eve celebrations are the largest in Oceania.Australia is also known for its cafe and coffee culture in urban centres. Australia and New Zealand were responsible for the flat white coffee. Most Indigenous Australian tribal groups subsisted on a simple hunter-gatherer diet of native fauna and flora, otherwise called bush tucker. The first settlers introduced British food to the continent, much of which is now considered typical Australian food, such as the Sunday roast. Multicultural immigration transformed Australian cuisine; post-World War II European migrants, particularly from the Mediterranean, helped to build a thriving Australian coffee culture, and the influence of Asian cultures has led to Australian variants of their staple foods, such as the Chinese-inspired dim sim and Chiko Roll. === Hawaii === The music of Hawaii includes traditional and popular styles, ranging from native Hawaiian folk music to modern rock and hip hop. Hawaii's musical contributions to the music of the United States are out of proportion to the state's small size. Styles such as slack-key guitar are well known worldwide, while Hawaiian-tinged music is a frequent part of Hollywood soundtracks. Hawaii also made a major contribution to country music with the introduction of the steel guitar. The Hawaiian religion is polytheistic and animistic, with a belief in many deities and spirits, including the belief that spirits are found in non-human beings and objects such as animals, the waves, and the sky.The cuisine of Hawaii is a fusion of many foods brought by immigrants to the Hawaiian Islands, including the earliest Polynesians and native Hawaiians, and American, Chinese, Filipino, Japanese, Korean, Polynesian, and Portuguese origins. Native Hawaiian musician and Hawaiian sovereignty activist Israel Kamakawiwoʻole, famous for his medley of ""Somewhere Over the Rainbow/What a Wonderful World"", was named ""The Voice of Hawaii"" by NPR in 2010 in its 50 great voices series. === New Zealand === New Zealand as a culture is a Western culture, which is influenced by the cultural input of the indigenous Māori and the various waves of multi-ethnic migration which followed the British colonisation of New Zealand. The Māori people constitute one of the major cultures of Polynesia. The country has been broadened by globalisation and immigration specifically from Oceania, Europe, and Asia. New Zealand marks two national days of remembrance, Waitangi Day and ANZAC Day, and also celebrates many holidays such as the Queen's Birthday, Labour Day, and Christmas Day, as well as public anniversaries of the founding dates of most regions. The New Zealand recording industry began to develop from 1940 onwards and many New Zealand musicians have obtained success in Britain and the United States. Some artists release Māori language songs and the Māori tradition-based art of kapa haka (song and dance) has made a resurgence. The country's diverse scenery and compact size, plus government incentives, have encouraged some producers to film big budget movies in New Zealand, including Avatar, The Lord of the Rings, The Hobbit, The Chronicles of Narnia, King Kong and The Last Samurai.The national cuisine has been described as Pacific Rim, incorporating the native Māori cuisine and diverse culinary traditions introduced by settlers and immigrants from Europe, Polynesia and Asia. New Zealand yields produce from land and sea – most crops and livestock, such as maize, potatoes and pigs, were gradually introduced by the early European settlers. Distinctive ingredients or dishes include lamb; salmon; koura (crayfish); whitebait; shellfish including dredge oysters, paua, mussels, scallops, pipi and tuatua; kumara (sweet potato); kiwifruit; tamarillo; and pavlova (considered a national dish). === Samoa === The fa'a Samoa, or traditional Samoan way, remains a strong force in Samoan life and politics. Despite centuries of European influence, Samoa maintains its historical customs, social and political systems, and language. Cultural customs such as the Samoa 'ava ceremony are significant and solemn rituals at important occasions including the bestowal of matai chiefly titles. Items of great cultural value include the finely woven 'ie toga. The Samoan word for dance is siva, which consists of unique gentle movements of the body in time to music and which tell a story. Samoan male dances can be more snappy. The sasa is also a traditional dance where rows of dancers perform rapid synchronised movements in time to the rhythm of wooden drums (pate) or rolled mats. Another dance performed by males is called the fa'ataupati or the slap dance, creating rhythmic sounds by slapping different parts of the body. As with other Polynesian cultures (Hawaiian, Tahitian and Māori) with significant and unique tattoos, Samoans have two gender specific and culturally significant tattoos. === Arts === The artistic creations of native Oceanians varies greatly throughout the cultures and regions. The subject matter typically carries themes of fertility or the supernatural. Petroglyphs, tattooing, painting, wood carving, stone carving, and textile work are other common art forms. Art of Oceania properly encompasses the artistic traditions of the people indigenous to Australia and the Pacific Islands. These early peoples lacked a writing system, and made works on perishable materials, so few records of them exist from this time.Indigenous Australian rock art is the oldest and richest unbroken tradition of art in the world, dating as far back as 60,000 years and spread across hundreds of thousands of sites. These rock paintings served several functions. Some were used in magic, others to increase animal populations for hunting, while some were simply for amusement. Sculpture in Oceania first appears on New Guinea as a series of stone figures found throughout the island, but mostly in mountainous highlands. Establishing a chronological timeframe for these pieces in most cases is difficult, but one has been dated to c. 1500 BCE.By 1500 BCE the Lapita culture, descendants of the second wave, would begin to expand and spread into the more remote islands. At around the same time, art began to appear in New Guinea, including the earliest examples of sculpture in Oceania. Beginning c. 1100 CE, the people of Easter Island would begin construction of nearly 900 moai (large stone statues). At c. 1200 CE, the people of Pohnpei, a Micronesian island, would embark on another megalithic construction, building Nan Madol, a city of artificial islands and a system of canals. Hawaiian art includes wood carvings, feather work, petroglyphs, bark cloth (called kapa in Hawaiian and tapa elsewhere in the Pacific), and tattoos. Native Hawaiians had neither metal nor woven cloth. === Sport === Rugby union is one of the region's most prominent sports, and is the national sport of New Zealand, Samoa, Fiji and Tonga. The most popular overall sport in Australia is cricket, with their national team having won the Cricket World Cup a record five times. The most popular sport among Australian women is netball, while Australian rules football garners the highest spectatorship numbers and television ratings. Rugby union is the most popular sport among New Zealanders, and they are tied with South Africa for the most Rugby World Cup titles, having won the tournament three times. Australia's team the Wallabies have also managed to win the World Cup twice, despite Rugby union being less popular among Australians. In Papua New Guinea, the most popular sport is Rugby league. Fiji's sevens team is one of the most successful in the world, as is New Zealand's.Australian rules football is the national sport in Nauru. It has a large following in Papua New Guinea, where it is the second most popular sport after Rugby League. Additionally, it attracts significant attention across New Zealand and the Pacific Islands. The highest level of the sport is the Australian Football League (AFL), which was the fourth best attended sporting league in the world during the 2010s.Vanuatu is the only country in Oceania to call association football its national sport. However, it is also the most popular sport in Kiribati, Solomon Islands and Tuvalu, and has a significant (and growing) popularity in Australia. In 2006 Australia left the Oceania Football Confederation (OFC) for the Asian Football Confederation (AFC), and their men's team the Socceroos have qualified for every subsequent FIFA World Cup as an Asian entrant. The sole Micronesian country with membership in the OFC is Kiribati, although they are not recognized by FIFA like the other OFC members. Federated States of Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Nauru and Palau all have no presence, primarily due to lack of infrastructure and logistical difficulties related to Micronesia's remoteness. Like Australia, the Micronesian dependent territories of Guam and Northern Mariana Islands currently compete in the AFC instead of the OFC. The OFC was dominated by Australia for many years, and became known for one-sided results. These included a 31–0 defeat of American Samoa by Australia in 2001, which remains the biggest international victory in the history of the sport. It broke the previous record set two days earlier when Australia defeated Tonga 22–0.Australians view sport as an important part of their cultural identity, and the country performs well on the international stage, despite having a relatively small population. They have hosted two Summer Olympics: Melbourne 1956 and Sydney 2000, and the city of Brisbane is also set to host the 2032 edition. Australia (and New Zealand) were among the small handful of non-communist countries who decided to participate at Moscow 1980. Additionally, Australia has hosted five editions of the Commonwealth Games (Sydney 1938, Perth 1962, Brisbane 1982, Melbourne 2006, Gold Coast 2018). Meanwhile, New Zealand has hosted the Commonwealth Games three times: Auckland 1950, Christchurch 1974 and Auckland 1990. The Pacific Games (formerly known as the South Pacific Games) is a multi-sport event, much like the Olympics on a much smaller scale, with participation exclusively from countries around the Pacific. It is held every four years and began in 1963. Australia and New Zealand competed in the games for the first time in 2015.Melbourne hosts the Australian Open every year, considered one of the four major Grand Slam tournaments in tennis. It was held for the first time in 1905. == See also == Australasia Europeans in Oceania Festival of Pacific Arts Flags of Oceania Insular Chile List of cities in Oceania Oceania (journal) Oceanic cuisine Indigenous peoples of Oceania Pacific Islander Pacific Union The Pacific Community United Nations geoscheme for Oceania == References == == Further reading == Davison, Graeme; Hirst, John; Macintyre, Stuart (1998). The Oxford Companion to Australian History. Melbourne: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-553597-9. Frank Harary & Per Hage (1991) Exchange in Oceania: A Graph Theoretic Analysis, Oxford Studies in Social and Cultural Anthropology, Oxford University Press. Frank Harary & Per Hage (2007) Island Networks: Communication, Kinship, and Classification Structures in Oceania, Structural Analysis in the Social Sciences, Cambridge University Press. Jupp, James (2001). The Australian people: an encyclopedia of the nation, its people, and their origins. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-80789-0. Lewis, Martin W.; Wigen, Kären E. (1997). The Myth of Continents: a Critique of Metageography. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-20743-1. Teo, Hsu-Ming; White, Richard (2003). Cultural history in Australia. University of New South Wales Press. ISBN 978-0-86840-589-6. == External links == Oceania at Curlie ""Australia and Oceania"" from National Geographic Oceania photographs, recordings, and digital objects drawn primarily from the Tuzin Archive for Melanesian Anthropology at the UC San Diego Library." Continents,List of paleocontinents,"This is a list of paleocontinents, significant landmasses that have been proposed to exist in the geological past. The degree of certainty to which the identified landmasses can regarded as independent entities reduces as geologists look further back in time. The list includes cratons, supercratons, microcontinents, continents and supercontinents. For the Archean to Paleoproterozoic cores of most of the continents see also list of shields and cratons. == List of paleocontinents == == References ==" Continents,Paleocontinent,"A paleocontinent or palaeocontinent is a distinct area of continental crust that existed as a major landmass in the geological past. There have been many different landmasses throughout Earth's time. They range in sizes, some are just a collection of small microcontinents while others are large conglomerates of crust. As time progresses and sea levels rise and fall more crust can be exposed making way for larger landmasses. The continents of the past shaped the evolution of organisms on Earth and contributed to the climate of the globe as well. As landmasses break apart, species are separated and those that were once the same now have evolved to their new climate. The constant movement of these landmasses greatly determines the distribution of organisms on Earth's surface. This is evident with how similar fossils are found on completely separate continents. Also, as continents move, mountain building events (orogenies) occur, causing a shift in the global climate as new rock is exposed and then there is more exposed rock at higher elevations. This causes glacial ice expansion and an overall cooler global climate. The movement of the continents greatly affects the overall dispersal of organisms throughout the world and the trend in climate throughout Earth's history. Examples include Laurentia, Baltica and Avalonia, which collided together during the Caledonian orogeny to form the Old Red Sandstone paleocontinent of Laurussia. Another example includes a collision that occurred during the late Pennsylvanian and early Permian time when there was a collision between the two continents of Tarimsky and Kirghiz-Kazakh. This collision was caused because of their askew convergence when the paleoceanic basin closed. == Examples == The examples below are condensed in order to portray a brief overview of several paleocontinents. === Gondwana === ==== Location ==== Gondwana was located in the southern hemisphere, with the land mass that makes up current day Antarctica closest to the South Pole. The continent reaches from just above the equator to the South Pole. Current day South America and Africa are closest to the equator with Northern Africa intersecting the equator. ==== Time period ==== 600-180 mya, Precambrian - Jurassic Period. ==== Formation ==== Gondwana was made of present-day South America, Africa, Arabia, India, Antarctica, Australia, and Madagascar. The Continent was fully formed by the late Precambrian period. This was 600 million years ago. It was an amalgamation of all the current southern hemisphere continents. Gondwana lasted through many different time periods and was a part of other super continents, like Pangea. ==== Demise ==== Gondwana broke up in distinct stages. The continent started to split during the Jurassic Period around 180 million years ago. The first event was the separation of the western half of Gondwana, which includes Africa and South America, from the eastern half, which includes Antarctica, Australia, Madagascar, and India. Next, 40 million years later, South America and Africa began to split which began to open up the Atlantic Ocean. Also around this time India and Madagascar began to detach from Australia and Antarctica. This separation created the Indian Ocean. Lastly, in the Cretaceous, India and Madagascar began to split and Australia and Antarctica began to detach from one another. ==== Life ==== The life on Gondwana has changed throughout its existence. Gondwana was a smaller piece of Rodinia and stayed together all the way through the breakup of Pangea. This allowed Gondwana to host almost all species that have ever lived on Earth. Gondwana also was a part of some great mass extinction events. During the Ordovician, sea levels rose so much that the entire Gondwana continent was covered, at this time marine life was dominant. Also, vertebrates started to make an appearance in the fossil record. Terrestrial species started to become more prominent in the Silurian, however, in the Devonian modern fish and shark species began to diversify, and terrestrial vegetation begun colonizing the continent, as organic soil accumulation can be detected. Amniotic eggs started to evolve as more terrestrial land became available with rising land masses and lowering sea levels. During the Permian extinction, almost all marine species were lost, along with some terrestrial species. This event gave rise to terrestrial species, such as reptiles, dinosaurs, and small mammals. ==== Climate ==== Gondwana experienced a variety of climates as it has been a land mass from 600 million years ago in the Precambrian to the Early Jurassic with the breakup of Pangea. In the Cambrian, there was a warmer and milder climate because most continental crust was closer to the equator and not the poles. The continent endured an ice age during the Ordovician period and deglaciation was still occurring during the Silurian period. The climate started to become more humid and tropical throughout the globe and there was a lack of seasonality. The climate began to change again during the Mesozoic, this time period was dominated by a very large and lengthy monsoon season, because of Pangea. Once Pangea began to break apart the climate started to cool, but Gondwana was already being broken apart. === Laurentia === ==== Location ==== The location of Laurentia has changed throughout time. In the late Proterozoic Laurentia could be found surrounded by Siberia, South Africa, Australia-Antarctica, and Amazonia-Baltica. During the time of supercontinent Gondwana, Laurentia was smashed in between Eastern and Western Gondwana, but when Gondwana attached to Laurussia to form Pangea, Laurentia moved and was closer to northern Africa. ==== Time period ==== 4 bya-present day, Precambrian-Quaternary. ==== Formation ==== Laurentia is the North American craton. It is one of the largest and oldest cratons dating back to Precambrian times. The craton itself includes the Canadian and Greenland shields, as well as the interior basin of North America, and the craton can also include the Cordilleran foreland of the Southwestern United States. The craton itself formed in deep time, the early Proterozoic age of the Earth and has stayed coherent since. It formed through many different orogenies and the suture zones that they create. These smaller land masses were made of Archean age crust and belts of Early Proterozoic island arcs. Laurentia has been a part of many supercontinents throughout its time. The formation of Laurentia is similar to the formation of Eurasia. ==== Demise ==== Laurentia is presently still coherent and still a continental craton. Now, it goes by the name North America. The craton can be found stretching from Alberta, Canada to the Eastern coast of both Canada and the United States. The craton stretches from the south eastern United States to Greenland. The western border of Laurentia can be found on the eastern side of the Rocky Mountains. ==== Life ==== Sea level rose in the Cambrian period which gave rise to marine invertebrates which flourished with the rise in sea level. Life in the Ordovician continued to be dominated by marine animals and vegetation. Also, vertebrates started to make up a portion of the animals on Earth. However sponges and algae were still the most dominant species type. Marine animals were the most dominant but terrestrial species started to appear at the end of the Ordovician. Life in the Silurian was still dominated by marine species but terrestrial species are much more prominent than they had been previously. When Laurentia moved into the Devonian period fish began to diversify and life had begun colonizing land as this is when organic soil accumulation can be detected. More modern fish began to develop as time went on, with the addition of shark diversification. Also, amniotic eggs started to evolve as more terrestrial land became available with rising land masses. The next event was the Permian extinction where almost all species in the oceans died off along with many terrestrial species. This then gave rise to terrestrial animals, such as reptiles, dinosaurs, and small mammals. At the end of this new era was a mass extinction of Dinosaurs and reptiles, this led mammals to flourish as they could take over many of the niches that became vacant. ==== Climate ==== Laurentia experienced a variety of climates as it has been a land mass for billions of years. The craton experienced an ice age during the late Proterozoic and another during the Ordivician period. During the Cambrian, there was no ice age and it was slightly warmer as most continents avoided the poles giving land at this time a milder climate. Deglaciation was still occurring during the Silurian period after the ice age of the Ordovician. The climate started to move to become more humid and tropical throughout the Earth. There were not many seasons. The climate began to change when Laurentia entered the Mesozoic Era, this time period was dominated by a very large and lengthy monsoon season, because of Pangea. At the end of the Cretaceous, seasons started to return and the Earth entered another ice age type event. === Pangea === ==== Location ==== The continent spanned from 85° N to 90° S. Pangea was centered over the equator, and encompassed area from the North to the South poles. The Southeastern part of present-day North America and the Northern region of current day Africa intersected the equator. Present-day Eastern Asia was furthest North and Antarctica and Australia were furthest South. ==== Time period ==== 299–272 mya to 200 mya, Early Permian-Early Jurassic. ==== Formation ==== Pangea was created by the continent of Gondwanaland and the continent of Laurussia. During the Carboniferous period the two continents came together to form the supercontinent of Pangea. The mountain building events that happened at this time created the Appalachian Mountains and the Variscan Belt of Central Europe. However, not all landmasses on Earth had attached themselves onto Pangea. It took until the late Permian until the Siberian land mass collided with Pangea. The only land mass to not be a part of Pangea were the former North and South China plates, they created a much smaller land mass in the ocean. There was a massive ocean that encompassed the world called Panthalassa, because most of the continental crust was sutured together into one giant continent there was a giant ocean to match. ==== Demise ==== Pangea broke apart after 70 million years. The supercontinent was torn apart through fragmentation, which is where parts of the main landmass would break off in stages. There were two main events that led to the dispersal of Pangea. The first was a passive rifting event that occurred in the Triassic period. This rifting event caused the Atlantic Ocean to form. The other event was an active rifting event. This happened in the Lower Jurassic and caused the opening of the Indian Ocean. This breakup took 17 million years to complete. ==== Life ==== Pangea formed roughly 20 million years before the Permian Extinction. During the Permian Extinction over 95% of all marine species were lost and 70% of terrestrial species were lost. The Triassic period of Pangea became a time of recovery from the Permian Extinction. This recovery included the rise of sea levels which created extensive shallow oceanic shelves for large marine reptiles. This recovery period was when terrestrial animals flourished and when land reptiles diversified and flourished, along with the appearance of Dinosaurs. These Dinosaurs would become what characterizes the life forms of the following periods, the Jurassic and Cretaceous. Lastly at the end of the Triassic and the beginning of the Jurassic was the first appearance of small shrew like mammals that came from reptiles. ==== Climate ==== The main characteristic of Pangea's climate is that its position on Earth was advantageous for starting a cycle of megamonsoonal circulation. The monsoons reached their maximum strength in the Triassic period of the Mesozoic. During the late Carboniferous, there was peat formation in what is currently Europe and the Eastern areas of North America. The wetter, swamp like conditions needed to form peat were contrasted with the dry conditions on the Colorado Plateau. Nearing the end of the Carboniferous the region of Pangea centered on the equator became drier. In the Permian, this dryness was contrasted with seasonal rainfall, and this type of climate became more normal and widespread on the continent. However, during the Triassic, the Colorado Plateau started to regain some moisture and there was a shift in wind direction. Around the same time parts of current day Australia that were found at higher latitudes were much drier and seasonal in character. At the start of the Jurassic the megamonsoon started to fall apart as drying started to happen to Gondwana and the southern portion of Laurasia. === Rodinia === ==== Location ==== Rodinia was centered on the Equator and reached from 60° N to 60° S. ==== Time period ==== 1.2-1 bya to 800-850 mya, Proterozoic Eon - end of Precambrian. ==== Formation ==== It was the first supercontinent to form on Earth, all the continental crust on Earth came together and formed one giant land mass. This land mass was surrounded by an even larger ocean, known as Mirovia. There were about four smaller continents that collided and came together to form Rodinia. This event is called the Grenville Orogeny. This caused there to be mountain building along the areas of were continents collided. This is because the continental crust is not very dense so neither continent would sink or sub duct. This causes the formation of Fold and Thrust belts, similar to the Himalayas today. ==== Demise ==== Rodinia lasted for 250 mya and then began to come apart between 850 and 800 mya. The continent began to break part at a single point but then fractured and ripped open in three different directions. Two of the three rifts that were created were successful and the third failed. The breaking up Rodinia caused the formation of Gondwana or Gondwanaland and Laurentia. Rodinia's breakup created many shallow coastal shelves that were not there before. The shelves were nutrient rich and this is thought to have led to the diversification of vegetative and non-vegetative life on Earth. The shelves in particular were the area where animal life is said to have started. The name Rodinia also alludes to this, in Russian it means ‘to give birth’ and in this case that is to animal life here on Earth. ==== Climate ==== The climate at the end of Rodinia's existence was cold and it is thought that this was the start of the first snowball Earth period. Rodinia already had some glaciation but as it tore apart, less dense rock began to rise causing more land area to be at higher elevations which encouraged more ice to stick. However, the time of Rodinia was a time of inactivity in Earth's atmosphere. Also the atmosphere had little oxygen because Rodinia's land surface was too harsh of an environment for land plants to flourish, the atmosphere was devoid of Oxygen and the ozone layer was much less extensive which attributed to the harsh land environment. == See also == Continental fragment – Part of a continent broken from its main mass Geological history of Earth – The sequence of major geological events in Earth's past List of paleocontinents Prehistoric ocean – List of Earth's former oceansPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Terrane – Fragment of crust formed on one tectonic plate and accreted to another == References ==" Continents,Sahul,"Sahul (), also called Sahul-land, Meganesia, Papualand and Greater Australia, was a paleocontinent that encompassed the modern-day landmasses of mainland Australia, Tasmania, New Guinea, and the Aru Islands.Sahul was in the south-western Pacific Ocean, located approximately north to south between the Equator and the 44th parallel south and west to east between the 112th and the 152nd meridians east. Sahul was separated from Sunda to its west by the Wallacean Archipelago. At its largest, when ocean levels were at their lowest, it was approximately 10,600,000 square kilometres (4,100,000 sq mi) in size.After the last Ice Age global temperatures increased and sea levels gradually rose, flooding the land bridge and separating mainland Australia from New Guinea and Tasmania. New Guinea was separated from the Australian mainland approximately 8,000 years ago, and Tasmania approximately 6,000 years ago.Sahul hosted a large variety of unique fauna that evolved independently from the rest of the world. Most notably nearly all mammals on Sahul were marsupials including a range of browsers, burrowers, scavengers and predators; bats and rodents represented the only placental mammals.It is estimated humans first colonised Sahul between 45,000 and 60,000 years ago, making the ocean crossing from Sunda through Wallacea. From Sahul humans spread throughout Oceania.The name Sahul is used by archeologists, while the name Meganesia tends to be used by zoogeographers. The name Greater Australia has been used, but it has been criticised as ""cartographic imperialism"" because it places greater emphasis upon what is now Australia at the expense of New Guinea. == See also == Arafura Sea – Marginal sea between Australia and Indonesian New Guinea List of paleocontinents == Notes == == References == === Citations === === Bibliography === Ballard, Chris (1993). ""Stimulating minds to fantasy? A critical etymology for Sahul"". In Smith, M. A.; Spriggs, M.; Fankhouser, B. (eds.). Sahul in review: Pleistocene archaeology in Australia, New Guinea and island Melanesia (PDF). Canberra: Australian National University. pp. 17–23. ISBN 0-7315-1540-4.Groves, Colin P. (1996). ""Hovering on the brink: nearly but not quite getting to Australia"". In Rousham, Emily; Freedman, Leonard (eds.). Perspectives in human biology: volume 2 humans in the Australasian region. Singapore: World Scientific Publishing Co, Pte Ltd. pp. 83–87. ISBN 981-02-3023-0. ISSN 1038-5762.Kennett, B. L. N.; Chopping, R.; Blewett, R. (2018). The Australian continent: a geophysical synthesis. Canberra: Australian National University Press. ISBN 9781760462475.O’Connell, James F.; Allen, Jim; Hawkes, Kristen (2010). ""Pleistocene Sahul and the origins of seafaring"". In Anderson, Athol; Barrett, James H.; Boyle, Katherine V. (eds.). The global origins and development of seafaring. Cambridge: MacDonald Institute for Archeological Research. pp. 57–68. ISBN 978-1-902937-52-6.O'Connor, Sue; Hiscock, Peter (2018). ""The people of Sahul and near Oceania"". In Cochrane, Ethan E.; Hunt, Terry L. (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Prehistoric Oceania. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 26–45. ISBN 978-0-19-992507-0.Oliver, Douglas L. (1961). The Pacific Islands. New York: The American Museum of Natural History.Thomas, Nicholas (June 2021). ""From Sunda to Sahul: the first crossings and early settlement of the Pacific"". Natural History. Research Triangle Park: Natural History Magazine, Inc. ISSN 0028-0712. Retrieved 7 January 2022.White, J. Peter; O'Connell, James F. (1982). A prehistory of Australia, New Guinea and Sahul. Sydney: Academic Press Australia. ISBN 0-12-746750-5." Continents,South America,"South America is a continent entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere at the northern tip of the continent. It can also be described as the southern subregion of a single continent called America. South America is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean and on the north and east by the Atlantic Ocean; North America and the Caribbean Sea lie to the northwest. The continent generally includes twelve sovereign states: Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Uruguay, and Venezuela; two dependent territories: the Falkland Islands and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands; and one internal territory: French Guiana. In addition, the ABC islands of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, Ascension Island (dependency of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha, a British Overseas Territory), Bouvet Island (dependency of Norway), Panama, and Trinidad and Tobago may also be considered parts of South America. South America has an area of 17,840,000 square kilometers (6,890,000 sq mi). Its population as of 2021 has been estimated at more than 434 million. South America ranks fourth in area (after Asia, Africa, and North America) and fifth in population (after Asia, Africa, Europe, and North America). Brazil is by far the most populous South American country, with more than half of the continent's population, followed by Colombia, Argentina, Venezuela and Peru. In recent decades, Brazil has also generated half of the continent's GDP and has become the continent's first regional power.Most of the population lives near the continent's western or eastern coasts while the interior and the far south are sparsely populated. The geography of western South America is dominated by the Andes mountains; in contrast, the eastern part contains both highland regions and vast lowlands where rivers such as the Amazon, Orinoco and Paraná flow. Most of the continent lies in the tropics, except for a large part of the Southern Cone located in the middle latitudes. The continent's cultural and ethnic outlook has its origin with the interaction of indigenous peoples with European conquerors and immigrants and, more locally, with African slaves. Given a long history of colonialism, the overwhelming majority of South Americans speak Spanish or Portuguese, and societies and states are rich in Western traditions. Relative to Europe, Asia and Africa, post-1900 South America has been a peaceful continent with few wars. == Geography == South America occupies the southern portion of the Americas. The continent is generally delimited on the northwest by the Darién watershed along the Colombia–Panama border, although some may consider the border instead to be the Panama Canal. Geopolitically and geographically, all of Panama – including the segment east of the Panama Canal in the isthmus – is typically included in North America alone and among the countries of Central America. Almost all of mainland South America sits on the South American Plate. South America is home to the world's highest uninterrupted waterfall, Angel Falls in Venezuela; the highest single drop waterfall Kaieteur Falls in Guyana; the largest river by volume, the Amazon River; the longest mountain range, the Andes (whose highest mountain is Aconcagua at 6,962 m or 22,841 ft); the driest non-polar place on earth, the Atacama Desert; the wettest place on earth, López de Micay in Colombia; the largest rainforest, the Amazon rainforest; the highest capital city, La Paz, Bolivia; the highest commercially navigable lake in the world, Lake Titicaca; and, excluding research stations in Antarctica, the world's southernmost permanently inhabited community, Puerto Toro, Chile. South America's major mineral resources are gold, silver, copper, iron ore, tin, and petroleum. These resources found in South America have brought high income to its countries especially in times of war or of rapid economic growth by industrialized countries elsewhere. However, the concentration in producing one major export commodity often has hindered the development of diversified economies. The fluctuation in the price of commodities in the international markets has led historically to major highs and lows in the economies of South American states, often causing extreme political instability. This is leading to efforts to diversify production to drive away from staying as economies dedicated to one major export. Brazil is the largest country in South America, covering a little less than half of the continent's land area and encompassing around half of the continent's population. The remaining countries and territories are divided among four subregions: the Andean states, Caribbean South America, The Guianas, and the Southern Cone. === Outlying islands === Physiographically, South America also includes some of the nearby islands. The Dutch ABC islands (Aruba, Bonaire, and Curaçao), the islands of Trinidad and Tobago (Trinidad Island and Tobago Island etc.), the State of Nueva Esparta, and the Federal Dependencies of Venezuela sit on the northern portion of the South American continental shelf and are sometimes considered parts of the continent. Geopolitically, all the island countries and territories in the Caribbean have generally been grouped as a subregion of North America instead. By contrast, Aves Island (administered by Venezuela) and the Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina (San Andrés Island, Providencia Island, and Santa Catalina Island etc., which are administered by Colombia) are politically parts of South American countries but physiographically parts of North America.Other islands often associated with geopolitical South America are the Chiloé Archipelago and Robinson Crusoe Island (both administered by Chile), Easter Island (culturally a part of Oceania, also administered by Chile), the Galápagos Islands (administered by Ecuador, sometimes considered part of Oceania), and Tierra del Fuego (split between Argentina and Chile). In the Atlantic Ocean, Brazil administers Fernando de Noronha, Trindade and Martim Vaz, and the Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago, while the Falkland Islands (Spanish: Islas Malvinas) and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands (biogeographically and hydrologically associated with Antarctica) have been administered as two British Overseas Territories under the Crown, whose sovereignty over the islands is disputed by Argentina. ==== Special cases ==== An isolated volcanic island on the South American Plate, Ascension Island is geologically a part of South America. Administered as a dependency of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha, the island is geopolitically a part of Africa. An uninhabited sub-Antarctic volcanic island located in the South Atlantic Ocean, Bouvet Island (administered by Norway) is geographically, geologically, biogeographically, and hydrologically associated with Antarctica, but the United Nations geoscheme has included the territory in South America instead. === Climate === All of the world's major climate zones are present in South America.The distribution of the average temperatures in the region presents a constant regularity from the 30° of latitude south, when the isotherms tend, more and more, to be confused with the degrees of latitude.In temperate latitudes, winters and summers are milder than in North America. This is because the most extensive part of the continent is in the equatorial zone (the region has more areas of equatorial plains than any other region), therefore giving the Southern Cone more oceanic influence, which moderates year round temperatures. The average annual temperatures in the Amazon basin oscillate around 27 °C (81 °F), with low thermal amplitudes and high rainfall indices. Between the Maracaibo Lake and the mouth of the Orinoco, predominates an equatorial climate of the type Congolese, that also includes parts of the Brazilian territory.The east-central Brazilian plateau has a humid and warm tropical climate. The northern and eastern parts of the Argentine pampas have a humid subtropical climate with dry winters and humid summers of the Chinese type, while the western and eastern ranges have a subtropical climate of the dinaric type. At the highest points of the Andean region, climates are colder than the ones occurring at the highest point of the Norwegian fjords. In the Andean plateaus, the warm climate prevails, although it is tempered by the altitude, while in the coastal strip, there is an equatorial climate of the Guinean type. From this point until the north of the Chilean coast appear, successively, Mediterranean oceanic climate, temperate of the Breton type and, already in Tierra del Fuego, cold climate of the Siberian type. The distribution of rainfall is related to the regime of winds and air masses. In most of the tropical region east of the Andes, winds blowing from the northeast, east and southeast carry moisture from the Atlantic, causing abundant rainfall. However, due to a consistently strong wind shear and a weak Intertropical Convergence Zone, South Atlantic tropical cyclones are rare. In the Orinoco Llanos and in the Guianas Plateau, the precipitation levels go from moderate to high. The Pacific coast of Colombia and northern Ecuador are rainy regions, with Chocó in Colombia being the rainiest place in the world along with the northern slopes of Indian Himalayas. The Atacama Desert, along this stretch of coast, is one of the driest regions in the world. The central and southern parts of Chile are subject to extratropical cyclones, and most of the Argentine Patagonia is desert. In the Pampas of Argentina, Uruguay and South of Brazil the rainfall is moderate, with rains well distributed during the year. The moderately dry conditions of the Chaco oppose the intense rainfall of the eastern region of Paraguay. In the semiarid coast of the Brazilian Northeast the rains are linked to a monsoon regime.Important factors in the determination of climates are sea currents, such as the current Humboldt and Falklands. The equatorial current of the South Atlantic strikes the coast of the Northeast and there is divided into two others: the current of Brazil and a coastal current that flows to the northwest towards the Antilles, where there it moves towards northeast course thus forming the most Important and famous ocean current in the world, the Gulf Stream. === Fauna === South America is one of the most biodiverse continents on Earth. South America is home to many unique species of animals including the llama, anaconda, piranha, jaguar, vicuña, and tapir. The Amazon rainforests possess high biodiversity, containing a major proportion of Earth's species. 83% of South America's large mammals (megafauna) became extinct at the end of the Pleistocene around 11,000 years ago as part of the Quaternary extinction event, among the highest of any continent, with the casualties including saber-toothed cats, ground sloths, glyptodonts, gomphotheres, the equines Hippidion and Equus neogeus, and all remaining South American native ungulates. == History == === Prehistory === South America is thought to have been first inhabited by humans when people were crossing the Bering Land Bridge (now the Bering Strait) at least 15,000 years ago from the territory that is present-day Russia. They migrated south through North America, and eventually reached South America through the Isthmus of Panama. Amongst the oldest evidence for human presence in South America is the Monte Verde II site in Chile, suggested to date to around 14,500 years ago. From around 13,000 years ago, the Fishtail projectile point style became widespread across South America, with its disppearance around 11,000 years ago coincident with the disappearance of South America's megafauna. Maize was present in northern South America by around 6,000 years ago.By 2000 BC, many agrarian communities had been settled throughout the Andes and the surrounding regions. Fishing became a widespread practice along the coast, helping establish fish as a primary source of food. Irrigation systems were also developed at this time, which aided in the rise of an agrarian society.South American cultures began domesticating llamas, vicuñas, guanacos, and alpacas in the highlands of the Andes circa 3500 BC. Besides their use as sources of meat and wool, these animals were used for transportation of goods. === Pre-Columbian civilizations === The rise of plant growing and the subsequent appearance of permanent human settlements allowed for the multiple and overlapping beginnings of civilizations in South America. One of the earliest known South American civilizations was at Norte Chico, on the central Peruvian coast. Though a pre-ceramic culture, the monumental architecture of Norte Chico is contemporaneous with the pyramids of Ancient Egypt. Norte Chico governing class established a trade network and developed agriculture then followed by Chavín by 900 BC, according to some estimates and archaeological finds. Artifacts were found at a site called Chavín de Huantar in modern Peru at an elevation of 3,177 meters (10,423 ft). Chavín civilization spanned 900 BC to 300 BC. In the central coast of Peru, around the beginning of the 1st millennium AD, Moche (100 BC – 700 AD, at the northern coast of Peru), Paracas and Nazca (400 BC – 800 AD, Peru) cultures flourished with centralized states with permanent militia improving agriculture through irrigation and new styles of ceramic art. At the Altiplano, Tiahuanaco or Tiwanaku (100 BC – 1200 AD, Bolivia) managed a large commercial network based on religion. Around the 7th century, both Tiahuanaco and Wari or Huari Empire (600–1200, Central and northern Peru) expanded its influence to all the Andean region, imposing the Huari urbanism and Tiahuanaco religious iconography. The Muisca were the main indigenous civilization in what is now Colombia. They established the Muisca Confederation of many clans, or cacicazgos, that had a free trade network among themselves. They were goldsmiths and farmers. Other important Pre-Columbian cultures include: the Cañaris (in south central Ecuador), Chimú Empire (1300–1470, Peruvian northern coast), Chachapoyas, and the Aymaran kingdoms (1000–1450, Western Bolivia and southern Peru). Holding their capital at the great city of Cusco, the Inca civilization dominated the Andes region from 1438 to 1533. Known as Tawantin suyu, and ""the land of the four regions,"" in Quechua, the Inca Empire was highly distinct and developed. Inca rule extended to nearly a hundred linguistic or ethnic communities, some nine to fourteen million people connected by a 25,000 kilometer road system. Cities were built with precise, unmatched stonework, constructed over many levels of mountain terrain. Terrace farming was a useful form of agriculture. The Mapuche in Central and Southern Chile resisted the European and Chilean settlers, waging the Arauco War for more than 300 years. === European colonization === In 1494, Portugal and Spain, the two great maritime European powers of that time, on the expectation of new lands being discovered in the west, signed the Treaty of Tordesillas, by which they agreed, with the support of the Pope, that all the land outside Europe should be an exclusive duopoly between the two countries. The treaty established an imaginary line along a north–south meridian 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands, roughly 46° 37' W. In terms of the treaty, all land to the west of the line (known to comprise most of the South American soil) would belong to Spain, and all land to the east, to Portugal. As accurate measurements of longitude were impossible at that time, the line was not strictly enforced, resulting in a Portuguese expansion of Brazil across the meridian. Beginning in the 1530s, the people and natural resources of South America were repeatedly exploited by foreign conquistadors, first from Spain and later from Portugal. These competing colonial nations claimed the land and resources as their own and divided it into colonies. European infectious diseases (smallpox, influenza, measles, and typhus) – to which the native populations had no immune resistance – caused large-scale depopulation of the native population under Spanish control. Systems of forced labor, such as the haciendas and mining industry's mit'a also contributed to the depopulation. After this, enslaved Africans, who had developed immunities to these diseases, were quickly brought in to replace them. The Spaniards were committed to converting their native subjects to Christianity and were quick to purge any native cultural practices that hindered this end; however, many initial attempts at this were only partially successful, as native groups simply blended Catholicism with their established beliefs and practices. Furthermore, the Spaniards brought their language to the degree they did with their religion, although the Roman Catholic Church's evangelization in Quechua, Aymara, and Guaraní actually contributed to the continuous use of these native languages albeit only in the oral form. Eventually, the natives and the Spaniards interbred, forming a mestizo class. At the beginning, many mestizos of the Andean region were offspring of Amerindian mothers and Spanish fathers. After independence, most mestizos had native fathers and European or mestizo mothers. Many native artworks were considered pagan idols and destroyed by Spanish explorers; this included many gold and silver sculptures and other artifacts found in South America, which were melted down before their transport to Spain or Portugal. Spaniards and Portuguese brought the western European architectural style to the continent, and helped to improve infrastructures like bridges, roads, and the sewer system of the cities they discovered or conquered. They also significantly increased economic and trade relations, not just between the old and new world but between the different South American regions and peoples. Finally, with the expansion of the Portuguese and Spanish languages, many cultures that were previously separated became united through that of Latin American. Guyana was initially colonized by the Dutch before coming under British control, though there was a brief period during the Napoleonic Wars when it was occupied by the French. The region was initially partitioned between the Dutch, French and British before fully coming under the control of Britain. Suriname was first explored by the Spanish in the 16th century and then settled by the English in the mid-17th century. It became a Dutch colony in 1667. === Slavery in South America === The indigenous peoples of the Americas in various European colonies were forced to work in European plantations and mines; along with enslaved Africans who were also introduced in the proceeding centuries via the slave trade. European colonists were heavily dependent on indigenous labor during the initial phases of settlement to maintain the subsistence economy, and natives were often captured by expeditions. The importation of African slaves began midway through the 16th century, but the enslavement of indigenous peoples continued well into the 17th and 18th centuries. The Atlantic slave trade brought enslaved Africans primarily to South American colonies, beginning with the Portuguese since 1502. The main destinations of this phase were the Caribbean colonies and Brazil, as European nations built up economically slave-dependent colonies in the New World. Nearly 40% of all African slaves trafficked to the Americas went to Brazil. An estimated 4.9 million slaves from Africa came to Brazil during the period from 1501 to 1866.In contrast to other European colonies in the Americas which mainly used the labor of African slaves, Spanish colonists mainly enslaved indigenous Americans. In 1750, the Portuguese Crown abolished the enslavement of indigenous peoples in colonial Brazil, under the belief that they were unfit for labor and less effective than enslaved Africans. Enslaved Africans were brought to the Americas on slave ships, under inhuman conditions and ill-treatment, and those who survived were sold in slave markets. After independence, all South American countries maintained slavery for some time. The first South American country to abolish slavery was Chile in 1823, Uruguay in 1830, Bolivia in 1831, Colombia and Ecuador in 1851, Argentina in 1853, Peru and Venezuela in 1854, Suriname in 1863, Paraguay in 1869, and in 1888 Brazil was the last South American nation and the last country in western world to abolish slavery. === Independence from Spain and Portugal === The European Peninsular War (1807–1814), a theater of the Napoleonic Wars, changed the political situation of both the Spanish and Portuguese colonies. First, Napoleon invaded Portugal, but the House of Braganza avoided capture by escaping to Brazil. Napoleon also captured King Ferdinand VII of Spain, and appointed his own brother instead. This appointment provoked severe popular resistance, which created Juntas to rule in the name of the captured king. Many cities in the Spanish colonies, however, considered themselves equally authorized to appoint local Juntas like those of Spain. This began the Spanish American wars of independence between the patriots, who promoted such autonomy, and the royalists, who supported Spanish authority over the Americas. The Juntas, in both Spain and the Americas, promoted the ideas of the Enlightenment. Five years after the beginning of the war, Ferdinand VII returned to the throne and began the Absolutist Restoration as the royalists got the upper hand in the conflict. The independence of South America was secured by Simón Bolívar (Venezuela) and José de San Martín (Argentina), the two most important Libertadores. Bolívar led a great uprising in the north, then led his army southward towards Lima, the capital of the Viceroyalty of Peru. Meanwhile, San Martín led an army across the Andes Mountains, along with Chilean expatriates, and liberated Chile. He organized a fleet to reach Peru by sea, and sought the military support of various rebels from the Viceroyalty of Peru. The two armies finally met in Guayaquil, Ecuador, where they cornered the Royal Army of the Spanish Crown and forced its surrender. In the Portuguese Kingdom of Brazil, Dom Pedro I (also Pedro IV of Portugal), son of the Portuguese King Dom João VI, proclaimed the independent Kingdom of Brazil in 1822, which later became the Empire of Brazil. Despite the Portuguese loyalties of garrisons in Bahia, Cisplatina and Pará, independence was diplomatically accepted by the crown in Portugal in 1825, on condition of a high compensation paid by Brazil mediatized by the United Kingdom. === Nation-building and fragmentation === The newly independent nations began a process of fragmentation, with several civil and international wars. However, it was not as strong as in Central America. Some countries created from provinces of larger countries stayed as such up to modern times (such as Paraguay or Uruguay), while others were reconquered and reincorporated into their former countries (such as the Republic of Entre Ríos and the Riograndense Republic). The first separatist attempt was in 1820 by the Argentine province of Entre Ríos, led by a caudillo. In spite of the ""Republic"" in its title, General Ramírez, its caudillo, never really intended to declare an independent Entre Rios. Rather, he was making a political statement in opposition to the monarchist and centralist ideas that back then permeated Buenos Aires politics. The ""country"" was reincorporated at the United Provinces in 1821. In 1825 the Cisplatine Province declared its independence from the Empire of Brazil, which led to the Cisplatine War between the imperials and the Argentine from the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata to control the region. Three years later, the United Kingdom intervened in the question by proclaiming a tie and creating in the former Cisplatina a new independent country: The Oriental Republic of Uruguay. Later in 1836, while Brazil was experiencing the chaos of the regency, Rio Grande do Sul proclaimed its independence motivated by a tax crisis. With the anticipation of the coronation of Pedro II to the throne of Brazil, the country could stabilize and fight the separatists, which the province of Santa Catarina had joined in 1839. The Conflict came to an end by a process of compromise by which both Riograndense Republic and Juliana Republic were reincorporated as provinces in 1845.The Peru–Bolivian Confederation, a short-lived union of Peru and Bolivia, was blocked by Chile in the War of the Confederation (1836–1839) and again during the War of the Pacific (1879–1883). Paraguay was virtually destroyed by Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay in the Paraguayan War. === Wars and conflicts === Despite the Spanish American wars of independence and the Brazilian War of Independence, the new nations quickly began to suffer with internal conflicts and wars among themselves. Most of the 1810 borders countries had initially accepted on the uti possidetis iuris principle had by 1848 either been altered by war or were contested.In 1825 the proclamation of independence of Cisplatina led to the Cisplatine War between historical rivals the Empire of Brazil and the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata, Argentina's predecessor. The result was a stalemate, ending with the British government arranging for the independence of Uruguay. Soon after, another Brazilian province proclaimed its independence leading to the Ragamuffin War which Brazil won. Between 1836 and 1839 the War of the Confederation broke out between the short-lived Peru-Bolivian Confederation and Chile, with the support of the Argentine Confederation. The war was fought mostly in the actual territory of Peru and ended with a Confederate defeat and the dissolution of the Confederacy and annexation of many territories by Argentina. Meanwhile, the Argentine Civil Wars plagued Argentina since its independence. The conflict was mainly between those who defended the centralization of power in Buenos Aires and those who defended a confederation. During this period it can be said that ""there were two Argentines"": the Argentine Confederation and the Argentine Republic. At the same time, the political instability in Uruguay led to the Uruguayan Civil War among the main political factions of the country. All this instability in the platine region interfered with the goals of other countries such as Brazil, which was soon forced to take sides. In 1851 the Brazilian Empire, supporting the centralizing unitarians, and the Uruguayan government invaded Argentina and deposed the caudillo, Juan Manuel Rosas, who ruled the confederation with an iron hand. Although the Platine War did not put an end to the political chaos and civil war in Argentina, it brought temporary peace to Uruguay where the Colorados faction won, supported by Brazil, Britain, France and the Unitarian Party of Argentina.Peace lasted only a short time: in 1864 the Uruguayan factions faced each other again in the Uruguayan War. The Blancos supported by Paraguay started to attack Brazilian and Argentine farmers near the borders. The Empire made an initial attempt to settle the dispute between Blancos and Colorados without success. In 1864, after a Brazilian ultimatum was refused, the imperial government declared that Brazil's military would begin reprisals. Brazil declined to acknowledge a formal state of war, and, for most of its duration, the Uruguayan–Brazilian armed conflict was an undeclared war which led to the deposition of the Blancos and the rise of the pro-Brazilian Colorados to power again. This angered the Paraguayan government, which even before the end of the war invaded Brazil, beginning the biggest and deadliest war in both South American and Latin American histories: the Paraguayan War.The Paraguayan War began when the Paraguayan dictator Francisco Solano López ordered the invasion of the Brazilian provinces of Mato Grosso and Rio Grande do Sul. His attempt to cross Argentinian territory without Argentinian approval led the pro-Brazilian Argentine government into the war. The pro-Brazilian Uruguayan government showed its support by sending troops. In 1865 the three countries signed the Treaty of the Triple Alliance against Paraguay. At the beginning of the war, the Paraguayans took the lead with several victories, until the Triple Alliance organized to repel the invaders and fight effectively. This was the second total war experience in the world after the American Civil War. It was deemed the greatest war effort in the history of all participating countries, taking almost 6 years and ending with the complete devastation of Paraguay. The country lost 40% of its territory to Brazil and Argentina and lost 60% of its population, including 90% of the men. The dictator Lopez was killed in battle and a new government was instituted in alliance with Brazil, which maintained occupation forces in the country until 1876.The last South American war in the 19th century was the War of the Pacific with Bolivia and Peru on one side and Chile on the other. In 1879 the war began with Chilean troops occupying Bolivian ports, followed by Bolivia declaring war on Chile which activated an alliance treaty with Peru. The Bolivians were completely defeated in 1880 and Lima was occupied in 1881. Peace was signed with Peru in 1883 while a truce was signed with Bolivia in 1884. Chile annexed territories of both countries leaving Bolivia landlocked.In the new century, as wars became less violent and less frequent, Brazil entered into a small conflict with Bolivia for the possession of the Acre, which was acquired by Brazil in 1902. In 1917 Brazil declared war on the Central Powers, joined the allied side in the First World War and sent a small fleet to the Mediterranean Sea and some troops to be integrated with the British and French forces in the region. Brazil was the only South American country that participated in the First World War. Later in 1932 Colombia and Peru entered a short armed conflict for territory in the Amazon. In the same year Paraguay declared war on Bolivia for possession of the Chaco, in a conflict that ended three years later with Paraguay's victory. Between 1941 and 1942 Peru and Ecuador fought for territories claimed by both that were annexed by Peru, usurping Ecuador's frontier with Brazil.Also in this period, the first major naval battle of World War II took place in the South Atlantic close to the continental mainland: the Battle of the River Plate, between a British cruiser squadron and a German pocket battleship. The Germans still made numerous attacks on Brazilian ships on the coast, causing Brazil to declare war on the Axis powers in 1942, being the only South American country to fight in this war (and in both World Wars). Brazil sent naval and air forces to combat German and Italian submarines off the continent and throughout the South Atlantic, in addition to sending an expeditionary force to fight in the Italian Campaign.A brief war was fought between Argentina and the UK in 1982, following an Argentine invasion of the Falkland Islands, which ended with an Argentine defeat. The last international war to be fought on South American soil was the 1995 Cenepa War between Ecuador and the Peru along their mutual border. === Rise and fall of military dictatorships === Wars became less frequent in the 20th century, with Bolivia-Paraguay and Peru-Ecuador fighting the last inter-state wars. Early in the 20th century, the three wealthiest South American countries engaged in a vastly expensive naval arms race which began after the introduction of a new warship type, the ""dreadnought"". At one point, the Argentine government was spending a fifth of its entire yearly budget for just two dreadnoughts, a price that did not include later in-service costs, which for the Brazilian dreadnoughts was sixty percent of the initial purchase. The continent became a battlefield of the Cold War in the late 20th century. Some democratically elected governments of Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Uruguay and Paraguay were overthrown or displaced by military dictatorships in the 1960s and 1970s. To curtail opposition, their governments detained tens of thousands of political prisoners, many of whom were tortured or killed on inter-state collaboration. Economically, they began a transition to neoliberal economic policies. They placed their own actions within the US Cold War doctrine of ""National Security"" against internal subversion. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, Peru suffered from an internal conflict. In 1982, Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands, a British dependent territory. The Falklands War began and 74 days later Argentine forces surrendered.Colombia has had an ongoing, though diminished internal conflict, which started in 1964 with the creation of Marxist guerrillas (FARC-EP) and then involved several illegal armed groups of leftist-leaning ideology as well as the private armies of powerful drug lords. Many of these are now defunct, and only a small portion of the ELN remains, along with the stronger, though also greatly reduced, FARC. Revolutionary movements and right-wing military dictatorships became common after World War II, but since the 1980s, a wave of democratization passed through the continent, and democratic rule is widespread now. Nonetheless, allegations of corruption are still very common, and several countries have developed crises which have forced the resignation of their governments, although, on most occasions, regular civilian succession has continued. International indebtedness turned into a severe problem in the late 1980s, and some countries, despite having strong democracies, have not yet developed political institutions capable of handling such crises without resorting to unorthodox economic policies, as most recently illustrated by Argentina's default in the early 21st century. The last twenty years have seen an increased push towards regional integration, with the creation of uniquely South American institutions such as the Andean Community, Mercosur and Unasur. Notably, starting with the election of Hugo Chávez in Venezuela in 1998, the region experienced what has been termed a pink tide – the election of several leftist and center-left administrations to most countries of the area, except for the Guianas and Colombia. === Contemporary issues === South America's political geography since the 1990s has been characterized by a desire to reduce foreign influence. The nationalization of industries, by which the state controls entire economic sectors (as opposed of private companies doing it), has become a prominent political issues in the region. Some South American nations have nationalized their electricity industries. == Countries and territories == == Government and politics == Historically, the Hispanic countries were founded as Republican dictatorships led by caudillos. Brazil was the only exception, being a constitutional monarchy for its first 67 years of independence, until a coup d'état proclaimed a republic. In the late 19th century, the most democratic countries were Brazil, Chile, Argentina and Uruguay.All South American countries are presidential republics with the exception of Suriname, a parliamentary republic. French Guiana is a French overseas department, while the Falkland Islands and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands are British overseas territories. It is currently the only inhabited continent in the world without monarchies; the Empire of Brazil existed during the 19th century and there was an unsuccessful attempt to establish a Kingdom of Araucanía and Patagonia in southern Argentina and Chile. Also in the twentieth century, Suriname was established as a constituent kingdom of the Kingdom of the Netherlands and Guyana retained the British monarch as head of state for 4 years after its independence. Recently, an intergovernmental entity has been formed which aims to merge the two existing customs unions: Mercosur and the Andean Community, thus forming the third-largest trade bloc in the world. This new political organization, known as Union of South American Nations, seeks to establish free movement of people, economic development, a common defense policy and the elimination of tariffs. == Demographics == South America has a population of over 428 million people. They are distributed as to form a ""hollow continent"" with most of the population concentrated around the margins of the continent. On one hand, there are several sparsely populated areas such as tropical forests, the Atacama Desert and the icy portions of Patagonia. On the other hand, the continent presents regions of high population density, such as the great urban centers. The population is formed by descendants of Europeans (mainly Spaniards, Portuguese and Italians), Africans and Amerindians. There is a high percentage of Mestizos that vary greatly in composition by place. There is also a minor population of Asians, especially in Brazil, Peru, and Argentina. The two main languages are by far Spanish and Portuguese, followed by English, French and Dutch in smaller numbers. === Language === Spanish and Portuguese are the most spoken languages in South America, with approximately 200 million speakers each. Spanish is the official language of most countries, along with other native languages in some countries. Portuguese is the official language of Brazil. Dutch is the official language of Suriname; English is the official language of Guyana, although there are at least twelve other languages spoken in the country, including Portuguese, Chinese, Hindustani and several native languages. English is also spoken in the Falkland Islands. French is the official language of French Guiana and the second language in Amapá, Brazil. Indigenous languages of South America include Quechua in Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Chile and Colombia; Wayuunaiki in northern Colombia (La Guajira) and northwestern Venezuela (Zulia); Guaraní in Paraguay and, to a much lesser extent, in Bolivia; Aymara in Bolivia, Peru, and less often in Chile; and Mapudungun is spoken in certain pockets of southern Chile. At least three South American indigenous languages (Quechua, Aymara, and Guarani) are recognized along with Spanish as national languages. Other languages found in South America include Hindustani and Javanese in Suriname; Italian in Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay and Venezuela; and German in certain pockets of Argentina and Brazil. German is also spoken in many regions of the southern states of Brazil, Riograndenser Hunsrückisch being the most widely spoken German dialect in the country; among other Germanic dialects, a Brazilian form of East Pomeranian is also well represented and is experiencing a revival. Welsh remains spoken and written in the historic towns of Trelew and Rawson in the Argentine Patagonia. Arabic speakers, often of Lebanese, Syrian, or Palestinian descent, can be found in Arab communities in Argentina, Colombia, Brazil, Venezuela and in Paraguay. === Religion === An estimated 90% of South Americans are Christians (82% Roman Catholic, 8% other Christian denominations mainly traditional Protestants and Evangelicals but also Orthodox), accounting for 19% of Christians worldwide. African descendent religions and Indigenous religions are also common throughout all South America; some examples of are Santo Daime, Candomblé, and Umbanda.Crypto-Jews or Marranos, conversos, and Anusim were an important part of colonial life in Latin America. Both Buenos Aires, Argentina and São Paulo, Brazil figure among the largest Jewish populations by urban area. East Asian religions such as Japanese Buddhism, Shintoism, and Shinto-derived Japanese New Religions are common in Brazil and Peru. Korean Confucianism is especially found in Brazil while Chinese Buddhism and Chinese Confucianism have spread throughout the continent. Kardecist Spiritism can be found in several countries. Hindus form 25% of the Guyanese population and 22% of Suriname's.Muslims account for 6.8% of the Guyanese population and 13.9 of the Surinamese population. Almost all Muslims in Suriname are either Indonesian or Indians and in Guyana, most are Indian. Part of Religions in South America (2013): === Ethnic demographics === Genetic admixture occurs at very high levels in South America. In Argentina, the European influence accounts for 65–79% of the genetic background, Amerindian for 17–31% and sub-Saharan African for 2–4%. In Colombia, the sub-Saharan African genetic background varied from 1% to 89%, while the European genetic background varied from 20% to 79%, depending on the region. In Peru, European ancestries ranged from 1% to 31%, while the African contribution was only 1% to 3%. The Genographic Project determined the average Peruvian from Lima had about 25% European ancestry, 68% Native American, 3% Southwest Asian ancestry and 2% sub-Saharan African.Descendants of indigenous peoples, such as the Quechua and Aymara, or the Urarina of Amazonia make up the majority of the population in Bolivia (56%) and Peru (44%). In Ecuador, Amerindians are a large minority that comprises two-fifths of the population. The native European population is also a significant element in most other former Portuguese colonies. People who identify as of primarily or totally European descent, or identify their phenotype as corresponding to such group, are a majority in Argentina, Uruguay and Chile (64.7%), and are 48.4% of the population in Brazil. In Venezuela, according to the national census, 42% of the population is primarily native Spanish, Italian and Portuguese descendants. In Colombia, people who identify as European descendants are about 37%. In Peru, European descendants are the third group in number (15%).Mestizos (mixed European and Amerindian) are the largest ethnic group in Bolivia, Paraguay, Venezuela, Colombia and Ecuador and the second group in Peru and Chile. South America is also home to one of the largest populations of Africans. This group is significantly present in Brazil, Colombia, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Venezuela and Ecuador. Brazil followed by Peru have the largest Japanese, Korean and Chinese communities in South America, Lima has the largest ethnic Chinese community in Latin America. Guyana and Suriname have the largest ethnic East Indian community. ==== Indigenous people ==== In many places indigenous people still practice a traditional lifestyle based on subsistence agriculture or as hunter-gatherers. There are still some uncontacted tribes residing in the Amazon Rainforest. === Populace === The most populous country in South America is Brazil with 214.3 million people. The second largest country is Colombia with a population of 51,516,562. Argentina is the third most populous country with 45,276,780. While Brazil, Argentina, and Colombia maintain the largest populations, large city populations are not restricted to those nations. The largest cities in South America, by far, are São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Buenos Aires, Santiago, Lima, and Bogotá. These cities are the only cities on the continent whose metropolitan areas' population exceed eight million. Next in size are Caracas, Belo Horizonte, and Medellin. Five of the top ten metropolitan areas are in Brazil. These metropolitan areas all have a population of above 4 million and include the São Paulo metropolitan area, Rio de Janeiro metropolitan area, and Belo Horizonte metropolitan area. Whilst the majority of the largest metropolitan areas are within Brazil, Argentina is host to the second largest metropolitan area by population in South America: the Buenos Aires metropolitan region is above 13 million inhabitants. South America has also been witness to the growth of megapolitan areas. In Brazil four megaregions exist including the Expanded Metropolitan Complex of São Paulo with more than 32 million inhabitants. The others are the Greater Rio, Greater Belo Horizonte and Greater Porto Alegre. Colombia also has four megaregions which comprise 72% of its population, followed by Venezuela, Argentina and Peru which are also homes of megaregions. The top ten largest South American metropolitan areas by population as of 2015, based on national census numbers from each country: 2015 Census figures. == Economy == South America relies less on the export of both manufactured goods and natural resources than the world average; merchandise exports from the continent were 16% of GDP on an exchange rate basis, compared to 25% for the world as a whole. Brazil (the seventh largest economy in the world and the largest in South America) leads in terms of merchandise exports at $251 billion, followed by Venezuela at $93 billion, Chile at $86 billion, and Argentina at $84 billion.Since 1930, the continent has experienced remarkable growth and diversification in most economic sectors. Most agricultural and livestock products are destined for the domestic market and local consumption. However, the export of agricultural products is essential for the balance of trade in most countries.The main agrarian crops are export crops, such as soy and wheat. The production of staple foods such as vegetables, corn or beans is large, but focused on domestic consumption. Livestock raising for meat exports is important in Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay and Colombia. In tropical regions the most important crops are coffee, cocoa and bananas, mainly in Brazil, Colombia and Ecuador. Traditionally, the countries producing sugar for export are Peru, Guyana and Suriname, and in Brazil, sugar cane is also used to make ethanol. On the coast of Peru, northeast and south of Brazil, cotton is grown. 50.5% of the South America's land surface is covered by forest, but timber industries are small and directed to domestic markets. In recent years, however, transnational companies have been settling in the Amazon to exploit noble timber destined for export. The Pacific coastal waters of South America are the most important for commercial fishing. The anchovy catch reaches thousands of tonnes, and tuna is also abundant (Peru is a major exporter). The capture of crustaceans is remarkable, particularly in northeastern Brazil and Chile.Only Brazil and Argentina are part of the G20 (industrial countries), while only Brazil is part of the G8+5 (the most powerful and influential nations in the world). In the tourism sector, a series of negotiations began in 2005 to promote tourism and increase air connections within the region. Punta del Este, Florianópolis and Mar del Plata are among the most important resorts in South America.The most industrialized countries in South America are Brazil, Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Venezuela and Uruguay respectively. These countries alone account for more than 75 percent of the region's economy and add up to a GDP of more than US$3.0 trillion. Industries in South America began to take on the economies of the region from the 1930s when the Great Depression in the United States and other countries of the world boosted industrial production in the continent. From that period the region left the agricultural side behind and began to achieve high rates of economic growth that remained until the early 1990s when they slowed due to political instabilities, economic crises and neoliberal policies.Since the end of the economic crisis in Brazil and Argentina that occurred in the period from 1998 to 2002, which has led to economic recession, rising unemployment and falling population income, the industrial and service sectors have been recovering rapidly. Chile, Argentina and Brazil have recovered fastest, growing at an average of 5% per year. All of South America after this period has been recovering and showing good signs of economic stability, with controlled inflation and exchange rates, continuous growth, a decrease in social inequality and unemployment – factors that favor industry.The main industries are: electronics, textiles, food, automotive, metallurgy, aviation, naval, clothing, beverage, steel, tobacco, timber, chemical, among others. Exports reach almost US$400 billion annually, with Brazil accounting for half of this.The economic gap between the rich and poor in most South American nations is larger than on most other continents. The richest 10% receive over 40% of the nation's income in Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, and Paraguay, while the poorest 20% receive 4% or less in Bolivia, Brazil, and Colombia. This wide gap can be seen in many large South American cities where makeshift shacks and slums lie in the vicinity of skyscrapers and upper-class luxury apartments; nearly one in nine South Americans live on less than $2 per day (on a purchasing power parity basis). === Economically largest cities as of 2014 === The four countries with the strongest agriculture are Brazil, Argentina, Chile and Colombia. Currently: Brazil is the world's largest producer of sugarcane, soy, coffee, orange, guaraná, açaí and Brazil nut; is one of the top 5 producers of maize, papaya, tobacco, pineapple, banana, cotton, beans, coconut, watermelon, lemon and yerba mate; is one of the top 10 world producers of cocoa, cashew, avocado, tangerine, persimmon, mango, guava, rice, oat, sorghum and tomato; and is one of the top 15 world producers of grape, apple, melon, peanut, fig, peach, onion, palm oil and natural rubber; Argentina is the world's largest producer of yerba mate; is one of the 5 largest producers in the world of soy, maize, sunflower seed, lemon and pear, one of the 10 largest producers in the world of barley, grape, artichoke, tobacco and cotton, and one of the 15 largest producers in the world of wheat, oat, chickpea, sugarcane, sorghum and grapefruit; Chile is one of the 5 largest world producers of cherry and cranberry, and one of the 10 largest world producers of grape, apple, kiwi, peach, plum and hazelnut, focusing on exporting high-value fruits; Colombia is one of the 5 largest producers in the world of coffee, avocado and palm oil, and one of the 10 largest producers in the world of sugarcane, banana, pineapple and cocoa; Peru is the world's largest producer of quinoa; is one of the 5 largest producers of avocado, blueberry, artichoke and asparagus; one of the 10 largest producers in the world of coffee and cocoa; one of the 15 largest producers in the world of potato and pineapple, and also has a considerable production of grape, sugarcane, rice, banana, maize and cassava; its agriculture is considerably diversified; Paraguay's agriculture is currently developing, being currently the 6th largest producer of soy in the world and entering the list of the 20 largest producers of maize and sugarcane.Brazil is the world's largest exporter of chicken meat: 3.77 million tonnes in 2019. The country is the holder of the second largest herd of cattle in the world, 22.2% of the world herd. The country was the second largest producer of beef in 2019, responsible for 15.4% of global production. It was also the 3rd largest world producer of milk in 2018. This year, the country produced 35.1 billion liters. In 2019, Brazil was the 4th largest pork producer in the world, with almost 4 million tonnes.In 2018, Argentina was the 4th largest producer of beef in the world, with a production of 3 million tonnes (behind only the United States, Brazil and China). Uruguay is also a major meat producer. In 2018, it produced 589 thousand tonnes of beef.In chicken meat production, Argentina ranks among the 15 largest producers in the world, and Peru and Colombia among the 20 biggest producers. In beef production, Colombia is one of the 20 largest producers in the world. In honey production, Argentina ranks among the 5 largest producers in the world, and Brazil among the 15 largest. In terms of production of cow's milk, Argentina ranks among the 20 largest producers in the world. The World Bank annually lists the top manufacturing countries by total manufacturing value. According to the 2019 list, Brazil has the thirteenth most valuable industry in the world (US$173.6 billion), Venezuela the thirtieth largest (US$58.2 billion, however, it depends on oil to obtain this value), Argentina the 31st largest (US$57.7 billion), Colombia the 46th largest (US$35.4 billion), Peru the 50th largest (US$28.7 billion) and Chile the 51st largest (US$28.3 billion).Brazil has the third-largest manufacturing sector in the Americas. Accounting for 28.5 percent of GDP, Brazil's industries range from automobiles, steel, and petrochemicals to computers, aircraft (Embraer), food, pharmaceutical, footwear, metallurgy and consumer durables. In the food industry, in 2019, Brazil was the second largest exporter of processed foods in the world. In 2016, the country was the 2nd largest producer of pulp in the world and the 8th producer of paper. In the footwear industry, in 2019, Brazil ranked 4th among world producers. In 2019, the country was the 8th producer of vehicles and the 9th producer of steel in the world. In 2018, the chemical industry of Brazil was the 8th in the world. In textile industry, Brazil, although it was among the 5 largest world producers in 2013, is very little integrated in world trade. Mining is one of the most important economic sectors in South America, especially for Chile, Peru and Bolivia, whose economies are highly dependent on this sector. The continent has large productions of gold (mainly in Peru, Brazil and Argentina); silver (mainly in Peru, Chile, Bolivia and Argentina); copper (mainly in Chile, Peru and Brazil); iron ore (Brazil, Peru and Chile); zinc (Peru, Bolivia and Brazil); molybdenum (Chile and Peru); lithium (Chile, Argentina and Brazil); lead (Peru and Bolivia); bauxite (Brazil); tin (Peru, Bolivia and Brazil); manganese (Brazil); antimony (Bolivia and Ecuador); nickel (Brazil); niobium (Brazil); rhenium (Chile); iodine (Chile), among others. Brazil stands out in the extraction of iron ore (where it is the 2nd largest producer and exporter in the world – iron ore is usually one of the 3 export products that generate the greatest value in the country's trade balance), copper, gold, bauxite (one of the 5 largest producers in the world), manganese (one of the 5 largest producers in the world), tin (one of the largest producers in the world), niobium (concentrates 98% of reserves known to the world) and nickel. In terms of gemstones, Brazil is the world's largest producer of amethyst, topaz, agate and one of the main producers of tourmaline, emerald, aquamarine, garnet and opal.Chile contributes about a third of the world copper production. In addition to copper, Chile was, in 2019, the world's largest producer of iodine and rhenium, the second largest producer of lithium and molybdenum, the sixth largest producer of silver, the seventh largest producer of salt, the eighth largest producer of potash, the thirteenth producer of sulfur and the thirteenth producer of iron ore in the world. In 2019, Peru was the 2nd largest world producer of copper and silver, 8th largest world producer of gold, 3rd largest world producer of lead, 2nd largest world producer of zinc, 4th largest world producer of tin, 5th largest world producer of boron and 4th largest world producer of molybdenum.In 2019, Bolivia was the 8th largest world producer of silver; 4th largest world producer of boron; 5th largest world producer of antimony; 5th largest world producer of tin; 6th largest world producer of tungsten; 7th largest producer of zinc, and the 8th largest producer of lead.In 2019, Argentina was the 4th largest world producer of lithium, the 9th largest world producer of silver, the 17th largest world producer of gold and the 7th largest world producer of boron.Colombia is the world's largest producer of emeralds. In the production of gold, among 2006 and 2017, the country produced 15 tons per year until 2007, when its production increased significantly, breaking a record of 66.1 tons extracted in 2012. In 2017, it extracted 52.2 tons. The country is among the 25 largest gold producers in the world. In the production of silver, in 2017 the country extracted 15,5 tons.In the production of oil, Brazil was the 10th largest oil producer in the world in 2019, with 2.8 million barrels / day. Venezuela was the 21st largest, with 877 thousand barrels / day, Colombia in 22nd with 886 thousand barrels / day, Ecuador in 28th with 531 thousand barrels / day and Argentina 29th with 507 thousand barrels / day. As Venezuela and Ecuador consume little oil and export most of their production, they are part of OPEC. Venezuela had a big drop in production after 2015 (where it produced 2.5 million barrels / day), falling in 2016 to 2.2 million, in 2017 to 2 million, in 2018 to 1.4 million and in 2019 to 877 thousand, due to lack of investments.In the production of natural gas, in 2018, Argentina produced 1524 bcf (billion cubic feet), Venezuela 946, Brazil 877, Bolivia 617, Peru 451, Colombia 379.In the beginning of 2020, in the production of oil and natural gas, Brazil exceeded 4 million barrels of oil equivalent per day, for the first time. In January 2021, 3.168 million barrels of oil per day and 138.753 million cubic meters of natural gas were extracted.In the production of coal, the continent had 2 of the 30 largest world producers in 2018: Colombia (12th) and Brazil (27th). == Gallery == === Tourism === Tourism has increasingly become a significant source of income for many South American countries.Historical relics, architectural and natural wonders, a diverse range of foods and culture, vibrant and colorful cities, and stunning landscapes attract millions of tourists every year to South America. Some of the most visited places in the region are Rio de Janeiro, Florianópolis, Iguazu Falls, São Paulo, Armação dos Búzios, Salvador, Bombinhas, Angra dos Reis, Balneário Camboriú, Paraty, Ipojuca, Natal, Cairu, Fortaleza and Itapema in Brazil; Buenos Aires, Bariloche, Salta, Jujuy, Perito Moreno Glacier, Valdes Peninsula, Guarani Jesuit Missions in the cities of Misiones and Corrientes, Ischigualasto Provincial Park, Ushuaia and Patagonia in Argentina;Isla Margarita, Angel Falls, Los Roques archipelago, Gran Sabana in Venezuela; Machu Picchu, Lima, Nazca Lines, Cuzco in Peru; Lake Titicaca, Salar de Uyuni, La Paz, Jesuit Missions of Chiquitos in Bolivia; Tayrona National Natural Park, Santa Marta, Bogotá, Cali, Medellín, Cartagena in Colombia, and the Galápagos Islands in Ecuador. In 2016 Brazil hosted the 2016 Summer Olympics. == Culture == South Americans are culturally influenced by their indigenous peoples, the historic connection with the Iberian Peninsula and Africa, and waves of immigrants from around the globe. South American nations have a rich variety of music. Some of the most famous genres include vallenato and cumbia from Colombia, pasillo from Colombia and Ecuador, samba, bossa nova and música sertaneja from Brazil, joropo from Venezuela and tango from Argentina and Uruguay. Also well known is the non-commercial folk genre Nueva Canción movement which was founded in Argentina and Chile and quickly spread to the rest of the Latin America. People on the Peruvian coast created the fine guitar and cajon duos or trios in the most mestizo (mixed) of South American rhythms such as the Marinera (from Lima), the Tondero (from Piura), the 19th-century popular Creole Valse or Peruvian Valse, the soulful Arequipan Yaravi, and the early-20th-century Paraguayan Guarania. In the late 20th century, Spanish rock emerged by young hipsters influenced by British pop and American rock. Brazil has a Portuguese-language pop rock industry as well a great variety of other music genres. In the central and western regions of Bolivia, Andean and folklore music like Diablada, Caporales and Morenada are the most representative of the country, which were originated by European, Aymara and Quechua influences. The literature of South America has attracted considerable critical and popular acclaim, especially with the Latin American Boom of the 1960s and 1970s, and the rise of authors such as Mario Vargas Llosa, Gabriel García Márquez in novels and Jorge Luis Borges and Pablo Neruda in other genres. The Brazilians Machado de Assis and João Guimarães Rosa are widely regarded as the greatest Brazilian writers. === Food and drink === Because of South America's broad ethnic mix, South American cuisine has African, Mestizo, South Asian, East Asian, and European influences. Bahia, Brazil, is especially well known for its West African–influenced cuisine. Argentines, Chileans, Uruguayans, Brazilians, Bolivians, and Venezuelans regularly consume wine. People in Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay, southern Chile, Bolivia and Southern Brazil drink mate, an herb which is brewed. The Paraguayan version, terere, differs from other forms of mate in that it is served cold. Pisco is a liquor distilled from grapes in Peru and Chile. Peruvian cuisine mixes elements from Chinese, Japanese, Spanish, Italian, African, Arab, Andean, and Amazonic food. === Plastic arts === The artist Oswaldo Guayasamín (1919–1999) from Ecuador, represented with his painting style the feeling of the peoples of Latin America highlighting social injustices in various parts of the world. The Colombian Fernando Botero (1932) is one of the greatest exponents of painting and sculpture that continues still active and has been able to develop a recognizable style of his own. For his part, the Venezuelan Carlos Cruz-Diez has contributed significantly to contemporary art, with the presence of works around the world. Currently several emerging South American artists are recognized by international art critics: Guillermo Lorca – Chilean painter, Teddy Cobeña – Ecuadorian sculptor and recipient of international sculpture award in France) and Argentine artist Adrián Villar Rojas – winner of the Zurich Museum Art Award among many others. === Sport === A wide range of sports are played in the continent of South America, with football being the most popular overall, while baseball is the most popular in Venezuela. Other sports include basketball, cycling, polo, volleyball, futsal, motorsports, rugby (mostly in Argentina and Uruguay), handball, tennis, golf, field hockey, boxing, and cricket. South America hosted its first Olympic Games in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 2016, and has hosted the Youth Olympic Games in Buenos Aires, Argentina, in 2018. South America shares with Europe supremacy over the sport of football as all winners in FIFA World Cup history and all winning teams in the FIFA Club World Cup have come from these two continents. Brazil holds the record for most times winning the FIFA World Cup with five titles. Argentina has three titles and Uruguay two. So far five South American nations have hosted the tournament including the first edition in Uruguay (1930). Two were from Brazil (1950, 2014), Chile (1962), and Argentina (1978). South America is home to the longest-running international football tournament, the Copa América, which has been contested since 1916. Argentina and Uruguay have won the Copa América 15 times each, the most among all countries. Also, in South America, a multi-sport event, the South American Games, are held every four years. The first edition was held in La Paz in 1978 and the most recent took place in Santiago in 2014. South American Cricket Championship is an international one-day cricket tournament played since 1995 featuring national teams from South America and certain other invited sides including teams from North America, currently played annually but until 2013 was usually played every two seasons. == Infrastructure == === Energy === Due to the diversity of topography and pluviometric precipitation conditions, the region's water resources vary enormously in different areas. In the Andes, navigation possibilities are limited, except for the Magdalena River, Lake Titicaca and the lakes of the southern regions of Chile and Argentina. Irrigation is an important factor for agriculture from northwestern Peru to Patagonia. Less than 10% of the known electrical potential of the Andes had been used until the mid-1960s. The Brazilian Highlands have a much higher hydroelectric potential than the Andean region and its possibilities of exploitation are greater due to the existence of several large rivers with high margins and the occurrence of great differences forming huge cataracts, such as those of Paulo Afonso, Iguaçu and others. The Amazon River system has about 13,000 km of waterways, but its possibilities for hydroelectric use are still unknown. Most of the continent's energy is generated through hydroelectric power plants, but there is also an important share of thermoelectric and wind energy. Brazil and Argentina are the only South American countries that generate nuclear power, each with two nuclear power plants. In 1991 these countries signed a peaceful nuclear cooperation agreement. The Brazilian government has undertaken an ambitious program to reduce dependence on imported petroleum. Imports previously accounted for more than 70% of the country's oil needs but Brazil became self-sufficient in oil in 2006–2007. Brazil was the 10th largest oil producer in the world in 2019, with 2.8 million barrels / day. Production manages to supply the country's demand. In the beginning of 2020, in the production of oil and natural gas, the country exceeded 4 million barrels of oil equivalent per day, for the first time. In January this year, 3.168 million barrels of oil per day and 138.753 million cubic meters of natural gas were extracted.Brazil is one of the main world producers of hydroelectric power. In 2019, Brazil had 217 hydroelectric plants in operation, with an installed capacity of 98,581 MW, 60.16% of the country's energy generation. In the total generation of electricity, in 2019 Brazil reached 170,000 megawatts of installed capacity, more than 75% from renewable sources (the majority, hydroelectric).In 2013, the Southeast Region used about 50% of the load of the National Integrated System (SIN), being the main energy consuming region in the country. The region's installed electricity generation capacity totaled almost 42,500 MW, which represented about a third of Brazil's generation capacity. The hydroelectric generation represented 58% of the region's installed capacity, with the remaining 42% corresponding basically to the thermoelectric generation. São Paulo accounted for 40% of this capacity; Minas Gerais by about 25%; Rio de Janeiro by 13.3%; and Espírito Santo accounted for the rest. The South Region owns the Itaipu Dam, which was the largest hydroelectric plant in the world for several years, until the inauguration of Three Gorges Dam in China. It remains the second largest operating hydroelectric in the world. Brazil is the co-owner of the Itaipu Plant with Paraguay: the dam is located on the Paraná River, located on the border between countries. It has an installed generation capacity of 14 GW for 20 generating units of 700 MW each. North Region has large hydroelectric plants, such as Belo Monte Dam and Tucuruí Dam, which produce much of the national energy. Brazil's hydroelectric potential has not yet been fully exploited, so the country still has the capacity to build several renewable energy plants in its territory.As of July 2022, according to ONS, total installed capacity of wind power was 22 GW, with average capacity factor of 58%. While the world average wind production capacity factors is 24.7%, there are areas in Northern Brazil, specially in Bahia State, where some wind farms record with average capacity factors over 60%; the average capacity factor in the Northeast Region is 45% in the coast and 49% in the interior. In 2019, wind energy represented 9% of the energy generated in the country. In 2019, it was estimated that the country had an estimated wind power generation potential of around 522 GW (this, only onshore), enough energy to meet three times the country's current demand. In 2021 Brazil was the 7th country in the world in terms of installed wind power (21 GW), and the 4th largest producer of wind energy in the world (72 TWh), behind only China, United States and Germany.Nuclear energy accounts for about 4% of Brazil's electricity. The nuclear power generation monopoly is owned by Eletronuclear (Eletrobrás Eletronuclear S/A), a wholly owned subsidiary of Eletrobrás. Nuclear energy is produced by two reactors at Angra. It is located at the Central Nuclear Almirante Álvaro Alberto (CNAAA) on the Praia de Itaorna in Angra dos Reis, Rio de Janeiro. It consists of two pressurized water reactors, Angra I, with capacity of 657 MW, connected to the power grid in 1982, and Angra II, with capacity of 1,350 MW, connected in 2000. A third reactor, Angra III, with a projected output of 1,350 MW, is planned to be finished.As of October 2022, according to ONS, total installed capacity of photovoltaic solar was 21 GW, with average capacity factor of 23%. Some of the most irradiated Brazilian States are MG (""Minas Gerais""), BA (""Bahia"") and GO (Goiás), which have indeed world irradiation level records. In 2019, solar power represented 1.27% of the energy generated in the country. In 2021, Brazil was the 14th country in the world in terms of installed solar power (13 GW), and the 11th largest producer of solar energy in the world (16.8 TWh).In 2020, Brazil was the 2nd largest country in the world in the production of energy through biomass (energy production from solid biofuels and renewable waste), with 15,2 GW installed.After Brazil, Colombia is the country in South America that most stands out in energy production. In 2020, the country was the 20th largest petroleum producer in the world, and in 2015 it was the 19th largest exporter. In natural gas, the country was, in 2015, the 40th largest producer in the world. Colombia's biggest highlight is in coal, where the country was, in 2018, the world's 12th largest producer and the 5th largest exporter. In renewable energies, in 2020, the country ranked 45th in the world in terms of installed wind energy (0.5 GW), 76th in the world in terms of installed solar energy (0.1 GW) and 20th in the world in terms of installed hydroelectric power (12.6 GW). Venezuela, which was one of the world's largest oil producers (about 2.5 million barrels/day in 2015) and one of the largest exporters, due to its political problems, has had its production drastically reduced in recent years: in 2016, it dropped to 2.2 million, in 2017 to 2 million, in 2018 to 1.4 million and in 2019 to 877 thousand, reaching only 300,000 barrels/day at a given point. The country also stands out in hydroelectricity, where it was the 14th country in the world in terms of installed capacity in 2020 (16,5 GW). Argentina was, in 2017, the 18th largest producer in the world, and the largest producer in Latin America, of natural gas, in addition to being the 28th largest oil producer; although the country has the Vaca Muerta field, which holds close to 16 billion barrels of technically recoverable shale oil, and is the second largest shale natural gas deposit in the world, the country lacks the capacity to exploit the deposit: it is necessary capital, technology and knowledge that can only come from offshore energy companies, who view Argentina and its erratic economic policies with considerable suspicion, not wanting to invest in the country. In renewable energies, in 2020, the country ranked 27th in the world in terms of installed wind energy (2.6 GW), 42nd in the world in terms of installed solar energy (0.7 GW) and 21st in the world in terms of installed hydroelectric power (11.3 GW). The country has great future potential for the production of wind energy in the Patagonia region. Chile, although currently not a major energy producer, has great future potential for solar energy production in the Atacama Desert region. Paraguay stands out today in hydroelectric production thanks to the Itaipu Power Plant. Bolivia stand out in the production of natural gas, where it was the 31st largest in the world in 2015. Ecuador, because it consumes little energy, is part of OPEC and was the 27th largest oil producer in the world in 2020, being the 22nd largest exporter in 2014. === Transport === Transport in South America is basically carried out using the road mode, the most developed in the region. There is also a considerable infrastructure of ports and airports. The railway and fluvial sector, although it has potential, is usually treated in a secondary way. Brazil has more than 1.7 million km of roads, of which 215,000 km are paved, and about 14,000 km are divided highways. The two most important highways in the country are BR-101 and BR-116. Argentina has more than 600,000 km of roads, of which about 70,000 km are paved, and about 2,500 km are divided highways. The three most important highways in the country are Route 9, Route 7 and Route 14. Colombia has about 210,000 km of roads, and about 2,300 km are divided highways. Chile has about 82,000 km of roads, 20,000 km of which are paved, and about 2,000 km are divided highways. The most important highway in the country is the Route 5 (Pan-American Highway) These 4 countries are the ones with the best road infrastructure and with the largest number of double-lane highways. Due to the Andes Mountains, Amazon River and Amazon Forest, there have always been difficulties in implementing transcontinental or bioceanic highways. Practically the only route that existed was the one that connected Brazil to Buenos Aires, in Argentina and later to Santiago, in Chile. However, in recent years, with the combined effort of countries, new routes have started to emerge, such as Brazil-Peru (Interoceanic Highway), and a new highway between Brazil, Paraguay, northern Argentina and northern Chile (Bioceanic Corridor). There are more than 2,000 airports in Brazil. The country has the second largest number of airports in the world, behind only the United States. São Paulo International Airport, located in the Metropolitan Region of São Paulo, is the largest and busiest in the country – the airport connects São Paulo to practically all major cities around the world. Brazil has 44 international airports, such as those in Rio de Janeiro, Brasília, Belo Horizonte, Porto Alegre, Florianópolis, Cuiabá, Salvador, Recife, Fortaleza, Belém and Manaus, among others. Argentina has important international airports such as Buenos Aires, Cordoba, Bariloche, Mendoza, Salta, Puerto Iguazú, Neuquén and Usuhaia, among others. Chile has important international airports such as Santiago, Antofagasta, Puerto Montt, Punta Arenas and Iquique, among others. Colombia has important international airports such as Bogotá, Medellín, Cartagena, Cali and Barranquilla, among others. Other important airports are those in the capitals of Uruguay (Montevideo), Paraguay (Asunción), Peru (Lima), Bolivia (La Paz) and Ecuador (Quito). The 10 busiest airports in South America in 2017 were: São Paulo-Guarulhos (Brazil), Bogotá (Colombia), São Paulo-Congonhas (Brazil), Santiago (Chile), Lima (Peru), Brasília (Brazil), Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), Buenos Aires-Aeroparque (Argentina), Buenos Aires-Ezeiza (Argentina), and Minas Gerais (Brazil).About ports, Brazil has some of the busiest ports in South America, such as Port of Santos, Port of Rio de Janeiro, Port of Paranaguá, Port of Itajaí, Port of Rio Grande, Port of São Francisco do Sul and Suape Port. Argentina has ports such as Port of Buenos Aires and Port of Rosario. Chile has important ports in Valparaíso, Caldera, Mejillones, Antofagasta, Iquique, Arica and Puerto Montt. Colombia has important ports such as Buenaventura, Cartagena Container Terminal and Puerto Bolivar. Peru has important ports in Callao, Ilo and Matarani. The 15 busiest ports in South America are: Port of Santos (Brazil), Port of Bahia de Cartagena (Colombia), Callao (Peru), Guayaquil (Ecuador), Buenos Aires (Argentina), San Antonio (Chile), Buenaventura (Colombia), Itajaí (Brazil), Valparaíso (Chile), Montevideo (Uruguay), Paranaguá (Brazil), Rio Grande (Brazil), São Francisco do Sul (Brazil), Manaus (Brazil) and Coronel (Chile).The Brazilian railway network has an extension of about 30,000 kilometers. It's basically used for transporting ores. The Argentine rail network, with 47,000 km of tracks, was one of the largest in the world and continues to be the most extensive in Latin America. It came to have about 100,000 km of rails, but the lifting of tracks and the emphasis placed on motor transport gradually reduced it. It has four different trails and international connections with Paraguay, Bolivia, Chile, Brazil and Uruguay. Chile has almost 7,000 km of railways, with connections to Argentina, Bolivia and Peru. Colombia has only about 3,500 km of railways.Among the main Brazilian waterways, two stand out: Hidrovia Tietê-Paraná (which has a length of 2,400 km, 1,600 on the Paraná River and 800 km on the Tietê River, draining agricultural production from the states of Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Goiás and part of Rondônia, Tocantins and Minas Gerais) and Hidrovia do Solimões-Amazonas (it has two sections: Solimões, which extends from Tabatinga to Manaus, with approximately 1600 km, and Amazonas, which extends from Manaus to Belém, with 1650 km. Almost entirely passenger transport from the Amazon plain is done by this waterway, in addition to practically all cargo transportation that is directed to the major regional centers of Belém and Manaus). In Brazil, this transport is still underused: the most important waterway stretches, from an economic point of view, are found in the Southeast and South of the country. Its full use still depends on the construction of locks, major dredging works and, mainly, of ports that allow intermodal integration. In Argentina, the waterway network is made up of the La Plata, Paraná, Paraguay and Uruguay rivers. The main river ports are Zárate and Campana. The port of Buenos Aires is historically the first in individual importance, but the area known as Up-River, which stretches along 67 km of the Santa Fé portion of the Paraná River, brings together 17 ports that concentrate 50% of the total exports of the country. Only two railroads are continental: the Transandina, which connects Buenos Aires, in Argentina to Valparaíso, in Chile, and the Brazil–Bolivia Railroad, which makes it the connection between the port of Santos in Brazil and the city of Santa Cruz de la Sierra, in Bolivia. In addition, there is the Pan-American Highway, which crosses Argentina and the Andean countries from north to south, although some stretches are unfinished.Two areas of greater density occur in the railway sector: the platinum network, which develops around the Platine region, largely belonging to Argentina, with more than 45,000 km in length; And the Southeast Brazil network, which mainly serves the state of São Paulo, state of Rio de Janeiro and Minas Gerais. Brazil and Argentina also stand out in the road sector. In addition to the modern roads that extend through northern Argentina and south-east and south of Brazil, a vast road complex aims to link Brasília, the federal capital, to the South, Southeast, Northeast and Northern regions of Brazil. South America has one of the largest bays of navigable inland waterways in the world, represented mainly by the Amazon basin, the Platine basin, the São Francisco and the Orinoco basins, Brazil having about 54,000 km navigable, while Argentina has 6,500 km and Venezuela, 1,200 km. The two main merchant fleets also belong to Brazil and Argentina. The following are those of Chile, Venezuela, Peru and Colombia. The largest ports in commercial movement are those of Buenos Aires, Santos, Rio de Janeiro, Bahía Blanca, Rosario, Valparaíso, Recife, Salvador, Montevideo, Paranaguá, Rio Grande, Fortaleza, Belém and Maracaibo. In South America, commercial aviation has a magnificent expansion field, which has one of the largest traffic density lines in the world, Rio de Janeiro–São Paulo, and large airports, such as Congonhas, São Paulo–Guarulhos International and Viracopos (São Paulo), Rio de Janeiro International and Santos Dumont (Rio de Janeiro), El Dorado (Bogotá), Ezeiza (Buenos Aires), Tancredo Neves International Airport (Belo Horizonte), Curitiba International Airport (Curitiba), Brasilia, Caracas, Montevideo, Lima, Viru Viru International Airport (Santa Cruz de la Sierra), Recife, Salvador, Salgado Filho International Airport (Porto Alegre), Fortaleza, Manaus and Belém. The main public transport in major cities is the bus. Many cities also have a diverse system of metro and subway trains, the first of which was the Buenos Aires subte, opened 1913. The Santiago subway is the largest network in South America, with 103 km, while the São Paulo subway is the largest in transportation, with more than 4.6 million passengers per day and was voted the best in the Americas. Rio de Janeiro installed the first railroad of the continent in 1854. Today the city has a vast and diversified system of metropolitan trains, integrated with buses and subway. Recently it was also inaugurated in the city a Light Rail System called VLT, a small electrical trams at low speed, while São Paulo inaugurated its monorail, the first of South America. In Brazil, an express bus system called Bus Rapid Transit (BRT), which operates in several cities, has also been developed. Mi Teleférico, also known as Teleférico La Paz–El Alto (La Paz–El Alto Cable Car), is an aerial cable car urban transit system serving the La Paz–El Alto metropolitan area in Bolivia. == See also == Flags of South America List of World Heritage Sites in South America Outline of South America – Hierarchical outline list of articles related to South America South American Games == Notes == == References == === Citations === === Sources === == External links == South America web resources provided by GovPubs at the University of Colorado Boulder Libraries South America at the Encyclopædia Britannica South America's Ancient Civilisations at the National Geographic Society South America at Curlie The Columbia Gazetteer of the World Online Columbia University Press ""South America"" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 25 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 485–489." Continents,Stokes Magnetic Anomaly,"The Stokes Magnetic Anomaly (also known as the Stokes Magnetic Anomaly System, SMAS, New Zealand Junction Magnetic Anomaly, JMA, great Nelson magnetic disturbance, Junction Anomaly, Campbell Magnetic Anomaly System, CMAS) is a magnetic anomaly on the earth's surface that extends from New Caledonia to the Chatham Rise with complexity consistent with the theory of plate tectonics. == History == It is named after Captain (later Admiral) John Lort Stokes by G. C. Farr in 1916 as he described it first although such naming has proved controversial, hence many of the alternative names. The magnetic declinations were observed by Captain Stokes when captaining HMS Acheron and Commander (later Admiral) Byron Drury in HMS Pandora between 1851 and 1853. == Geology == The Stokes Magnetic Anomaly has been characterised for over 3,000 km (1,900 mi) and was essential for understanding the geology of Zealandia as a mainly underwater continent. It extends from 700 km (430 mi) south of New Caledonia to almost the eastern edge of the Campbell Plateau. Over much of its length it has peaks about 30 km (19 mi) to 50 km (31 mi) apart, although this is not the case for much of its New Zealand west coast course. Where the anomaly crosses New Zealand it is displaced by approximately right angle changes in direction for a total of 1,000 km (620 mi) running down the western side of New Zealand from the Northland Peninsula in the North Island to Fiordland but then exiting New Zealand's South Island on its Otago east coast.The Stokes Magnetic Anomaly has been related to magnetic anomaly extending in Australia as the east Lachlan Fold Belt or New England Fold Belt as an extension of where it commences near the western Challenger Plateau and Lord Howe Rise. This gives an age of up to 83 million years before present in its formation but alternatively, it may be extended to represent the earliest ocean crust formed between New Zealand and Marie Byrd Land in Antarctica so could be even older. == External links == ""E Tūhura - Explore Zealandia A portal for geoscience webmaps and information on the Te Riu-a-Māui / Zealandia region"". GNS NZ. ""Story: Magnetic field"". Te Awa: The Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 2022-09-05. ""World Digital Magnetic Anomaly Map version 2.0"". Retrieved 2022-09-05. == References ==" Continents,Submerged continent,"A submerged continent or a sunken continent is a region of continental crust, extensive in size but mainly undersea. The terminology is used by some paleogeologists and geographers in reference to some landmasses (none of which are as large as any of the seven generally-recognized continents). The definition of this term is unclear. If continental fragments and microcontinents smaller than 2,500,000 km2 (970,000 sq mi), which is approximately one third of the area of mainland Australia, are excluded, then Zealandia (approximately 4,900,000 km2 or 1,900,000 sq mi) would be the only geological feature which can be classified as a submerged continent. Other notable submerged lands include Beringia, Doggerland, the Kerguelen Plateau, Mauritia, Sahul, and Sunda. Submerged continents have been sought and speculated about in regard to a possible ""lost continent"" underwater in the Atlantic Ocean. There was also a search in the 1930s for Lemuria, thought to have been a submerged continent between the Indian and African coasts. == See also == Continental fragment – Part of a continent broken from its main mass List of lost lands – Islands or continents supposedly existing during prehistory, having since disappeared List of mythological places Zealandia – Mostly submerged mass of continental crust containing New Zealand and New Caledonia == References ==" Continents,Subregion,"A subregion is a part of a larger region or continent and is usually based on location. Cardinal directions, such as south are commonly used to define a subregion. == United Nations subregions == The Statistics Division of the United Nations (UN) is in charge of the collection, processing, and dissemination of statistical information for the UN. In 1999, it developed a system of macro-geographical (continental) regions, subregions, and other selected economic groups to report advances towards achieving numerous millennial development goals worldwide. These statistical divisions were devised for statistical purposes and is used for carrying out statistical analysis. The division's first publication was the book World's Women 2000: Trends and Statistics in 2000. According to the UN, the assignment of countries or areas to specific groupings is for statistical convenience and does not imply any assumption regarding political or other affiliation of countries or territories. == Subregions by continent == The following is a non-exhaustive list of subregions, arranged alphabetically by region (i.e., by continent); in the UN geoscheme, higher-level, macro-geographical regions are arranged to the extent possible according to continents. === Afro-Eurasia === ==== Africa ==== by the United Nations Statistics Division's geoscheme (see also: UN geoscheme for Africa): Northern Africa Eastern Africa Central or Middle Africa Southern Africa Western Africaby geography: North Africa (Also known as Saharan Africa) Maghreb (AKA Northwest Africa, also including Mauritania, which most geographers consider as a part of West Africa; some geographers consider Libya as a part of Northeast Africa and Western Sahara as a part of West Africa) Northeast Africa (including Egypt, the Horn of Africa, and the Sudans; some geographers consider Egypt, Libya, and the Sudan as Northeast Africa instead) Sub-Saharan Africa (AKA Tropical Africa) Central Africa (AKA Congo, Equatorial Africa or Middle Africa) East Africa (AKA Nile) Northeast Africa (including Egypt, the Horn of Africa, and the Sudans; some geographers consider Egypt, Libya, and the Sudan as Northeast Africa instead) Horn of Africa Southeast Africa (also including Botswana, Eswatini and Lesotho, which most geographers consider as part of Southern Africa) Southern Africa (AKA Kalahari) West Africa (AKA Niger) Guinea (region) Sudan (region)by physiography: Congo Basin Kalahari Basin Kalahari Desert Namib Nile Basin Sahara Sahel Sudanian savanna East Sudanian savanna Sudd West Sudanian savannaby economics: African Monetary Union (AMU) Arab League (including some West Asian countries) Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) Common Monetary Area (CMA) Community of Sahel–Saharan States (CEN-SAD) Council of Arab Economic Unity (GAFTA) – including some West Asian countries Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS) Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) EMEA (including Europe and the Middle East) Southern African Customs Union (SACU) Southern African Development Community (SADC) Union for the Mediterranean (including most European countries and some West Asian countries)by biogeography: Macaronesiaby historical division: Negrolandby geology: Kaapvaal Craton Zimbabwe Craton ==== Eurasia ==== ===== Asia ===== by the United Nations Statistics Division's geoscheme (see also: UN geoscheme for Asia): Central Asia Eastern Asia South-eastern Asia Southern Asia Western Asiaby geography: Central Asia East Asia Greater China China Hong Kong (some geographers consider it as a part of Northeast Asia) Macau (some geographers consider it as a part of Northeast Asia) Mainland China (some geographers consider it as a part of Northeast Asia) North China (Eastern Inner Mongolia is also a part of Northeast China) Northeast China (AKA Manchuria) – also a part of Northeast Asia Southeast China (excluding Central China) East China (some geographers include Taiwan Island, Penghu, Kinmen, the Matsu Islands, Socotra Rock, Parangcho, and the Senkaku Islands in this subregion) South Central China Central China South China (including Hainan Island and the South China Sea Islands, some geographers also include Hong Kong and Macau in this subregion) Western China Northwest China (some geographers consider Qinghai and Xinjiang as part of Central Asia) Southwest China (some geographers consider Tibet as a part of Central Asia) South China Sea Islands (some geographers consider them as part of Northeast Asia) Paracel Islands Pratas Island Spratly Islands James Shoal (undersea feature) Taiping Island Zhongzhou Reef Zhongsha Islands Macclesfield Bank Walker Shoal Scarborough Shoal Taiwan (some geographers consider it as a part of Northeast Asia) Mongolia (some geographers consider it as a part of Central Asia or Northeast Asia) Northeast Asia China Eastern Inner Mongolia Northeast China (AKA Manchuria) Japan Daitō Islands Mainland Japan Hokkaido Honshu Kyushu Shikoku Nanpō Islands Ryukyu Islands Korea North Korea South Korea Russian Far East (also a part of North Asia, but not a part of East Asia) Russian Manchuria North Asia (AKA Siberia) Russian Far East (also a part of Northeast Asia) Russian Manchuria South Asia Eastern South Asia India Andaman and Nicobar Islands Lakshadweep Mainland India Central India East India Northeast India North India South India (AKA Peninsular India, including the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep) Western India Southeast Asia Mainland Southeast Asia Malay Peninsula Peninsular Malaysia Southern Thailand Tanintharyi Region Maritime Southeast Asia Borneo (including Labuan) Brunei East Malaysia Labuan Sabah Sarawak Kalimantan West Asia (AKA Southwest Asia) Anatolia (AKA Asia Minor) Arabia Eastern Arabia Hejaz (AKA Western Arabia) Najd (AKA Central Arabia) South Arabia Levant Southern Levant Mesopotamia South Caucasus (AKA Transcaucasia)by physiography: Anatolian Peninsula Arabian Peninsula Central Plateau Indian Ocean Coast Persian Gulf Coast Red Sea Coast Bahrain Island Caucasus Mountains Greater Caucasus Lesser Caucasus Daitō Islands Eurasian Steppe Fertile Crescent Mesopotamia Hainan Island Himalayas Eastern Himalaya Western Himalaya Siachen Glacier Indian subcontinent Deccan Plateau Indochinese Peninsula Indo-Gangetic Plain Indus Valley Iranian Plateau Japanese Archipelago Hokkaido Honshu Kuril Islands Kyushu Ryukyu Islands Okinawa Island Sakhalin Island Shikoku Jeju Island Junggar Basin Kolyma Korean Peninsula Leizhou Peninsula Liaodong Peninsula Malay Archipelago (including New Guinea) Indonesian Archipelago Maluku Islands Sunda Islands Greater Sunda Islands Borneo Java Sulawesi Sumatra Lesser Sunda Islands Alor Archipelago Bali Barat Daya Islands Flores Komodo Lombok Sumba Sumbawa Tanimbar Islands Timor Philippine Archipelago Luzon Mindanao Visayan Islands Mongolian Plateau Nanpō Islands Bonin Islands Volcano Islands Qinghai Lake Shandong Peninsula Sichuan Basin Sri Lanka Island Taiwan Island Tarim Basinby geopolitics: Asia-Pacific (APAC) – including Oceania Far East Greater China China proper Inner Mongolia Manchuria Tibet Xinjiang Indochinese Peninsula Japanese Archipelago Korean Peninsula Malay Archipelago Russian Far East Greater Middle East – including some African countries Middle East and North Africa (AKA MENA) – including North African countries Middle East (AKA the Near East) – including Egypt Arab League (AKA the Arab states) – including some African countries Mashriq – including Egypt and the Sudan Arabian Peninsula Levant – including Ash-Shām and Cyprus Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq) Asia Minor South Caucasus (AKA Transcaucasia) The 'stans Indian subcontinent Himalayan states – including China Eastern Himalaya Western Himalaya Kashmirby economics: Arab League – including some African countries ASEAN Free Trade Area Asia Cooperation Dialogue (ACD) – including Russia Asian Clearing Union (ACU) Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) – including Oceania Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Bamboo network Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal Initiative (BBIN) Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC) Council of Arab Economic Unity (GAFTA) – including some African countries EMEA (including Africa and Europe) Eurasian Customs Union (ECU) – including Belarus Eurasian Economic Union (EEU) – including Belarus Greater Mekong Subregion Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) South Asian Free Trade Area (SAFTA) South Asia Subregional Economic Cooperation (SASEC) Union for the Mediterranean (including most European countries and some African countries)by culture: Eastern world East Asian cultural sphere Greater China Eastern and western China Northern and southern China China proper Manchuria Japan Korea Nanyang Vietnam Greater India Eastern Afghanistan Indian subcontinent Himalayan states Indian Himalayan Region Mainland Southeast Asia Maritime Southeast Asia Tibet Yunnan Greater Mongolia Inner Mongolia Mongolia (Outer Mongolia) Muslim world (AKA the Islamic world) Arab world Mashriq Arabia Al-Bahrain Al-Yamama Hadhramaut Tihamah Malay world Greater Indonesia Nusantara Turkic world Azerbaijan Soviet Central Asia (excluding Tajikistan) Turkey Xinjiang Dzungaria South Xinjiangby religion: Abrahamic religions (West Asian religions or Western religions) Eastern religions Dharmic religions (Indian religions) Taoic religions (East Asian religions or Far Eastern religions)by biogeography: Eastern Asia Malesiaby historical division: East Indies (AKA the Indies) Farther India (AKA Ultraindia) Indochina Insulindiaby geology: Izu–Bonin–Mariana Arc Kuril Island Arc Northeastern Japan Arc Ryukyu Island Arc Sakhalin Island Arc Southwestern Japan Arc ===== Europe ===== by the United Nations Statistics Division's geoscheme (see also: UN geoscheme for Europe): Eastern Europe – the UN includes North Asia (Siberia) and part of Central Europe (Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland and Slovakia) in this subregion Northern Europe – the UN includes the British Isles and the Baltic states in this subregion Southern Europe – the UN includes Slovenia (Central Europe) in this subregion Western Europe – the UN includes part of Central Europe (the DACH countries and Liechtenstein) in this subregionby geography: Central and Eastern Europe Central Europe Eastern Europe Caucasus North Caucasus (aka Ciscaucasia) South Caucasus (aka Transcaucasia) – a subregion of West Asia Northern Europe North-central Europe Scandinavia North-eastern Europe North-western Europe Southern Europe South-central Europe Apennine Peninsula (aka the Italian Peninsula) Malta South-eastern Europe Balkan Peninsula (aka the Balkans) Romania South-western Europe Balearic Islands Iberian Peninsula (aka Iberia) Southern France Western Europeby physiography: Apennine Peninsula (aka the Italian Peninsula) Balkan Peninsula British Isles Great Britain Hebrides Ireland Isle of Man Isle of Wight Caucasus Mountains Greater Caucasus Lesser Caucasus – A part of West Asia Channel Islands Guernsey Jersey Eurasian Steppe Fennoscandian Peninsula Kola Peninsula Scandinavian Peninsula Great European Plain East European Plain Iberian Peninsula Mediterranean Basinby geopolitics: East-Central Europe Eastern Europe Post-Soviet states Baltic states Commonwealth of Independent States Union State North Caucasus Georgia Ukraine West-Central Europe (in German) Western Europe European Union (EU) NATO North Sea Commission (NSC)by economics: Central European Free Trade Agreement (CEFTA) Commonwealth of Independent States Free Trade Area (CISFTA) – including Armenia and most Central Asian countries Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (CETA) – including Canada EMEA (including Africa and the Middle East) Eurasian Customs Union (EACU) – including Armenia and Kyrgyzstan Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU) – including Armenia and Kyrgyzstan European Economic Area (EEA) – including Cyprus European Free Trade Association (EFTA) European Single Market (including Cyprus) European Union Customs Union (EUCU) – including Cyprus and Turkey European Union–Turkey Customs Union (including Cyprus and Turkey) Eurozone (including Cyprus) North Sea Region (NSR) Union for the Mediterranean (UfM) – including some West Asian countries and some African countries Union Stateby culture: Balkans Eastern Balkans Western Balkans Baltic states Benelux Belgium Netherlands Luxembourg Mediterranean Region Nordic countries and Karelia North Sea Region Sápmi, since 1809 divided between Finland and Sweden Scandinavia Visegrád Groupby language: Celtic-speaking Europe Germanic-speaking Europe DACH countries Germany (Deutschland) Austria Switzerland (Confoederatio Helvetica) Romance-speaking Europe (aka Latin Europe) Slavic-speaking Europeby religion: Eastern religions Indian religions Buddhism in Europe (Kalmykia) Western religions (Abrahamic religions or West Asian religions) Christianity in Europe Catholicism in Europe Eastern Orthodoxy in Europe Protestantism in Europe Islam in Europeby biogeography: Mediterranean Regionby historical division: Celtic tribes East–West Schism Catholic Church Eastern Orthodox Church Germanic tribes Greco-Roman world Hellenistic world Roman Empire Eastern Roman Empire Western Roman Empire Iranian tribes Iron Curtain Eastern Bloc Western Bloc Reformation (Protestantism) Slavic tribes Turkic tribesby geology: Alpine orogeny East European craton Baltic Shield Ukrainian Shield === Americas === by the United Nations Statistics Division's geoscheme (see also: UN geoscheme for the Americas): Latin America and the Caribbean Caribbean – the UN includes the Lucayan Archipelago in this subregion Latin America Central America – the UN includes Mexico in this subregion South America Northern Americaby culture: Anglo-America Latin America French America Ibero-America Hispanic America Portuguese Americaby economics: Community of Latin American and Caribbean States (CELAC) ==== North America ==== by geography: Middle America Caribbean (Insular America) Aves Island West Indies Antilles Greater Antilles Hispaniola Lesser Antilles Leeward Islands Saint Martin island SSS islands Virgin Islands British Virgin Islands Spanish Virgin Islands United States Virgin Islands Southern Caribbean Leeward Antilles ABC islands Windward Islands Lucayan Archipelago Central America San Andrés and Providencia Bajo Nuevo Bank Serranilla Bank Mexico Northern America Bermuda Canada Eastern Canada Atlantic Canada The Maritimes Central Canada Northern Canada Canadian Arctic Archipelago Western Canada Canadian Prairies West Coast Greenland Saint Pierre and Miquelon United States (excluding Hawaii) Alaska Contiguous United States Central United States Middle America (United States) Midwestern United States Eastern United States Northeastern United States Southeastern United States Northern United States Great Lakes region (including Ontario, Canada) Southern United States South Central United States Western United States (including Alaska and Hawaii) Northwestern United States Southwestern United States (some geographers include the Oklahoma Panhandle and West Texas in this subregion)by physiography: Atlantic coastal plain Atlantic Seaboard Fall Line East Coast of the United States Great Basin Great Basin Desert Great Lakes Great Lakes Basin Great Plains Gulf Coast of the United States Piedmont West Coast of the United Statesby geopolitics: Dutch Caribbean Caribbean Netherlands (AKA the BES islands) Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States Red states and blue states Western Caribbean zoneby economics: Caribbean Community (CARICOM) Central America Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA) Great Lakes Megalopolis Mesoamerican region North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) Northeast megalopolis Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States Petrocaribeby culture: Heartland (United States) Mesoamerica Oasisamericaby biogeography: Aridoamericaby geology: Canadian Shield North American craton Slave craton Superior craton Wyoming craton ==== South America ==== by geography: Eastern South America: Federative Republic of Brazil Northern South America (the part of South America located in the Northern Hemisphere) North-eastern South America: The Guianas North-western South America: Caribbean South America Southern South America: Southern Cone Western South America: Andean Statesby physiography: Altiplano Amazon basin Amazon rainforest Andes Brazilian Highlands Gran Chaco Pampa Pantanal Patagoniaby economics: Andean Community Mercosur Union of South American Nationsby geology: Guiana Shield === Antarctica === by the United Nations Statistics Division's geoscheme: Antarcticaby geography: Antarctic and Subantarctic islands Bouvet Island (some geographers consider it as a part of South America) French Southern Territories (excluding Adélie Land and the Scattered Islands) Crozet Islands (some geographers consider them as part of Africa) Kerguelen Islands (some geographers consider them as part of Africa) Saint Paul and Amsterdam Islands (some geographers consider them as part of Africa) Heard Island and McDonald Islands (some geographers consider them as part of Oceania) Macquarie Island (some geographers consider it as a part of Oceania) New Zealand Subantarctic Islands (some geographers consider them as part of Oceania) Antipodes Islands Auckland Islands Bounty Islands Campbell Islands Snares Islands Peter I Island Prince Edward Islands (some geographers consider them as part of Africa) South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands (some geographers consider them as part of South America) South Orkney Islands South Shetland Islands Mainland Antarctica East Antarctica Transantarctic Mountains West Antarctica Antarctic Peninsula === Oceania === by the United Nations Statistics Division's geoscheme (see also: UN geoscheme for Oceania): Australia and New Zealand – the UN includes the Cato, Elizabeth, and Middleton reefs, the Lord Howe Island Group, and Norfolk Island in this subregion Melanesia – the UN includes New Caledonia and New Guinea in this subregion Micronesia Polynesia – the UN excludes New Zealand from this subregionby geography: Australasia Australia–New Guinea Australia (excluding the Australian Indian Ocean Territories, Heard Island and McDonald Islands and Norfolk Island) Ashmore and Cartier Islands Coral Sea Islands Territory (excluding the Cato, Elizabeth, and Middleton reefs) Mainland Australia Australian Capital Territory Jervis Bay Territory New South Wales (excluding the Lord Howe Island Group) Northern Territory Queensland South Australia Victoria Western Australia Tasmania (excluding Macquarie Island) New Guinea (some geographers consider it as a part of Melanesia) Papua New Guinea (excluding the New Guinea Islands Region) Western New Guinea Papua West Papua Australian Indian Ocean Territories Christmas Island Cocos (Keeling) Islands Heard Island and McDonald Islands Heard Island McDonald Islands Macquarie Island Zealandia Cato Reef Elizabeth Reef Lord Howe Island Group Middleton Reef New Caledonia (also a part of Melanesia) New Zealand (some geographers consider it as a part of Polynesia) New Zealand outlying islands (excluding the Kermadec Islands) Chatham Islands New Zealand Subantarctic Islands Antipodes Islands Auckland Islands Bounty Islands Campbell Islands Snares Islands Solander Islands Three Kings Islands Norfolk Island Pacific Islands Melanesia (some geographers consider it as a part of Australasia) Island Melanesia Fiji (excluding Rotuma) New Caledonia (also a part of Zealandia) New Guinea Islands Region (excluding Bougainville) Santa Cruz Islands Solomon Islands (archipelago) Bougainville Solomon Islands (excluding the Santa Cruz Islands) Vanuatu New Guinea (also a part of Australia–New Guinea) Micronesia (some geographers include the Bonin Islands and the Volcano Islands in this subregion) Mariana Islands Guam Northern Mariana Islands Wake Island Polynesia (some geographers include Clipperton Island in this subregion) Cook Islands Easter Island Salas and Gómez Island French Polynesia Tahiti Hawaiian Islands Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Midway Atoll Southeastern Hawaiian Islands Howland and Baker Islands Baker Island Howland Island Kermadec Islands Niue Pitcairn, Henderson, Ducie and Oeno Islands Rotuma Samoan Islands American Samoa (excluding Swains Island) Samoa Tokelau Islands Swains Island Tokelau Tonga Tuvalu Wallis and Futuna Alo Sigave Uveaby human geography: Near Oceania Remote Oceaniaby biogeography: Papuasia East Melanesian Islandsby economics: Pacific Community Pacific Islands Forum Pacific Regional Environment Programme by geology (see also: Geology of Australia): Archaean Australian Shield Centralian Superbasin Gawler Craton Narryer gneiss Ore genesis Perth Basin Pilbara Craton Western Plateau Yilgarn Craton == See also == Autonomous administrative division Continent Continental fragment European Committee of the Regions Euroregion List of continents and continental subregions by population List of Latin names of regions Military district Polar regions of Earth Region Regional district Regional municipality Subcontinent Submerged continent Supercontinent United Nations geoscheme == References == == External links == UN Statistics Division – Standard country or area codes for statistical use (M49)" Continents,Transcontinental railroad,"A transcontinental railroad or transcontinental railway is contiguous railroad trackage, that crosses a continental land mass and has terminals at different oceans or continental borders. Such networks can be via the tracks of either a single railroad or over those owned or controlled by multiple railway companies along a continuous route. Although Europe is crisscrossed by railways, the railroads within Europe are usually not considered transcontinental, with the possible exception of the historic Orient Express. Transcontinental railroads helped open up unpopulated interior regions of continents to exploration and settlement that would not otherwise have been feasible. In many cases they also formed the backbones of cross-country passenger and freight transportation networks. Many of them continue to have an important role in freight transportation and some like the Trans-Siberian Railway even have passenger trains going from one end to the other. == North America == === United States === A transcontinental railroad in the United States is any continuous rail line connecting a location on the U.S. Pacific coast with one or more of the railroads of the nation's eastern trunk line rail systems operating between the Missouri or Mississippi Rivers and the U.S. Atlantic coast. The first concrete plan for a transcontinental railroad in the United States was presented to Congress by Asa Whitney in 1845.A series of transcontinental railroads built over the last third of the 19th century created a nationwide transportation network that united the country by rail. The first of these, the 3,103 km (1,928 mi) ""Pacific Railroad"", was built by the Central Pacific Railroad and Union Pacific Railroad to link the San Francisco Bay at Alameda, California, with the nation's existing eastern railroad network at Council Bluffs, Iowa/Omaha, Nebraska, thereby creating the world's first transcontinental railroad when it opened in 1869. Its construction was made possible by the US government under Pacific Railroad Acts of 1862, 1864, and 1867. Its original course was very close to current Interstate 80. ==== Transcontinental railroad ==== The U.S.'s first transcontinental railroad was built between 1863 and 1869 to join the eastern and western halves of the United States. Begun just before the American Civil War, its construction was considered to be one of the greatest American technological feats of the 19th century. Known as the ""Pacific Railroad"" when it opened, this served as a vital link for trade, commerce, and travel and opened up vast regions of the North American heartland for settlement. Shipping and commerce could thrive away from navigable watercourses for the first time since the beginning of the nation. Much of this route, especially on the Sierra grade west of Reno, Nevada, is currently used by Amtrak's California Zephyr, although many parts have been rerouted.The transcontinental railroad provided fast, safe, and cheap travel. The fare for a one-week trip from Omaha to San Francisco on an emigrant sleeping car was about $65 for an adult. It replaced most of the far slower and more hazardous stagecoach lines and wagon trains. The number of emigrants taking the Oregon and California Trails declined dramatically. The sale of the railroad land grant lands and the transport provided for timber and crops led to the rapid settling of the ""Great American Desert"".The Union Pacific recruited laborers from Army veterans and Irish immigrants, while most of the engineers were ex-Army men who had learned their trade keeping the trains running during the American Civil War.The Central Pacific Railroad faced a labor shortage in the more sparsely settled West. It recruited Cantonese laborers in China, who built the line over and through the Sierra Nevada mountains and then across Nevada to their meeting in northern Utah. Chinese workers made up ninety percent of the workforce on the line. The Chinese Labor Strike of 1867 was peaceful, with no violence, organized across the entire Sierra Nevada route, and was carried out according to a peaceful Confucian model of protest. The strike began with the Summer Solstice in June, 1867 and lasted for eight days. ==== Land Grants ==== The Transcontinental Railroad required land and a complex federal policy for purchasing, granting, conveying land. Some of these land-related acts included: One motive for the Gadsden Purchase of land from Mexico in 1853 was to obtain suitable terrain for a southern transcontinental railroad, as the southern portion of the Mexican Cession was too mountainous. The Southern Pacific Railroad was completed in 1881. The Pacific Railroad Act of 1862 (based on an earlier bill in 1856) authorized land grants for new lines that would ""aid in the construction of a railroad and telegraph line from the Missouri river to the Pacific ocean"". The rails of the ""first transcontinental railroad"" were joined on May 10, 1869, with the ceremonial driving of the ""Last Spike"" at Promontory Summit, Utah, after track was laid over a 2,826 km (1,756 mi) gap between Sacramento and Omaha, Nebraska/Council Bluffs, Iowa in six years by the Union Pacific Railroad and Central Pacific Railroad. Although through train service was in operation as of that date, the road was not deemed to have been officially ""completed"" until November 6, 1869. (A physical connection between Omaha, Nebraska, and the statutory Eastern terminus of the Pacific road at Council Bluffs, Iowa, located immediately across the Missouri River was also not finally established until the opening of UPRR railroad bridge across the river on March 25, 1873, prior to which transfers were made by ferry operated by the Council Bluffs & Nebraska Ferry Company.) The first permanent, continuous line of railroad track from coast to coast was completed 15 months later on August 15, 1870, by the Kansas Pacific Railroad near its crossing of Comanche Creek at Strasburg, Colorado. This route connected to the eastern rail network via the Hannibal Bridge across the Missouri River at Kansas City completed June 30, 1869, passed through Denver, Colorado, and north to the Union Pacific Railroad at Cheyenne, Wyoming, making it theoretically possible for the first time to board a train at Jersey City, New Jersey, travel entirely by rail, and step down at the Alameda Wharf on San Francisco Bay in Oakland. This singularity existed until March 25, 1873 when the Union Pacific constructed the Missouri River Bridge in Omaha. ==== Subsequent transcontinental routes ==== Almost 12 years after Promontory Summit, the Southern Pacific Railroad (SP) constructed the second transcontinental railroad, building eastwards through the Gadsden Purchase, which had been acquired from Mexico in 1854 largely with the intention of providing a route for a railroad connecting California with the Southern states. This line was completed with milestones and ceremonies in 1881 and 1883: March 8, 1881: the SP met the Rio Grande, Mexico and Pacific Railroad (a subsidiary of the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway) with a ""silver spike"" ceremony at Deming, New Mexico, connecting Atchison, Kansas, to Los Angeles. December 15, 1881: the SP met the Texas and Pacific Railway (T&P) at Sierra Blanca, Texas, connecting eastern Texas to Los Angeles. January 12, 1883: the SP completed its own southern section, meeting its subsidiary Galveston, Harrisburg and San Antonio Railway at the Pecos River in Texas, and linking New Orleans to Los Angeles. In Colorado, the 3-foot gauge Denver & Rio Grande (D&RG) extended its route from Denver via Pueblo across the Rocky Mountains to Grand Junction in 1882. In central Utah, the D&RG acquired a number of independent narrow gauge companies, which were incorporated into the first (1881-1889) Denver and Rio Grande Western Railway (D&RGW). Tracks were extended north through Salt Lake City, while simultaneously building south and eastward toward Grand Junction. The D&RG and the D&RGW were linked on March 30, 1883, the extension to Ogden (where it met the Central Pacific) was completed on May 14, 1883, and through traffic between Denver and Ogden began a few days later. The break of gauge made direct interchange of rolling stock with standard gauge railroads at both ends of this bridge line impossible for several years. The D&RG in 1887 began rebuilding its mainline in standard gauge, including a new route and tunnel at Tennessee Pass. The first D&RGW was reincorporated as the Rio Grande Western (RGW) in June 1889 and immediately began the conversion of track gauge. Standard gauge operations linking Ogden and Denver were completed on November 15, 1890. The Atlantic and Pacific Railroad completed its route connecting the AT&SF at Albuquerque, New Mexico, via Flagstaff, Arizona, to the Southern Pacific at Needles, California, on August 9, 1883. The SP line into Barstow was leased by the A&P in 1884 (and purchased in 1911); this gave the AT&SF (the A&P's parent company) a direct route into Southern California. This route now forms the western portion of BNSF's Southern Transcon. The Northern Pacific Railway (NP) completed the fifth independent transcontinental railroad on August 22, 1883, linking Chicago with Seattle. The Completion Ceremony was held on September 8, 1883, with former U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant contributing to driving the Final Spike. The California Southern Railroad (chartered January 10, 1882) was completed from National City on San Diego Bay via Temecula Cañon to Colton and San Bernardino in September, 1883, and extended through the Cajon Pass to Barstow, a junction of the Atlantic and Pacific Railroad, in November, 1885. In September, 1885, the line of the Southern Pacific from Colton to Los Angeles, a distance of 93 km (58 mi), had been leased by the California Central with equal rights and privileges thus allowing the Santa Fe's Transcontinental route to be completed by the connection with the California Southern and A&PRR. The SP grade was used until the completion of the California Central's own line between San Bernardino and Los Angeles in June, 1887, a distance of 101.13 km (62.84 mi), which was part of the old Los Angeles and San Gabriel Valley Railroad, which had been acquired by purchase. In August, 1888, the California Central completed its Coast Division south from Los Angeles to a junction with the California Southern Railroad near Oceanside, a distance of 130.20 km (80.90 mi), and these two divisions comprised the main line of the California Central, forming, in connection with the California Southern, a direct line between Southern California and the East by way of the Atlantic and Pacific and Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe Railroads. The Great Northern Railway was built, without federal aid, by James J. Hill in 1893; it stretched from St. Paul to Seattle. The Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific reached Santa Rosa, New Mexico, from the east in late 1901, shortly before the El Paso & Northeastern arrived from the southwest. The two were connected on February 1, 1902, thus forming an additional link between the Midwest and southern California. Through passenger service was provided by the Golden State Limited (Chicago—Kansas City—Tucumcari—El Paso—Los Angeles) jointly operated by the Rock Island and the Southern Pacific (EP&NE's successor) from 1902 to 1968. The San Pedro, Los Angeles & Salt Lake Railroad completed its line connecting Los Angeles through Las Vegas to Salt Lake City on May 1, 1905. Through passenger service from Chicago to Los Angeles was provided by Union Pacific's Los Angeles Limited from 1905 to 1954, and the City of Los Angeles from 1936 to 1971. The Western Pacific Railway (WP), financed by the Denver & Rio Grande on behalf of the Gould System, completed its new line (the Feather River Route) from Oakland to Ogden in 1909, in direct competition with the Southern Pacific's existing route. Through passenger service (Oakland-Salt Lake City-Denver-Chicago) was provided by the Exposition Flyer 1939 to 1949 and its successor, the California Zephyr 1949 to 1970, both jointly operated by the WP, the D&RGW and the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy. In 1909, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul (or Milwaukee Road) completed a privately built Pacific extension to Seattle. On completion, the line was renamed the Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific. Although the Pacific Extension was privately funded, predecessor roads did benefit from the federal land grant act, so it cannot be said to have been built without federal aid. John D. Spreckels completed his privately funded San Diego and Arizona Railway in 1919, thereby creating a direct link (via connection with the Southern Pacific lines) between San Diego, California and the Eastern United States. The railroad stretched 238 km (148 mi) from San Diego to Calexico, California, of which 71 km (44 mi) were south of the border in Mexico. In 1993, Amtrak's Sunset Limited daily railroad train was extended eastward to Miami, Florida, later rerouted to Orlando, making it the first regularly scheduled transcontinental passenger train route in the United States to be operated by a single company. Hurricane Katrina cut this rail route in Louisiana in 2005. The train now runs from Los Angeles to New Orleans. ==== The Gould System ==== George J. Gould attempted to assemble a truly transcontinental system in the 1900s. The line from San Francisco, California, to Toledo, Ohio, was completed in 1909, consisting of the Western Pacific Railway, Denver and Rio Grande Railroad, Missouri Pacific Railroad, and Wabash Railroad. Beyond Toledo, the planned route would have used the Wheeling and Lake Erie Railroad (1900), Wabash Pittsburgh Terminal Railway, Little Kanawha Railroad, West Virginia Central and Pittsburgh Railway, Western Maryland Railroad, and Philadelphia and Western Railway, but the Panic of 1907 strangled the plans before the Little Kanawha section in West Virginia could be finished. The Alphabet Route was completed in 1931, providing the portion of this line east of the Mississippi River. With the merging of the railroads, only the Union Pacific Railroad and the BNSF Railway remain to carry the entire route. === Canada === The completion of Canada's first transcontinental railway with the driving of the Last Spike at Craigellachie, British Columbia, on November 7, 1885, was an important milestone in Canadian history. Between 1881 and 1885, the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR) completed a line that spanned from the port of Montreal to the Pacific coast, fulfilling a condition of British Columbia's 1871 entry into the Canadian Confederation. The City of Vancouver, incorporated in 1886, was designated the western terminus of the line. The CPR became the first transcontinental railway company in North America in 1889 after its International Railway of Maine opened, connecting CPR to the Atlantic coast. The construction of a transcontinental railway strengthened the connection of British Columbia and the North-West Territories to the country they had recently joined, and acted as a bulwark against potential incursions by the United States. Subsequently, two other transcontinental lines were built in Canada: the Canadian Northern Railway (CNoR) opened another line to the Pacific in 1915, and the combined Grand Trunk Pacific Railway (GTPR)/National Transcontinental Railway (NTR) system opened in 1917 following the completion of the Quebec Bridge, although its line to the Pacific opened in 1914. The CNoR, GTPR, and NTR were nationalized to form the Canadian National Railway, which currently is now Canada's largest transcontinental railway, with lines running all the way from the Pacific Coast to the Atlantic Coast. == Central America (inter-oceanic lines) == === Panama (South America) === The first railroad to directly connect two oceans (although not by crossing a broad ""continental"" land mass) was the Panama Rail Road. Opened in 1855, this 77 km (48 mi) line was designated instead as an ""inter-oceanic"" railroad crossing Country at its narrowest point, the Isthmus of Panama, when that area was still part of Colombia. (Panama split off from Colombia in 1903 and became the independent Republic of Panama). By spanning the isthmus, the line thus became the first railroad to completely cross any part of the Americas and physically connect ports on the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Given the tropical rain forest environment, the terrain, and diseases such as malaria and cholera, its completion was a considerable engineering challenge. The construction took five years after ground was first broken for the line in May, 1850, cost eight million dollars, and required more than seven thousand workers drawn from ""every quarter of the globe.""This railway was built to provide a shorter and more secure path between the United States' East and West Coasts. This need was mainly triggered by the California Gold Rush. Over the years the railway played a key role in the construction and the subsequent operation of the Panama Canal, due to its proximity to the canal. Currently, the railway operates under the private administration of the Panama Canal Railroad Company, and its upgraded capacity complements the cargo traffic through the Panama Canal. === Guatemala === A second Central American inter-oceanic railroad began operation in 1908 as a connection between Puerto San José and Puerto Barrios in Guatemala, but ceased passenger service to Puerto San José in 1989. === Costa Rica === A third Central American inter-oceanic railroad began operation in 1910 as a connection between Puntarenas and Limón in 1,067 mm (3 ft 6 in) gauge. It currently (2019) sees no passenger service. == South America == There is activity to revive the connection between Valparaíso and Santiago in Chile and Mendoza, Argentina, through the Transandino project. Mendoza has an active connection to Buenos Aires. The old Transandino began in 1910 and ceased passenger service in 1978 and freight 4 years later. Technically a complete transcontinental link exists from Arica, Chile, to La Paz, Bolivia, to Buenos Aires, but this trans-Andean crossing is for freight only. On December 6, 2017 the Brazilian President Michel Temer and his Bolivian counterpart Evo Morales signed an agreement for an Atlantic - Pacific railway. The construction will start in 2019 and will be finished in 2024. The new railway is planned to be 3750 km in length. There are two possible tracks in discussion: Both have an Atlantic end in Santos, Brazil but the Pacific ends are in Ilo, Peru and Matarani, Peru.Another longer Transcontinental freight-only railroad linking Lima, Peru, to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil is under development. == Eurasia == The first transcontinental railroad in Europe, that connected the North Sea or the English Channel with the Mediterranean Sea, was a series of lines that included the Paris–Marseille railway, in service 1856. Multiple railways north of Paris were in operation at that time, such as Paris–Lille railway and Paris–Le Havre railway. The second connection between the seas of Northern Europe and the Mediterranean Sea, was a series of lines finalized in 1857 with the Austrian Southern Railway, Vienna–Trieste. There were before that railroad connections Hamburg–Berlin–Wroclaw–Vienna (including Berlin–Hamburg Railway, Berlin–Wrocław railway, Upper Silesian Railway and Emperor Ferdinand Northern Railway). The Baltic Sea was also connected through the Lübeck–Lüneburg railway. The Trans-Siberian Railway, completed in 1905, was the first network of railways connecting Europe and Asia. It connects Western Russia to the Russian Far East, and is the longest railway line in the world, with a length of over 9,289 kilometres (5,772 miles). The railway starts from Russia's capital Moscow, which is the largest city in Europe, and ends at Vladivostok, situated on the coast of the Pacific Ocean. Expansion of the railway system continues as of 2021, with connecting rails going into Asia, namely Mongolia, China and North Korea. There are also plans to connect Tokyo, the capital of Japan, to the railway.A second rail line connects Istanbul in Turkey with China via Iran, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan. This route imposes a break of gauge at the Iranian border with Turkmenistan and at the Chinese border. En route there is a train ferry in eastern Turkey across Lake Van. The European and Asian parts of Istanbul was linked 2019 linked by the Marmaray undersea tunnel, before that by train ferry. There is no through service of passenger trains on the entire line. A uniform gauge connection was proposed in 2006, commencing with new construction in Kazakhstan. A decision to make the internal railways of Afghanistan 1,435 mm (4 ft 8+1⁄2 in) gauge potentially opens up a new standard gauge route to China, since China abuts this country. == Asia == The Trans-Asian Railway is a project to link Singapore to Istanbul and is to a large degree complete with missing pieces primarily in Myanmar. The project has also linking corridors to China, the central Asian states, and Russia. This transcontinental line unfortunately uses a number of different gauges, 1,435 mm (4 ft 8+1⁄2 in), 1,676 mm (5 ft 6 in), 1,520 mm (4 ft 11+27⁄32 in) and 1,000 mm (3 ft 3+3⁄8 in), though this problem may be lessened with the use of variable gauge axle systems such as the SUW 2000. The TransKazakhstan Trunk Railways project by Kazakhstan Temir Zholy will connect China and Europe with standard gauge 1,435 mm (4 ft 8+1⁄2 in). Construction is set to start in 2006. Initially the line will go to western Kazakhstan, south through Turkmenistan to Iran, then to Turkey and Europe. A shorter to-be-constructed 1,435 mm (4 ft 8+1⁄2 in) link from Kazakhstan is considered going through Russia and either Belarus or Ukraine. The Baghdad Railway connects Istanbul with Baghdad and finally Basra, a sea port at the Persian Gulf. When its construction started in the 1880s it was in those times a Transcontinental Railroad. == Australia == === East-west === Australia's east–west transcontinental rail corridor, consisting of lines built to three different track gauges, was completed in 1917, when the Trans-Australian Railway was opened between Port Augusta, South Australia and Kalgoorlie, Western Australia. This line, built by the federal government as a federation commitment, filled the last gap in the lines between the mainland state capitals of Brisbane, Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide and Perth. Passengers and freight alike suffered from time-consuming breaks of gauge: a Perth–Brisbane journey at that time involved two standard gauge 1435 mm (4 ft 81⁄2 in) lines, a broad gauge 1600 mm (5 ft 3 in) line, and three of 1067 mm (3 ft 6 in) gauge. In the 1940s and 1960s, steps were taken to progressively reduce the huge inefficiencies caused by the numerous historically imposed breaks of gauge by linking the mainland capital cities with lines all of standard gauge. In 1970, the route across the continent was completed to standard gauge and a new, all-through passenger train, the Indian Pacific was inaugurated. An east–west transcontinental line across northern Australia from the Pilbara to the east coast – more than 1000 km (600 mi) north of the Sydney-Perth rail corridor – was proposed in 2006 by Project Iron Boomerang to connect iron ore mining in the Pilbara and coal mining in the Bowen Basin in Queensland, with steel manufacturing plants at both ends. === North–south === Australia's north–south transcontinental rail corridor was built in stages during the 20th century, leaving a 1420-kilometre (880-mile) gap to be finished after the 828 kilometres (514 miles) Tarcoola to Alice Springs section was completed in 1980. That final section, from Alice Springs to Darwin, was opened in 2004. The total length of the corridor, from Adelaide to Darwin, is 2975 kilometres (1849 miles). Completion of the corridor ended 126 years of freight and passengers alike having to be transferred between trains on tracks of different gauges: the corridor is now entirely 1435 mm (4 ft 81⁄2 in) standard gauge. The corridor is an important route for freight. An upmarket experiential tourism passenger train, The Ghan, operated by Journey Beyond, makes the journey once a week in each direction from Adelaide to Darwin, and the company's east–west Indian Pacific runs on the southernmost 727 kilometres (452 miles) before heading west to Perth. There is no intermediate passenger traffic on the line. In 2018, the Australian Rail Track Corporation started building a 1700-kilometre (1000-mile) standard gauge fast-freight railway from Melbourne to Brisbane, known as the Inland Railway. As of June 2022, completion was anticipated in 2027. == Africa == === East-west === There are several ways to cross Africa transcontinentally via connecting east–west railways. One is the Benguela railway, completed in 1929. It starts in Lobito, Angola, and connects through Katanga to the Zambia railways system. From Zambia several ports are accessible on the Indian Ocean: Dar es Salaam in Tanzania through the TAZARA, and, through Zimbabwe, Beira and Maputo in Mozambique. The Angolan Civil War has made the Benguela line largely inoperative, but efforts are being taken to restore it. Another west–east corridor leads from the Atlantic harbours in Namibia, either Walvis Bay or Luderitz to the South African rail system that, in turn, links to ports on the Indian Ocean ( i.e. Durban, Maputo). A 1015 km gap in the east–west line between Kinshasa and Ilebo filled by riverboats could be plugged with a new railway. There are two proposals for a line from the Red Sea to the Gulf of Guinea, including TransAfricaRail. In 2010 a proposal sought to link Dakar to Port Sudan. Thirteen countries would be on the main route; another six would be served by branches. === North-south === A north-south transcontinental railway had been proposed by Cecil Rhodes, who termed it the Cape-Cairo railway. This system would act as a direct route from the northernmost British possession in Africa, Egypt, to the southernmost one, the Cape Colony. The project was never completed. During its development, a competing French colonial project for a competing line from Algiers or Dakar to Abidjan was abandoned after the Fashoda incident. This line would have had four gauge islands in three gauges. An extension of Namibian Railways is being built in 2006 with the possible connection to Angolan Railways. Libya has proposed a Trans-Saharan Railway connecting possibly to Nigeria which would connect with the proposed AfricaRail network. === African Union of Railways === The African Union of Railways has plans to connect the various railways of Africa including the Dakar-Port Sudan Railway. == See also == Cosmopolitan Railway Transmountain railroad Intercontinental and transoceanic fixed links == References == == Further reading == Glenn Williamson, Iron Muse: Photographing the Transcontinental Railroad. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2013. == External links == The Old Transandino Trans-Asian Railway Project Uniting the States of America" Continents,Zealandia,"Zealandia (pronounced ), also known as Te Riu-a-Māui (Māori) or Tasmantis, is an almost entirely submerged mass of continental crust that subsided after breaking away from Gondwanaland 83–79 million years ago. It has been described variously as a submerged continent, continental fragment, and microcontinent. The name and concept for Zealandia was proposed by Bruce Luyendyk in 1995, and satellite imagery shows it to be almost the size of Australia. A 2021 study suggests Zealandia is 1 billion years old, about twice as old as geologists previously thought.By approximately 23 million years ago, the landmass may have been completely submerged. Today, most of the landmass (94%) remains submerged beneath the Pacific Ocean. New Zealand is the largest part of Zealandia that is above sea level, followed by New Caledonia. With a total area of approximately 4,900,000 km2 (1,900,000 sq mi), Zealandia is substantially larger than any features termed microcontinents and continental fragments. If classified as a microcontinent, Zealandia would be the world's largest microcontinent. Its area is six times the area of Madagascar, the next-largest microcontinent in the world, and more than half the area of the Australian continent. Zealandia is more than twice the size of the largest intraoceanic large igneous province (LIP) in the world, the Ontong Java Plateau (approximately 1,900,000 km2 or 730,000 sq mi), and the world's largest island, Greenland (2,166,086 km2 or 836,330 sq mi). Zealandia is also substantially larger than the Arabian Peninsula (3,237,500 km2 or 1,250,000 sq mi), the world's largest peninsula, and the Indian subcontinent (4,300,000 km2 or 1,700,000 sq mi). Due to these and other geological considerations, such as crustal thickness and density, some geologists from New Zealand, New Caledonia, and Australia have concluded that Zealandia fulfills all the requirements to be considered a continent rather than a microcontinent or continental fragment. Geologist Nick Mortimer (in German) commented that if it were not for the ocean level, it would have been recognized as such long ago.Zealandia supports substantial inshore fisheries and contains gas fields, of which the largest known is the New Zealand Maui gas field, near Taranaki. Permits for oil exploration in the Great South Basin were issued in 2007. Offshore mineral resources include ironsands, volcanic massive sulfides and ferromanganese nodule deposits. == Etymology == GNS Science recognises two names for the landmass. In English, the most common name is Zealandia, a latinate name for New Zealand; the name was coined in the mid-1990s and became established through common use. In the Māori language, the landmass is named Te Riu-a-Māui, meaning 'the hills, valleys, and plains of Māui'. == Geology == The Zealandia continent is largely made up of two nearly parallel ridges, separated by a failed rift, where the rift breakup of the continent stops and becomes a filled graben. The ridges rise above the sea floor to heights of 1,000–1,500 m (3,300–4,900 ft), with a few rocky islands rising above sea level. The ridges are continental rock, but are lower in elevation than normal continents because their crust is thinner than usual, approximately 20 km (12 mi) thick, and consequently, they do not float so high above Earth's mantle as that of most landmasses. About 25 million years ago, the southern part of Zealandia (on the Pacific Plate) began to shift relative to the northern part (on the Indo-Australian Plate). The resulting displacement by approximately 500 km (310 mi) along the Alpine Fault is evident in geological maps. Movement along this plate boundary also has offset the New Caledonia Basin from its previous continuation through the Bounty Trough. Compression across the boundary has uplifted the Southern Alps, although due to rapid erosion their height reflects only a small fraction of the uplift. Farther north, subduction of the Pacific Plate has led to extensive volcanism, including the Coromandel and Taupo Volcanic Zones. Associated rifting and subsidence has produced the Hauraki Rift and more recently, the Whakatane Graben and Wanganui Basin. === Volcanism === Volcanism on Zealandia has taken place repeatedly in various parts of the continental fragment before, during, and after it rifted away from the supercontinent Gondwana. Although Zealandia has shifted approximately 6,000 km (3,700 mi) to the northwest with respect to the underlying mantle from the time when it rifted from Antarctica, recurring intracontinental volcanism exhibits magma composition similar to that of volcanoes in previously adjacent parts of Antarctica and Australia. Large volume magmatism occurred in two periods, being in the Devonian (370 to 368 million years ago) and the Early Cretaceous (129 to 105 million years ago).This volcanism is widespread across Zealandia, but on present land generally it is of low volume apart from the huge mid to late Miocene shield volcanoes that developed the Banks and Otago Peninsulas. In addition, it took place continually in numerous limited regions all through the Late Cretaceous and the Cenozoic. Some of its causes remain in dispute perhaps because of data gaps. During the Miocene, the northern section of Zealandia (Lord Howe Rise) might have slid over a stationary hotspot, forming the Lord Howe Seamount Chain.It has been suggested that Zealandia may have played an important part in the origin of the Pacific Ocean's volcanic Ring of Fire. === Geological Subdivisions === Occasionally, Zealandia is divided into two regions by scientists, North Zealandia (or Western Province) and South Zealandia (or Eastern Province), the latter of which contains most of the Median Batholith crust. These two features are separated by the Alpine Fault and Kermadec Trench and by the wedge-shaped Hikurangi Plateau, and they are moving separately to each other. === Classification as a continent === The case for Zealandia being a continent in its own right was argued by Nick Mortimer and Hamish Campbell in their 2014 book, entitled Zealandia: Our continent revealed, citing geological and ecological evidence to support the proposal.In 2017, a team of eleven geologists from New Zealand, New Caledonia, and Australia concluded that Zealandia fulfills all the requirements to be considered a submerged continent, rather than a microcontinent or continental fragment. This verdict was widely covered by news media. === Oldest parent rocks === The younger Zealandia rocks have evidence of origins from early Gondwana formations of 500 to 700 million years ago, Rodinia formations about a billion years ago and sources from an expanded-Ur continent between 3.5 and 2 billion years ago. === Tectonics === The breakup of Gondwana formed Northern Zealandia. Zealandia underwent extension resulting from east to northeast-directed rollback of west to southwest-dipping subduction of the Pacific Plate. which terminated between 95 million to 85 million years ago. After 85 million years ago Zealandia separated from Australia through seafloor spreading of the Coral and Tasman seas until this ceased 52 million years ago. Shortening on an active convergent northern margin of Zealandia occurred mainly between 45 and 35 million years ago. This was followed by the opening of the backarc basins of the southwest Pacific and the migration of the Tonga and Kermadec Trenchs to the east. Shear extrusion followed between 23.3 million to 5 million years ago with the New Zealand Alpine Fault rupture and a southwestward extension of the Campbell Plateau relative to the Challenger Plateau. Southeast Indian Ocean Ridge expansion movement completely separated Zealandia from the Antarctic at about 10 million years ago. In the last 5 million years Zealandia has been generally subsiding owing to the Pacific Plate subducting westward and retreating eastward. == Biogeography == New Caledonia is at the northern end of the ancient continent, while New Zealand rises at the plate boundary that bisects it. These land masses constitute two outposts of the Antarctic flora, featuring araucarias and podocarps. At Curio Bay, logs of a fossilized forest closely related to modern Kauri and Norfolk pine can be seen that grew on Zealandia approximately 180 million years ago during the Jurassic period, before it split from Gondwana. The trees growing in these forests were buried by volcanic mud flows and gradually replaced by silica to produce the fossils now exposed by the sea. As sea levels drop during glacial periods, more of Zealandia becomes a terrestrial environment rather than a marine environment. Originally, it was thought that Zealandia had no native land mammal fauna, but the discovery in 2006 of a fossil mammal jaw from the Miocene in the Otago region demonstrates otherwise. == Political divisions == The total land area (including inland water bodies) of Zealandia is 286,660.25 km2 (110,680.14 sq mi). Of this, New Zealand comprises the overwhelming majority, at 267,988 km2 (103,471 sq mi, or 93.49%) that includes the mainland (North Island and South Island), nearby islands, and most outlying islands, including the Chatham Islands, the New Zealand Subantarctic Islands, the Solander Islands, and the Three Kings Islands (but not the Kermadec Islands or Macquarie Island (Australia), which are part of the rift).New Caledonia and the islands surrounding it comprise some 18,576 km2 (7,172 sq mi or 6.48%) and the remainder is made up of various territories of Australia including the Lord Howe Island Group (New South Wales) at 56 km2 (22 sq mi or 0.02%), Norfolk Island at 35 km2 (14 sq mi or 0.01%), as well as the Cato, Elizabeth, and Middleton reefs (Coral Sea Islands Territory) with 5.25 km2 (2.03 sq mi). == Population == As of 2022, the total human population of Zealandia is approximately 5.4 million people. The largest city is Auckland with about 1.7 million people; roughly one-third of the total population of the continent. New Zealand – 5,112,300 New Caledonia (France) – 268,767 Norfolk Island (Australia) – 1,748 Lord Howe Island (Australia) – 382 Cato Reef (Australia) – 0 Elizabeth Reef (Australia) – 0 Middleton Reef (Australia) – 0 == See also == Australia (continent) Exclusive economic zone of New Zealand New Zealand Subantarctic Islands == References == == External links == ""Zealandia: Earth's Hidden Continent"". GSA Today. ""E Tūhura - Explore Zealandia A portal for geoscience webmaps and information on the Te Riu-a-Māui / Zealandia region"". GNS NZ. ""Zealandia: the New Zealand (drowned) Continent"". Te Ara. Zealandia (National Geographic Encyclopedia) Is Zealandia a continent? The missing continent that took 375 years to find, By Zaria Gorvett, 7th February 2021, BBC website. Earth Has a Hidden 8th Continent, By Tia Ghose published February 17, 2017, livescience website." Continents,Category:Categories by continent, Continents,Category:Outlines of continents,"Each entry below is an outline, an introduction to a subject structured as a hierarchical list of the essential points. Each of these outlines focuses on a continent. Along with Portal:Contents/Outlines, the outlines on Wikipedia form an all-encompassing outline of the knowledge of humankind. Pages included here should also be included in Category:Wikipedia outlines." Continents,Category:Lists by continent, Continents,Category:Lists of continents, Continents,Category:Continental fragments,"Continental fragments are pieces of continental crust that are not considered significantly large enough to be considered full continents on their own. Nevertheless, they may contain significant continental granite." Continents,Category:Continental shelves, Continents,Category:Continental unions,"This category includes former, existing or proposed continental unions." Continents,Category:Fictional continents, Continents,Category:Historical continents, Continents,Category:Supercontinents, Continents,Category:Theoretical continents, Continents,Category:Zealandia, Continents,Category:Africa, Continents,Category:Antarctica, Continents,Category:Asia, Continents,Category:Australia (continent),"Australia is a continent that includes Australia proper, Tasmania, New Guinea and Timor." Continents,Category:Europe, Continents,Category:North America,"Note: Not to be confused with Northern America, which is the part of North America to the north of Mexico. Also, North America includes Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean, with some countries that are part of Latin America." Continents,Category:Oceania,"Oceania is a name used for varying groups of islands of the Pacific Ocean.1. In its narrow usage it refers to: Polynesia (including New Zealand and the Hawaiian Islands), Melanesia (including New Guinea and the Solomon Islands), Micronesia2. In a wider usage it includes: Australia. 3. It may also include: the Malay archipelago. 4. In uncommon usage includes islands such as: Japan and the Aleutian Islands. Continent: The islands of Oceania and the continent of Australia form a geographic region which is sometimes, for the purposes of dividing the whole world into areas, called a 'continent'. As such, it is the smallest ""continent"" in area and the second smallest, after Antarctica, in population." Continents,Category:Personifications of continents, Continents,Category:South America,Note: South America does not fully include Latin America and is not fully part of it. Continents,Category:Wikipedia categories named after continents, Countries,Portal:Countries, Countries,Country,"A country is a distinct part of the world, such as a state, nation, or other political entity. It may be a sovereign state or make up one part of a larger state. For example, the country of Japan is an independent, sovereign state, while the country of Wales is a component of a multi-part sovereign state, the United Kingdom. A country may be a historically sovereign area (such as Korea), a currently sovereign territory with a unified government (such as Senegal), or a non-sovereign geographic region associated with certain distinct political, ethnic, or cultural characteristics (such as the Basque Country). The definition and usage of the word ""country"" is flexible and has changed over time. The Economist wrote in 2010 that ""any attempt to find a clear definition of a country soon runs into a thicket of exceptions and anomalies."" Most sovereign states, but not all countries, are members of the United Nations. The largest country by area is Russia, while the smallest is the microstate Vatican City. The most populous is India, while Vatican City is also the least populous. == Etymology == The word country comes from Old French contrée, which derives from Vulgar Latin (terra) contrata (""(land) lying opposite""; ""(land) spread before""), derived from contra (""against, opposite""). It most likely entered the English language after the Franco-Norman invasion during the 11th century. == Definition of a country == === In English === In English the word has increasingly become associated with political divisions, so that one sense, associated with the indefinite article – ""a country"" – is now frequently applied as a synonym for a state or a former sovereign state. It may also be used as a synonym for ""nation"". Taking as examples Canada, Sri Lanka, and Yugoslavia, cultural anthropologist Clifford Geertz wrote in 1997 that ""it is clear that the relationships between 'country' and 'nation' are so different from one [place] to the next as to be impossible to fold into a dichotomous opposition as they are into a promiscuous fusion.""Areas much smaller than a political state may be referred to as countries, such as the West Country in England, ""big sky country"" (used in various contexts of the American West), ""coal country"" (used to describe coal-mining regions in several sovereign states) and many other terms. The word ""country"" is also used for the sense of native sovereign territory, such as the widespread use of Indian country in the United States. The term ""country"" in English may also be wielded to describe rural areas, or used in the form ""countryside."" Raymond Williams, a Welsh scholar, wrote in 1975: 'Country' and 'city' are very powerful words, and this is not surprising when we remember how much they seem to stand for in the experience of human communities. In English, 'country' is both a nation and a part of a 'land'; 'the country' can be the whole society or its rural area. In the long history of human settlements, this connection between the land from which directly or indirectly we all get our living and the achievements of human society has been deeply known. The unclear definition of ""country"" in modern English was further commented upon by philosopher Simon Keller: Often, a country is presumed to be identical with a collection of citizens. Sometimes, people say that a country is a project, or an idea, or an ideal. Occasionally, philosophers entertain more metaphysically ambitious pictures, suggesting that a country is an organic entity with its own independent life and character, or that a country is an autonomous agent, just like you or me. Such claims are rarely explained or defended, however, and it is not clear how they should be assessed. We attribute so many different kinds of properties to countries, speaking as though a country can feature wheat fields waving or be girt by sea, can have a founding date and be democratic and free, can be English speaking, culturally diverse, war torn or Islamic.Melissa Lucashenko, an Aboriginal Australian writer, expressed the difficulty of defining ""country"" in a 2005 essay, ""Unsettlement"":...What is this thing country? What does country mean? ... I spoke with others who said country meant Home, but who added the caveat that Home resided in people rather than places – a kind of portable Country... I tried to tease out some ways in which non-Indigenous people have understood country. I made categories: Country as Economy. Country as Geography. Country as Society. Country as Myth. Country as History. For all that I walked, slept, breathed and dreamed Country, the language still would not come. === In other languages === The equivalent terms in various Romance languages (e.g. the French pays) have not carried the process of being identified with sovereign political states as far as the English country. These terms are derived from the Roman term pagus, which continued to be used in the Middle Ages for small geographical areas similar to the size of English counties. In many European countries, the words are used for sub-divisions of the national territory, as in the German Bundesländer, as well as a less formal term for a sovereign state. France has very many ""pays"" that are officially recognized at some level and are either natural regions, like the Pays de Bray, or reflect old political or economic entities, like the Pays de la Loire.A version of ""country"" can be found in modern French as contrée, derived from the Old French word cuntrée, that is used similarly to the word pays to define non-state regions, but can also be used to describe a political state in some particular cases. The modern Italian contrada is a word with its meaning varying locally, but usually meaning a ward or similar small division of a town, or a village or hamlet in the countryside. == Identification == Symbols of a country may incorporate cultural, religious or political symbols of any nation that the country includes. Many categories of symbols can be seen in flags, coats of arms, or seals. === Name === Most countries have a long name and a short name. The long name is typically used in formal contexts and often describes the country's form of government. The short name is the country's common name by which it is typically identified. The names of most countries are derived from a feature of the land, the name of a historical tribe or person, or a directional description. The International Organization for Standardization maintains a list of country codes as part of ISO 3166 to designate each country with a two-letter country code. The name of a country can hold cultural and diplomatic significance. Upper Volta changed its name to Burkina Faso to reflect the end of French colonization, and the name of North Macedonia was disputed for years due to a conflict with the similarly named Macedonia region in Greece. === Flags === Originally, flags representing a country would generally be the personal flag of its rulers; however, over time, the practice of using personal banners as flags of places was abandoned in favor of flags that had some significance to the nation, often its patron saint. Early examples of these were the maritime republics such as Genoa which could be said to have a national flag as early as the 12th century. However, these were still mostly used in the context of marine identification.Although some flags date back earlier, widespread use of flags outside of military or naval context begins only with the rise of the idea of the nation state at the end of the 18th century and particularly are a product of the Age of Revolution. Revolutions such as those in France and America called for people to begin thinking of themselves as citizens as opposed to subjects under a king, and thus necessitated flags that represented the collective citizenry, not just the power and right of a ruling family. With nationalism becoming common across Europe in the 19th century, national flags came to represent most of the states of Europe. Flags also began fostering a sense of unity between different peoples, such as the Union Jack representing a union between England and Scotland, or began to represent unity between nations in a perceived shared struggle, for example, the Pan-Slavic colors or later Pan-Arab colors.As Europeans colonized significant portions of the world, they exported ideas of nationhood and national symbols, including flags, with the adoption of a flag becoming seen as integral to the nation-building process. Political change, social reform, and revolutions combined with a growing sense of nationhood among ordinary people in the 19th and 20th centuries led to the birth of new nations and flags around the globe. With so many flags being created, interest in these designs began to develop and the study of flags, vexillology, at both professional and amateur levels, emerged. After World War II, Western vexillology went through a phase of rapid development, with many research facilities and publications being established. === National anthems === A national anthem is a patriotic musical composition symbolizing and evoking eulogies of the history and traditions of a country or nation. Though the custom of an officially adopted national anthem became popular only in the 19th century, some national anthems predate this period, often existing as patriotic songs long before designation as national anthem. Several countries remain without an official national anthem. In these cases, there are established de facto anthems played at sporting events or diplomatic receptions. These include the United Kingdom (""God Save the King"") and Sweden (Du gamla, Du fria). Some sovereign states that are made up of multiple countries or constituencies have associated musical compositions for each of them (such as with the United Kingdom, Russia, and the former Soviet Union). These are sometimes referred to as national anthems even though they are not sovereign states (for example, ""Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau"" is used for Wales, part of the United Kingdom). === Other symbols === Coats of arms or national emblems Seals or stamps National mottos National colors == Sovereignty and recognition == When referring to a specific polity, the term ""country"" may refer to a sovereign state, a constituent country, or a dependent territory. A sovereign state is a political entity that has supreme legitimate authority over a part of the world. There is no universal agreement on the number of ""countries"" in the world since several states have disputed sovereignty status, and a number of non-sovereign entities are commonly called countries. By one application of the declarative theory of statehood and constitutive theory of statehood, there are 206 sovereign states; of which 193 are members of the UN, two have observer status at the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) (the Holy See and Palestine), and 11 others are neither a member nor observer at the UNGA.Some countries, such as Taiwan and the Sahrawi Republic, have disputed sovereignty status. Some sovereign states are unions of separate polities, each of which may also be considered a country in its own right, called constituent countries. The Danish Realm consists of Denmark proper, the Faroe Islands, and Greenland. The Kingdom of the Netherlands consists of the Netherlands proper, Aruba, Curaçao, and Sint Maarten. The United Kingdom consists of England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. Dependent territories are the territories of a sovereign state that are outside of its proper territory. These include the overseas territories of New Zealand, the dependencies of Norway, the British Overseas Territories and Crown Dependencies, the territories of the United States, the external territories of Australia, the special administrative regions of China, the autonomous regions of the Danish Realm, Åland, Overseas France, and the Caribbean Netherlands. Most dependent territories have ISO country codes. In total there are 249 ISO country codes, including all 193 UN members and a number of other countries. Some dependent territories are treated as a separate ""country of origin"" in international trade, such as Hong Kong, Greenland, and Macau. == Patriotism == A positive emotional connection to a country a person belongs to is called patriotism. Patriotism is a sense of love for, devotion to, and sense of attachment to one's country. This attachment can be a combination of many different feelings, and language relating to one's homeland, including ethnic, cultural, political, or historical aspects. It encompasses a set of concepts closely related to nationalism, mostly civic nationalism and sometimes cultural nationalism. == Economy == Several organizations seek to identify trends to produce economy country classifications. Countries are often distinguished as developing countries or developed countries.The United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs annually produces the World Economic Situation and Prospects Report classifies states as developed countries, economies in transition, or developing countries. The report classifies country development based on per capita gross national income (GNI). The UN identifies subgroups within broad categories based on geographical location or ad hoc criteria. The UN outlines the geographical regions for developing economies like Africa, East Asia, South Asia, Western Asia, Latin America, and the Caribbean. The 2019 report recognizes only developed countries in North America, Europe, Asia, and the Pacific. The majority of economies in transition and developing countries are found in Africa, Asia, Latin America, and the Caribbean.The World Bank also classifies countries based on GNI per capita. The World Bank Atlas method classifies countries as low-income economies, lower-middle-income economies, upper-middle-income economies, or high-income economies. For the 2020 fiscal year, the World Bank defines low-income economies as countries with a GNI per capita of $1,025 or less in 2018; lower-middle-income economies as countries with a GNI per capita between $1,026 and $3,995; upper-middle-income economies as countries with a GNI per capita between $3,996 and $12,375; high-income economies as countries with a GNI per capita of $12,376 or more.It also identifies regional trends. The World Bank defines its regions as East Asia and Pacific, Europe and Central Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean, Middle East and North Africa, North America, South Asia, and Sub-Saharan Africa. Lastly, the World Bank distinguishes countries based on its operational policies. The three categories include International Development Association (IDA) countries, International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) countries, and Blend countries. == See also == City network Country (identity) Lists of countries and territories List of former sovereign states List of sovereign states and dependent territories by continent List of states with limited recognition List of transcontinental countries Micronation Princely state Quasi-state == Notes == == References == === Works cited === == Further reading == Defining what makes a country The Economist == External links == The CIA World Factbook Country Studies from the United States Library of Congress Foreign Information by Country and Country & Territory Guides from GovPubs at UCB Libraries United Nations statistics division" Countries,List of country groupings,"Groups of countries or regions are often referred to by a single term (word, phrase, or abbreviation). The origins of such terms include political alliances, intergovernmental organizations, business market areas, and mere colloquialism. == A == AMEA: Asia, Middle East and Africa America (AMER or AMERS): Usage varies; it may refer to just the United States of America, or just North America, or all of North and South America combined, or some other combination. AMS: Andorra, Monaco, San Marino Andean Community (Spanish: Comunidad Andina or CAN): Free trade area consisting of Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. ANZ: Australia and New Zealand ANZIT: Australia-New Zealand-Italy Trilateral relations ANZUK: trilateral relations between Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom. APAC: Asia-Pacific Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) is a forum for 21st Pacific Rim member economies that promotes free trade throughout the Asia-Pacific region APJ: Asia Pacific and Japan APMA: Asia Pacific, Middle East and Africa APSG: Asia Pacific and Singapore African Union (AU) is a continental union consisting of all fifty-five countries on the African continent; See also the African Economic Community (AEC) Arab League: a regional organization of Arab countries Arab Maghreb Union: a regional organisation comprising five Arab and North African states Arraiolos Group is an informal meeting of presidents of parliamentary and semi-presidential European Union member states. ASEAN: the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, a regional organisation comprising ten Southeast Asian states ASEAN+3: the ASEAN countries, plus China, Japan, and the Republic of Korea (South Korea). ASEAN+5: the ASEAN countries with Japan, India, Australia, South Korea and New Zealand. ASEAN+6 along with China. Four Asian Tigers: also called ""Four Asian Dragons"" or ""Four Little Dragons"", are the economies of Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea and Taiwan. Assembly of European Regions Association of Caribbean States AUKUS: Australia, the United Kingdom and the United States == B == Balkan states: Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Serbia, and Turkey; Romania, Slovenia and Croatia are sometimes included. Baltics, three sovereign states in Northern Europe on the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea: Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. BASIC countries, four large newly industrialized countries, Brazil, South Africa, India, China, to act jointly on climate change and emissions reduction Benelux Union is a politico-economic union of three neighbouring states in western Europe: Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg. Big Four (Western Europe) refers to France, Germany, Italy and the United Kingdom. These countries are considered major European powers and they are the Western European countries individually represented as full members of the G7, the G8, the G-10 and the G20. This also has an impact on the Eurovision Song Contest, when these countries added to Spain, are turned the BIG 5. BIMSTEC, a group of countries in South Asia and South East Asia around the Bay of Bengal to promote technological and economic co-operation, which includes Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Thailand. BRIC: Brazil, Russia, India, and China, which are all deemed to be at a similar stage of newly advanced economic development BRICS: Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa BSEC, the Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation, is a regional organization focusing on multilateral political and economic initiatives aimed at fostering cooperation in the Black Sea region. Bucharest Nine: a group of nine Eastern-European NATO states including Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania and Slovakia == C == CALA: Central America and Latin America, or the Caribbean and Latin America CAME: Central Asia and the Middle East CANZUK, the current personal union and proposed international organization composed of Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. CARICOM, Caribbean Community, an organization of fifteen Caribbean nations and dependencies CARIFTA: Caribbean Free Trade Association CEFTA, the Central European Free Trade Agreement, current members: Montenegro, Serbia, Albania, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Moldova and North Macedonia Celtic Nations: Linguistic and cultural grouping consisting of countries and regions where the Celtic Languages are spoken- Brittany, Cornwall, Ireland (including the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland), the Isle of Man, Scotland, and Wales. CEN-SAD: The Community of Sahel–Saharan States Central American Integration System CIVETS, six emerging markets countries, Colombia, Indonesia, Vietnam, Egypt, Turkey, and South Africa, a diverse and dynamic economy and a young, growing population CLMV, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar and Vietnam in south east Asia, members of ASEAN Comecon, formally the Council of Mutual Economic Assistance, consisted of socialist economies within the Communist world: the Soviet Union, Bulgaria, Cuba, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Mongolia, Poland, Romania, and Vietnam. The organization existed from 1949 to 1991 during the Cold War. COMESA, the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa. Community for Democracy and Rights of Nations, a group of disputed states forging closer political ties. Members include Abkhazia, Artsakh, South Ossetia, and Transnistria. Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), political alliance between the former Soviet Republics of Russia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Moldova, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan. Commonwealth of Nations, fifty-six member states that are mostly former territories of the British Empire. Community of Portuguese Language Countries Collective Security Treaty Organization, a military alliance between Russia, Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and observer members Serbia and Afghanistan. Council of Europe, political alliance of 47 European countries. CEE: Central and Eastern Europe CUSA: Canada and the United States Craiova Group: cooperation project of four European states – Romania, Bulgaria, Greece and Serbia – for the purposes of furthering their European integration as well as economic, transport and energy cooperation with one another. == D == Development Assistance Committee (DAC), to discuss issues surrounding aid, development and poverty reduction in developing countries, the world's major donor countries, Australia, European Union, Iceland, New Zealand, South Korea, Austria, Finland, Ireland, Norway, Spain, Belgium, France, Italy, Poland, Sweden, Canada, Germany, Japan, Portugal, Switzerland, Czech Republic, Greece, Luxembourg, Slovakia, United Kingdom, Denmark, Hungary, Netherlands, Slovenia, and United States. DACH: Majority German-speaking states of Central Europe (excludes the Principality of Liechtenstein). Utilises the German name of Germany and the Latin names of Austria and Switzerland. Germany (Deutschland), Austria (Austria) and Switzerland (Confoederatio Helvetica), with Dach meaning ""roof"" in German. The term is sometimes extended to D-A-CH-Li, DACHL, or DACH+ to include Liechtenstein. Another version is DACHS (with Dachs meaning ""badger"" in German) with the inclusion of the German-speaking region of South Tyrol in Italy. == E == EAGLEs East African Community (EAC) is an intergovernmental organisation composed of six countries in the African Great Lakes region in eastern Africa: Burundi, Kenya, Rwanda, South Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda and the DRC. ECCAS: The Economic Community of Central African States. ECGLC: The Economic Community of the Great Lakes Countries, consisting of Burundi, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Rwanda ECOWAS: The Economic Community of West African States, a regional political and economic union of fifteen countries located in West Africa. Eastern Partnership, a group of former soviet republics forging closer economic and political ties with the European Union. Members include Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Moldova, and Ukraine. Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO), Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, Iran, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Pakistan, Tajikistan, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, a political and economic organization, a platform to discuss ways to improve development and promote trade and investment opportunities, the objective is to establish a single market for goods and services. EEA: The European Economic Area, which contains the European Union countries, plus Norway, Iceland and Liechtenstein EAEU: Eurasian Economic Union, an economic union of Belarus, Kazakhstan, Russia, Armenia, Kyrgyzstan and observer members Moldova, Uzbekistan and Cuba. EU, The European Union, a political and economic union of 27 member states that are located primarily in Europe. EU+EEA+CH: The European Union + the European Economic Area + Switzerland, sign visible very often shown on the Schengen Area airports Euronest Parliamentary Assembly: Interparliamentary forum between the EU and Eastern Partnership member states. EFTA: European Free Trade Association EMEA: Europe, the Middle East and Africa EMEAI: Europe, the Middle East, Africa and India ENWA: Europe and Northwest Asia == F == Five Eyes (FVEY), is an anglophone intelligence alliance comprising Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and the United States. Federation of Euro-Asian Stock Exchanges (FEAS): Cooperation of stock-exchanges from Eastern Europe and West Asia. Four Asian Tigers, economies of Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan, underwent rapid industrialization and maintained exceptionally high growth rates, now developed into advanced and high-income economies. FLAME: France-Latin America relationship Francamérique: French Overseas region and collectivities in the Americas FRES: France and Spain (in Spanish as España) FRIT: France and Italy FRITES: France, Italy and Spain (in Spanish as España) FRITESPOR: France, Italy, Spain and Portugal (in Spanish as España) == G == G4 nations: Brazil, Germany, India, and Japan, four countries which support each other's bids for permanent seats on the United Nations Security Council. Global Governance Group (G3), a group of 30 small to medium member countries which collectively provides representation and input to the G20. Group of Two (G2): United States and China (informal) focusing on Sino-American relations. Per being considered two of the most influential and powerful countries in the world EU's G6 - France, Germany, Italy, Poland, Spain, and the United Kingdom - countries with largest populations and thus the majority of votes in the Council of the European Union Group of Seven (G7): Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom, the United States, the seven major advanced economies as reported by the International Monetary Fund. G8: US, UK, France, Germany, Italy, Canada, Russia, and Japan, the eight major advanced economies as reported by the IMF, which became the G7 after expelling Russia following the 2014 invasion of Crimea. G8+5, the G8 nations, plus the five leading emerging economies (Brazil, China, India, Mexico, and South Africa). G20, or Group of Twenty, twenty major economies comprising Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, European Union, France, Germany, India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, South Korea, Mexico, Russia, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, Turkey, United Kingdom, United States, for studying, reviewing, and promoting high-level discussion of policy issues pertaining to the promotion of international financial stability. Group of 77 (G77), a loose coalition of developing nations designed to promote its members' collective economic interests and create an enhanced joint negotiating capacity in the United Nations. GUAM Organization for Democracy and Economic Development: Georgia, Ukraine, Azerbaijan, and Moldova GCC (Gulf Cooperation Council): Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE. A regional intergovernmental political and economic union consisting of all Arab states of the Persian Gulf, except for Iraq. Greater China: Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan GAS: Germany, Austria, and Switzerland (uncommon, DACH is more widely used) == I == IBSA Dialogue Forum: India, Brazil, South Africa, an international tripartite grouping for promoting international cooperation among these countries. IGAD: the Intergovernmental Authority on Development, a trade bloc centered on the Horn of Africa, Nile Valley and African Great Lakes regions. IMEA: India, Middle East and Africa Inner Six - founding member states of the European Communities. International Solar Alliance, the International Solar Alliance (ISA), is an alliance of more than 122 countries initiated by India, and France most of them being sunshine countries, which lie either completely or partly between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. Interparliamentary Assembly on Orthodoxy, an inter-parliamentary institution of 21 national parliaments representing Orthodox Christians. Indian Ocean Commission (IOC), intergovernmental organisation linking several African Indian Ocean nations I2U2 Group also known as West Quad is a grouping of India, Israel, the United Arab Emirates, and the United States who aim to cooperate on ""joint investments and new initiatives in water, energy, transportation, space, health, and food security."" == L == La Francophonie: an international organization representing countries and regions where French is a lingua franca or customary language LAC: Latin America and the Caribbean LAMEA: Latin America, the Middle East and Africa LATAM: Latin America LATCAR: Latin America and Caribbean Levant: Cyprus, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, Syria Lublin Triangle: Poland, Lithuania, Ukraine (Union of Lublin created the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth) Lusofonia: an international organization representing countries and regions where Portuguese is a lingua franca or customary language == M == Mercosur (Southern Common Market), a trade bloc of Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, to promote free trade and the fluid movement of goods, people, and currency. MIKTA, an informal partnership between Mexico, Indonesia, Republic of Korea (South Korea), Turkey, Australia, to support effective global governance. MINT, the economies of Mexico, Indonesia, Nigeria, and Turkey. MART: Middle East, Africa, Russia and Turkey MEA: Middle East and Africa MEASEA : Middle East, Africa and South East Asia MEATI: Middle East, Africa, Turkey & India MEESA: Middle East, Eastern and Southern Africa MEISA: Middle East, Indian Subcontinent and Africa MENA: Middle East and North Africa MENACA: Middle East, North Africa, and Central Asia MEP: Middle East and Pakistan META: Middle East, Turkey and Africa MRU: the Mano River Union, consisting of Cote d'Ivoire, Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone == N == NAC: North America and the Caribbean NAM: Non-Aligned Movement NATO: North Atlantic Treaty Organization; NATO is formal group country to defend itself against outside aggression. NAFTA: North American Free Trade Agreement, was an agreement signed by Canada, Mexico, and the United States, creating a trilateral trade bloc in North America. New Hanseatic League: financial grouping of Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Ireland, Latvia, Lithuania, the Netherlands and Sweden Next Eleven (N11): Bangladesh, Egypt, Indonesia, Iran, Mexico, Nigeria, Pakistan, the Philippines, Turkey, South Korea, and Vietnam – identified as having a high potential of becoming, along with the BRICS countries, among the world's largest economies in the 21st century. NACE: North Atlantic and Central Europe NALA: North America and Latin America NORAM or NA or NAMER: North American Region (Canada, United States, and Mexico) Nordics: in addition to the Scandinavian countries Denmark, Norway and Sweden, also Finland and Iceland are included. Nordic-Baltic Eight (NB8): the Nordic and Baltic countries: Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Iceland, Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, and Sweden NWA: Northwest Asia == O == OIC, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, is an international organization founded in 1969, consisting of 57 member states, with a collective population of over 1.8 billion as of 2015 with 54 countries being Muslim-majority countries. OAS, the Organization of American States, is a continental organization of the 35 independent nations within North, Central and South America OECD, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, to stimulate economic progress and world trade, countries committed to democracy and the market economy, most OECD members are high-income economies with a very high Human Development Index (HDI) and are regarded as developed countries. OECS, a group of island nations located in the Eastern Caribbean. OIAS, the Organization of Ibero-American States, an organization of Portuguese and Spanish Speaking Nations of the Americas, Africa, and Europe. Organization of Turkic States: an international organization comprising some of the Turkic countries (Turkey, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, and Kyrgyzstan). OPEC, the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries, an organization of thirteen countries accounting for an estimated 42 percent of global oil production and 73 percent of the world's proven oil reserves. (OPEC+: the OPEC countries plus Russia) == P == P5, permanent members of the United Nations Security Council: China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Pacific Alliance, a trade bloc of states that border the Pacific Ocean. Permanent members include Chile, Colombia, Mexico, and Peru. The Pacific Pumas, a political and economic grouping of countries along Latin America's Pacific coast that includes Chile, Colombia, Mexico and Peru. The term references the four larger Pacific Latin American emerging markets that share common trends of positive growth, stable macroeconomic foundations, improved governance and an openness to global integration. PALOP, the Portuguese-speaking African countries, also known as Lusophone Africa that includes: Angola, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, São Tomé and Príncipe and Equatorial Guinea. Paris Club, a group of major creditor countries whose officials meet ten times a year in the city of Paris, with the intent to find coordinated and sustainable solutions to the payment difficulties experienced by debtor countries. PIGS, also PIIGS, the economies of the countries of Portugal, Greece, Spain, Italy and/or Ireland. PROSUR, the Forum for the Progress and Integration of South America. == Q == Quadrilateral Security Dialogue also known as QUAD is a strategic security dialogue between Australia, India, Japan, and the United States that is maintained by talks between member countries. == R == Rio Group, was an international organization of Latin American and some Caribbean states that was succeeded in 2010 by the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States. ROME: Rest of Middle East Russosphere (population that speak Russian): Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, Uzbekistan Rzeczpospolita: Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth: Poland, Lithuania, Belarus, Ukraine == S == SAARC, a geopolitical union of nations in South Asia SADC: the Southern African Development Community SCA: South and Central America Scandinavia: Denmark, Norway and Sweden (in some definitions, Finland is included due to strong historical ties to Sweden, and Iceland is sometimes included due to strong historical ties to Denmark and Norway). Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), a Eurasian political, economic, and security organisation comprising: China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, India and Pakistan. SaarLorLux: Saarland, Lorraine, Luxembourg SEA: South-East Asia Southern Cone (Cono Sur): Argentina, Chile, Paraguay, Uruguay and Southern Brazil. South Asia: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Maldives, Nepal, India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka South Atlantic Peace and Cooperation Zone (ZPCAS or ZOPACAS): group of nations along the Atlantic coasts of Sub-Saharan Africa and South America, formed with a special focus on opposing nuclear proliferation in the region SSA: Sub-Saharan Africa == T == TAKM: Turkey, Azerbaijan, Kyrgyzstan The Stans: Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Pakistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan Tiger Cub Economies: a grouping of five newly industrialized emerging markets and middle powers in Southeast Asia: Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam Trimarium (Three Seas, Trójmorze): running along a north–south axis from the Baltic Sea to the Adriatic and Black Seas in Central and Eastern Europe- Austria, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia == U == United Nations (UN), an intergovernmental organization to promote international co-operation, 193 member states. United States of Poland: Poland, Lithuania, Belarus, Ukraine Union State, a Supranational union made up of Russia and Belarus. UNASUR: Union of South American Nations. == V == V4, Visegrád Group, an alliance of four Central European States: the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, and Slovakia. VISTA (Vietnam, Indonesia, South Africa, Turkey, and Argentina) is an emerging markets grouping proposed in 2006 by BRICs Economic Research Institute of Japan. == W == Warsaw Pact (former): Soviet Union, Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania Weimar Triangle: France, Germany, Poland == See also == List of military alliances List of multilateral free-trade agreements United Nations geoscheme == References ==" Countries,Himalayan states,"The term Himalayan states is used to group countries that straddle the Himalayas. It primarily denotes Bhutan, China, India, Nepal, and Pakistan; some definitions also include Afghanistan and Myanmar. Two countries—Bhutan and Nepal—are located almost entirely within the mountain range, which also covers southern Tibet, the Indian Himalayan Region, and northern Pakistan.The inhabitants of this region are mostly speakers of the Indo-Aryan languages and the Tibeto-Burman languages.Some of the world's major transboundary rivers originate in the territory of the Himalayan states, including the Brahmaputra, the Ganges, the Indus, and the Irrawaddy. == See also == Alpine states Andean states Baltic states == References == == External links == Top ten longest mountain ranges (land-based)" Countries,List of modern great powers,"A great power is a nation or state that, through its economic, political and military strength, is able to exert power and influence not only over its own region of the world, but beyond to others. In a modern context, recognized great powers first arose in Europe during the post-Napoleonic era. The formalization of the division between small powers and great powers came about with the signing of the Treaty of Chaumont in 1814. The historical terms ""Great Nation"", a distinguished aggregate of people inhabiting a particular country or territory, and ""Great Empire"", a considerable group of states or countries under a single supreme authority, are colloquial; their use is seen in ordinary historical conversations. == Early modern powers == === France === 1534–1792, 1792-1804 and 1804-1815 France was a dominant empire possessing many colonies in various locations around the world. Still participating in his deadly Italian conflicts, Francis I of France managed to finance expeditions to find trade routes to China or Cathay through landmass already discovered by the Spanish under Giovanni da Verrazzano. Giovanni would lead the first French discovery of the ""New World"" just north of the Spanish invasions of Mesoamerica later as New Spain and a decade later Jacques Cartier would firmly colonize the landmass in the name of Francis I. This New World colony would become New France, the first colony of the Kingdom of France. During the reign of Louis XIV, Sun King, from 1643 to 1715, France was the leading European power as Europe's most populous, richest and powerful country. The Empire of the French (1804–1814), also known as the Greater French Empire or First French Empire, but more commonly known as the Napoleonic Empire, was also the dominant power of much of continental Europe and, it ruled over 90 million people and was the sole power in Europe if not the world as Britain was the only main rival during the early 19th century. From the 16th to the 17th centuries, the first French colonial empire stretched from a total area at its peak in 1680 to over 10,000,000 km2 (3,900,000 sq mi), the second largest empire in the world at the time behind only the Spanish Empire. It had many possessions around the world, mainly in the Americas, Asia and Africa. At its peak in 1750, French India had an area of 1.5 million km2 and a totaled population of 100 million people and was the most populous colony under French rule.Napoleon became Emperor of the French (French: L'Empereur des Français) on 18 May 1804 and crowned Emperor 2 December 1804, ending the period of the French Consulate, and won early military victories in the War of the Third Coalition against Austria, Prussia, Russia, Portugal, and allied nations, notably at the Battle of Austerlitz (1805) and the Battle of Friedland (1807). The Treaty of Tilsit in July 1807 ended two years of bloodshed on the European continent. Subsequent years of military victories known collectively as the Napoleonic Wars extended French influence over much of Western Europe and into Poland. At its height in 1812, the French Empire had 130 départements, ruled over 90 million subjects, maintained extensive military presence in Germany, Italy, Spain, and the Duchy of Warsaw, and could count Prussia, Russia and Austria as nominal allies.Early French victories exported many ideological features of the French Revolution throughout Europe. Napoleon gained support by appealing to some common concerns of the people. In France, these included fear by some of a restoration of the ancien régime, a dislike of the Bourbons and the emigrant nobility who had escaped the country, a suspicion of foreign kings who had tried to reverse the Revolution – and a wish by Jacobins to extend France's revolutionary ideals. The feudal system was abolished, aristocratic privileges were eliminated in all places except Poland, and the introduction of the Napoleonic Code throughout the continent increased legal equality, established jury systems, and legalized divorce. Napoleon placed relatives on the thrones of several European countries and granted many titles, most of which expired with the fall of the Empire. Napoleon wished to make an alliance with South India Mysore ruler Tipu Sultan and provide them French-trained army during the Anglo-Mysore Wars, with the continuous aim of having an eventual open way to attack the British in India.Historians have estimated the death toll from the Napoleonic Wars to be 6.5 million people, or 15% of the French Empire's subjects. The War of the Sixth Coalition, a coalition of Austria, Prussia, Russia, the United Kingdom, Sweden, Spain and a number of German States finally defeated France and drove Napoleon Bonaparte into exile on Elba. After Napoleon's disastrous invasion of Russia, the continental powers joined Russia, Britain, Portugal and the rebels in Spain. With their armies reorganized, they drove Napoleon out of Germany in 1813 and invaded France in 1814, forcing Napoleon to abdicate and thus leading to the restoration of Bourbon rule. === Spanish Empire === 1492–1815In the 16th century Spain and Portugal were in the vanguard of European global exploration and colonial expansion and the opening of trade routes across the oceans, with trade flourishing across the Atlantic Ocean between Spain and the Americas and across the Pacific Ocean between Asia-Pacific and Mexico via the Philippines. Conquistadors toppled the Aztec, Inca, and Maya civilizations, and laid claim to vast stretches of land in North and South America. For a long time, the Spanish Empire dominated the oceans with its navy and ruled the European battlefield with its infantry, the famous tercios. Spain enjoyed a cultural golden age in the 16th and 17th centuries as Europe's foremost power. From 1580 to 1640 the Spanish Empire and the Portuguese Empire were conjoined in a personal union of its Habsburg monarchs, during the period of the Iberian Union, though the empires continued to be administered separately. From the middle of the 16th century silver and gold from the American mines increasingly financed the military capability of Habsburg Spain, then the foremost global power, in its long series of European and North African wars. Until the loss of its American colonies in the 19th century, Spain maintained one of the largest empires in the world, even though it suffered fluctuating military and economic fortunes from the 1640s. Confronted by the new experiences, difficulties and suffering created by empire-building, Spanish thinkers formulated some of the first modern thoughts on natural law, sovereignty, international law, war, and economics – they even questioned the legitimacy of imperialism – in related schools of thought referred to collectively as the School of Salamanca. Constant contention with rival powers caused territorial, commercial, and religious conflict that contributed to the slow decline of Spanish power from the mid-17th century. In the Mediterranean, Spain warred constantly with the Ottoman Empire; on the European continent, France became comparably strong. Overseas, Spain was initially rivaled by Portugal, and later by the English and Dutch. In addition, English-, French-, and Dutch-sponsored privateering and piracy, overextension of Spanish military commitments in its territories, increasing government corruption, and economic stagnation caused by military expenditures ultimately contributed to the empire's weakening. Spain's European empire was finally undone by the Peace of Utrecht (1713), which stripped Spain of its remaining territories in Italy and the Low Countries. Spain's fortunes improved thereafter, but it remained a second-rate power in Continental European politics. However, Spain maintained and enlarged its vast overseas empire until the 19th century, when the shock of the Peninsular War sparked declarations of independence in Quito (1809), Venezuela and Paraguay (1811) and successive revolutions that split away its territories on the mainland (the Spanish Main) of the Americas. === Tsardom of Russia and Russian Empire === 1547–1917The Russian Empire formed from what was Tsardom of Russia under Peter the Great. Emperor Peter I (1682–1725) fought numerous wars and expanded an already vast empire into a major European power. He moved the capital from Moscow to the new model city of Saint Petersburg, which was largely built according to Western design. He led a cultural revolution that replaced some of the traditionalist and medieval social and political mores with a modern, scientific, Western-oriented, and rationalist system. Empress Catherine the Great (1762–1796) presided over a golden age; she expanded the state by conquest, colonization, and diplomacy, while continuing Peter I's policy of modernization along Western European lines. Emperor Alexander I (1801–1825) played a major role in defeating Napoleon's ambitions to control Europe, as well as constituting the Holy Alliance of conservative monarchies. Russia further expanded to the west, south and east, becoming one of the most powerful European empires of the time. Its victories in the Russo-Turkish Wars were checked by defeat in the Crimean War (1853–1856), which led to a period of reform and intensified expansion in Central Asia. Following these conquests, Russia's territories spanned across Eurasia, with its western borders ending in eastern Poland, and its eastern borders ending in Alaska. By the end of the 19th century the area of the empire was about 22,400,000 square kilometers (8,600,000 sq mi), or almost 1⁄6 of the Earth's landmass; its only rival in size at the time was the British Empire. The majority of the population lived in European Russia. More than 100 different ethnic groups lived in the Russian Empire, with ethnic Russians composing about 45% of the population. Emperor Alexander II (1855–1881) initiated numerous reforms, most dramatically the emancipation of all 23 million serfs in 1861. === Qing dynasty (China) === 1636–1912The Qing dynasty was the last ruling dynasty of China, established in 1636 and collapsed in 1912 (with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917). It was preceded by the Ming dynasty and followed by the Republic of China. The dynasty was founded by the Manchu clan Aisin Gioro in what is today Northeast China (also known as ""Manchuria""). Starting in 1644, it expanded into China proper and its surrounding territories. Complete pacification of China proper was accomplished around 1683 under the Kangxi Emperor. The multiethnic Qing Empire lasted for almost three centuries and assembled the territorial base for modern China. It was the largest Chinese dynasty and in 1790 the fourth largest empire in world history in terms of territorial size. With a population of 432 million in 1912, it was the world's most populous country at the time. The Qing dynasty also reached its economic peak in 1820, when it became the world's largest economy, and contributing to 30% of world GDP.Originally the Later Jin dynasty, the dynasty changed its official name to ""Great Qing"", meaning ""clear"" or ""pellucid"", in 1636. In 1644, Beijing was sacked by a coalition of rebel forces led by Li Zicheng, a minor Ming official who later proclaimed the Shun dynasty. The last Ming emperor, the Chongzhen Emperor, committed suicide when the city fell, marking the official end of the Ming dynasty. Qing forces then allied with Ming general Wu Sangui and seized control of Beijing and expel Shun forces from the city. The Qing dynasty reached its height in the ages of the Kangxi Emperor, Yongzheng Emperor and the Qianlong Emperor. The Ten Great Campaigns and in addition, the conquest of the western territories of the Mongols, Tibetans, and Muslims under the rule of the Qing were another factor of prosperity. Again, the skillful rule of the era's emperors allowed for this success. Rule through chiefdoms in territories like Taiwan, allowed for the conquered peoples to retain their culture and be ruled by their own people while the Qing Empire still possessed the ultimate control and rule. These such ruling tactics created for little need or reason for rebellion of the conquered. Another aspect of Manchu rule under the Qing Empire was rule within modern day China. The Mongols' attempt to rule may have failed because they attempted to rule from the outside. The High Qing emperors ruled from within, enabling them to obtain and retain stable and efficient control of the state. A new generation of emperors that combined the strengths of their culture in addition to a level of sinicization of the conquered cultures in order to combine assimilation and the retaining of their own cultural identity. This was initiated with the Kangxi Emperor who was in power at the initiation of the High Qing. As an emperor he elevated the status of the Qing Empire through his passion for education in combination with his military expertise, and his restructuring of the bureaucracy into that of a cosmopolitan one. His son and successor, the Yongzheng Emperor ruled differently through more harsh and brutal tactics, but was also an efficient and unprecedented level of commitment to the betterment of the empire. The last successful emperor of the High Qing was the Qianlong Emperor who, following in the footsteps of his father and grandfather, was a well-rounded ruler who created the peak of the High Qing Empire. The unique and unprecedented ruling techniques of these three emperors, and the emphasis on multiculturalism fostered the productivity and success that is the High Qing era. A heavy revival of the arts was another characteristic of the High Qing Empire. Through commercialization, items such as porcelain were mass-produced and used in trade. Also, literature was emphasized as Imperial libraries were erected, and literacy rates of men and women both, rose within the elite class. The significance of education and art in this era is that it created for economic stimulation that would last for a period of over fifty years. After his death, the dynasty faced changes in the world system, foreign instrusion, internal revolts, population growth, economic disruption, official corruption, and the reluctance of Confucian elites to change their mindsets. With peace and prosperity, the population rose to some 400 million, but taxes and government revenues were fixed at a low rate, soon leading to a fiscal crisis. === First British Empire === 1600–1783At the end of the 16th century, England and the Dutch Empire began to challenge the Portuguese Empire's monopoly of trade with Asia, forming private joint-stock companies to finance the voyages—the English, later British, East India Company and the Dutch East India Company, chartered in 1600 and 1602 respectively. The primary aim of these companies was to tap into the lucrative spice trade, an effort focused mainly on two regions: the East Indies archipelago, and an important hub in the trade network, India. There, they competed for trade supremacy with Portugal and with each other. Although England eclipsed the Netherlands as a colonial power, in the short term the Netherlands' more advanced financial system and the three Anglo-Dutch Wars of the 17th century left it with a stronger position in Asia. Hostilities ceased after the Glorious Revolution of 1688 when the Dutch William of Orange invaded and ascended the English throne, bringing peace between the Dutch Republic and England. A deal between the two nations left the spice trade of the East Indies archipelago to the Netherlands and trade with the textiles industry of India to England, but textiles soon overtook spices in terms of profitability. During the 17th and 18th centuries, British colonies were created along the east coast of North America. The southern colonies had a plantation economy, made possible by black-slavery, which produced tobacco and cotton. This cotton was especially important in the development of British textile towns and the rise of the world's first Industrial Revolution in Britain by the end of this period. The northern colonies provided timber, ships, furs, and whale oil for lamps; allowing work to be done at times of the day without natural light. All of these colonies served as important captive markets for British finished goods and trade goods including British textiles, Indian tea, West Indian coffee, and other items.The First British Empire participated in the Seven Years' War officially from 1756, a war described by some historians as the world's first World War. The British had hoped winning the war against its colonial rival France would improve the defensibility of its important American colonies, where tensions from settlers eager to move west of the Appalachian Mountains had been a substantive issue. The new British-Prussian alliance was successful in forcing France to cede Canada to Britain, and Louisiana to Spain, thus ostensibly securing British North America from external threats as intended. The war also allowed Britain to capture the proto-industrialised Bengal from the French-allied Mughal Empire, then Britain's largest competitor (and by far the world's single largest producer) in the textile trade, it was also able to flip Hyderabad from the Mughals to its cause, and capture the bulk of French territorial possessions in India, effectively shutting them out of the sub-continent. Importantly, the war also saw Britain becoming the dominant global naval power.Regardless of its successes in the Seven Years' War, the British government was left close to bankruptcy and in response it raised taxes considerably in order to pay its debts. Britain was also faced with the delicate task of pacifying its new French-Canadian subjects, as well as the many American Indian tribes who had supported France, without provoking a new war with France. In 1763, Pontiac's War broke out as a group of Indian tribes in the Great Lakes region and the Northwest (the modern American Midwest) were unhappy with the loss of congenial and friendly relations with the French and complained about being cheated by the new British monopoly on trade. Moreover, the Indians feared that British rule would lead to white settlers displacing them from their land, whereas it was known that the French had only come as fur traders, and indeed this had been the original source of animosity on the part of British settlers with France and part of the reason the war had started in the first place. Pontiac's War was going very badly for the British and it was only with their victory at the Battle of Bushy Run that a complete collapse of British power in the Great Lakes region was avoided. In response King George III issued the Royal Proclamation of 1763, which forbade white settlement beyond the crest of the Appalachians, with the hope of appeasing the Indians and preventing further insurrection, but this led to considerable outrage in the Thirteen Colonies, whose inhabitants were eager to acquire native lands. The Quebec Act of 1774, similarly intended to win over the loyalty of French Canadians, also spurred resentment among American colonists. As such, dissatisfaction with the Royal Proclamation and ""Taxation Without Representation"" are said to have led to the Thirteen Colonies declaring their independence and starting the American War of Independence (1775–1783).This war was comprehensively supported by Britain's competitors, France and Spain, and Britain lost the war marking the end of the first British Empire. Britain and the new United States of America were able to retain the pre-existing trade arrangements from before independence, minimizing long-term harm to British trading interests. After the war of independence the American trade deficit with Britain was approximately 5:1 causing a shortage of gold for a number of years. However, the British Empire would shift its focus from North America to India, expanding from its new base in Bengal and signalling the beginning of the second phase of the British Empire. === Portugal === 1415–1822The Portuguese Empire was the first global empire in history, and also the earliest and longest-lived of the Western European colonial empires. Portugal's small size and population restricted the empire, in the 16th century, to a collection of small but well defended outposts along the African coasts, the main exceptions being Angola, Mozambique and Brazil. For most of the 16th century, the Portuguese Indian Armadas, then the world leader navy in shipbuilding and naval artillery, dominated most of the Atlantic Ocean south of the Canary Islands, the Indian Ocean and the access to the western Pacific. The height of the empire was reached in the 16th century but the indifference of the Habsburg kings and the competition with new colonial empires like the British, French and Dutch started its long and gradual decline. After the 18th century Portugal concentrated in the colonization of Brazil and African possessions. The Treaty of Tordesillas, between Spain and Portugal, divided the world outside of Europe in an exclusive duopoly along a north–south meridian 370 leagues, or 970 miles (1,560 km), west of the Cape Verde islands. However, as it was not possible at the time to correctly measure longitude, the exact boundary was disputed by the two countries until 1777. The completion of these negotiations with Spain is one of several reasons proposed by historians for why it took nine years for the Portuguese to follow up on Dias's voyage to the Cape of Good Hope, though it has also been speculated that other voyages were in fact secretly taking place during that time. Whether or not this was the case, the long-standing Portuguese goal of finding a sea route to Asia was finally achieved in a ground-breaking voyage commanded by Vasco da Gama. === Dutch Empire === 1581–1795The Dutch Empire controlled various territories after the Dutch achieved independence from Spain in the 16th century. The strength of their shipping industry and the expansion of trading routes between Europe and the Orient bolstered the strength of the overseas colonial empire which lasted from the 16th to the 20th century. The Dutch initially built up colonial possessions on the basis of indirect state capitalist corporate colonialism, as small European trading-companies often lacked the capital or the manpower for large-scale operations. The States General chartered larger organisations—the Dutch West India Company and the Dutch East India Company—in the early seventeenth century to enlarge the scale of trading operations in the West Indies and the Orient respectively. These trading operations eventually became one of the largest and most extensive maritime trading companies at the time, and once held a virtual monopoly on strategic European shipping-routes westward through the Southern Hemisphere around South America through the Strait of Magellan, and eastward around Africa, past the Cape of Good Hope. The companies' domination of global commerce contributed greatly to a commercial revolution and a cultural flowering in the Netherlands of the 17th century, known as the Dutch Golden Age. During the Dutch Golden Age, Dutch trade, science and art were among the most acclaimed in Europe. Dutch military power was at its height in the middle of the 17th century and in that era the Dutch navy was the most powerful navy in the world.By the middle of the 17th century, the Dutch had overtaken Portugal as the dominant player in the spice and silk trade, and in 1652 founded a colony at Cape Town on the coast of South Africa, as a way-station for its ships on the route between Europe and Asia. After the first settlers spread out around the Company station, nomadic white livestock farmers, or Trekboers, moved more widely afield, leaving the richer, but limited, farming lands of the coast for the drier interior tableland. Between 1602 and 1796, many Europeans were sent to work in the Asia trade. The majority died of disease or made their way back to Europe, but some of them made the Indies their new home. Interaction between the Dutch and native population mainly took place in Sri Lanka and the modern Indonesian Islands. In some Dutch colonies there are major ethnic groups of Dutch ancestry descending from emigrated Dutch settlers. In South Africa the Boers and Cape Dutch are collectively known as the Afrikaners. The Burgher people of Sri Lanka and the Indo people of Indonesia as well as the Creoles of Suriname are mixed race people of Dutch descent. In the USA there have been three American presidents of Dutch descent: Martin Van Buren, the first president who was not of British descent, and whose first language was Dutch, the 26th president Theodore Roosevelt, and Franklin D. Roosevelt, the 32nd president, elected to four terms in office (1933 to 1945) and the only U.S. president to have served more than two terms. In their search for new trade passages between Asia and Europe, Dutch navigators explored and charted distant regions such as Australia, New Zealand, Tasmania, and parts of the eastern coast of North America. During the period of proto-industrialization, the empire received 50% of textiles and 80% of silks import from the India's Mughal Empire, chiefly from its most developed region known as Bengal Subah.In the 18th century, the Dutch colonial empire began to decline as a result of the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War of 1780–1784, in which the Dutch Republic lost a number of its colonial possessions and trade monopolies to the British Empire, along with the conquest of the Mughal Bengal at the Battle of Plassey by the East India Company. Nevertheless, major portions of the empire survived until the advent of global decolonisation following World War II, namely the East Indies and Dutch Guiana. Three former colonial territories in the West Indies islands around the Caribbean Sea—Aruba, Curaçao, and Sint Maarten—remain as constituent countries represented within the Kingdom of the Netherlands. === Ottoman Empire (Turkey) === 1453–1908 The Ottoman Empire was a Turkic state, which at the height of its power (16th–17th centuries) spanned three continents (see: extent of Ottoman territories) controlling parts of Southeastern Europe, the Middle East and most of North Africa. The empire has been called by historians a ""Universal Empire"" due to both Roman and Islamic traditions. It was the head of the Gunpowder Empires. The empire was at the center of interactions between the Eastern and Western worlds for six centuries. The Ottoman Empire was the only Islamic power to seriously challenge the rising power of Western Europe between the 15th and 19th centuries. With Istanbul (or Constantinople) as its capital, the Empire was in some respects an Islamic successor of earlier Mediterranean empires—the Roman and Byzantine empires. Ottoman military reform efforts begin with Selim III (1789–1807) who made the first major attempts to modernize the army along European lines. These efforts, however, were hampered by reactionary movements, partly from the religious leadership, but primarily from the Janissary corps, who had become anarchic and ineffectual. Jealous of their privileges and firmly opposed to change, they created a Janissary revolt. Selim's efforts cost him his throne and his life, but were resolved in spectacular and bloody fashion by his successor, the dynamic Mahmud II, who massacred the Janissary corps in 1826. The effective military and bureaucratic structures of the previous century also came under strain during a protracted period of misrule by weak Sultans. But in spite of these difficulties, the Empire remained a major expansionist power until the Battle of Vienna in 1683, which marked the end of Ottoman expansion into Europe. Much of the decline took place in the 19th century under pressure from Russia. Egypt and the Balkans were lost by 1913, and the Empire disintegrated after the First World War, leaving Turkey as the successor state. === Mughal Empire === 1526–1857The Mughal Empire was founded in 1526 by Babur of the Barlas clan after his victories at the First Battle of Panipat and the Battle of Khanwa against the Delhi Sultanate and Rajput Confederation. Over the next centuries under Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan, the mughal empire would grow in area and power and dominate the Indian subcontinent reaching its maximum extent under Emperor Aurangzeb. This imperial structure lasted until 1720, shortly after the Mughal-Maratha Wars and the death Aurangzeb, losing its influence to reveal powers such as the Maratha Empire and the Sikh Confederacy. The empire was formally dissolved by the British Raj after the Indian Rebellion of 1857. Indian subcontinent was producing about 25% of the world's industrial output from 1st millennium CE up to until the 18th century. The exchequer of the Emperor Aurangzeb reported an annual revenue of more than £100 million, or $450 million, making him one of the wealthiest monarchs in the world at the time. The empire had an extensive road network, which was vital to the economic infrastructure, built by a public works department set up by the Mughals, linking towns and cities across the empire, making trade easier to conduct.The Mughals adopted and standardised the rupee (rupiya, or silver) and dam (copper) currencies introduced by Sur Emperor Sher Shah Suri during his brief rule. The currency was initially 48 dams to a single rupee in the beginning of Akbar's reign, before it later became 38 dams to a rupee in the 1580s, with the dam's value rising further in the 17th century as a result of new industrial uses for copper, such as in bronze cannons and brass utensils. The dam's value was later worth 30 to a rupee towards the end of Jahangir's reign, and then 16 to a rupee by the 1660s. The Mughals minted coins with high purity, never dropping below 96%, and without debasement until the 1720s.A Major sector of the Mughal Economy was agriculture A variety of crops were grown, including food crops such as wheat, rice, and barley, and non-food cash crops such as cotton, indigo and opium. By the mid-17th century, Indian cultivators begun to extensively grow imported from the Americas, maize and tobacco. The Mughal administration emphasised agrarian reform, started by Sher Shah Suri, the work of which Akbar adopted and furthered with more reforms. The civil administration was organised in a hierarchical manner on the basis of merit, with promotions based on performance, exemplified by the common use of the seed drill among Indian peasants, and built irrigation systems across the empire, which produced much higher crop yields and increased the net revenue base, leading to increased agricultural production.Manufacturing was also a significant contributor to the Mughal Economy. The Mughal empire produced about 25% of the world's industrial output up until the end of the 18th century. Manufactured goods and cash crops from the Mughal Empire were sold throughout the world. Key industries included textiles, shipbuilding, and steel. Processed products included cotton textiles, yarns, thread, silk, jute products, metalware, and foods such as sugar, oils and butter The Mughal Empire also took advantage of the demand of products from Mughal India in Europe, particularly cotton textiles, as well as goods such as spices, peppers, indigo, silks, and saltpeter (for use in munitions). European fashion, for example, became increasingly dependent on Mughal Indian textiles and silks. From the late 17th century to the early 18th century, Mughal India accounted for 95% of British imports from Asia, and the Bengal Subah province alone accounted for 40% of Dutch imports from Asia.The largest manufacturing industry in the Mughal Empire was textile manufacturing, particularly cotton textile manufacturing, which included the production of piece goods, calicos, and muslins, Indian cotton textiles were the most important manufactured goods in world trade in the 18th century, consumed across the world from the Americas to Japan. By the early 18th century, Mughal Indian textiles were clothing people across the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, Europe, the Americas, Africa, and the Middle East. The most important centre of cotton production was the Bengal province, particularly around its capital city of Dhaka. === Papacy and Papal States === 1420–1648The Papacy was considered one of the great powers of the age by important thinkers such as Machiavelli and Giovanni Botero. The Papal States covered central Italy and were expanded by warrior popes such as Julius II. Italy, although divided in several states, saw a period of great prosperity during the Renaissance. In 1420, Pope Martin V re-established Rome as the sole seat of the Catholic Church and put an end to the Western Schism. Between 1494 and the second half of the 16th century, Italy was the battleground of Europe. Competing monarchs, including Popes, clashed for European supremacy in Italy. In the late 1500s and early 1600s, the Papacy led the Counter-reformation effort. Pontiffs such as Paul III and Pius V, exercised great diplomatic influence in Europe. Popes mediated the Peace of Nice (1538) between the Holy Roman Empire and France, as well as the Peace of Vervins (1598) between France and Spain. In the new world, thousands were converted to Catholicism by missionaries. Many European and Italian states (such as the Republic of Venice and the Republic of Genoa) were brought by the Papacy into ""Holy Leagues"" to defeat the Ottoman Empire: defeats occurred in Rhodes (1522), Preveza (1538), Budapest (1541), Algiers (1541), whereas victories took place at Vienna (1529), Tunis (1535), Lepanto (1571), and Malta (1565). Similarly, the Church supported Catholic leagues in the European wars of religion fought in France, the Low Countries, and Germany. France remained Catholic following the conversion of the French king, whereas half of the Low Countries were lost to Protestantism. It was the 30 years war that ultimately ended the status of the Papacy as a great power. Although the Pope declared Westphalia ""null and void"", European rulers refused to obey Papal orders and even rejected Papal mediation at the negotiations of the treaty. === Toungoo Empire of Burma === 1510–1599The First Toungoo Empire (Burmese: တောင်ငူ ခေတ်, [tàʊɴŋù kʰɪʔ]; also known as the First Toungoo Dynasty, the Second Burmese Empire or simply the Toungoo Empire) was the dominant power in mainland Southeast Asia in the second half of the 16th century. At its peak, Toungoo ""exercised suzerainty from Manipur to the Cambodian marches and from the borders of Arakan to Yunnan"" and was ""probably the largest empire in the history of Southeast Asia"". The Toungoo Dynasty was the ""most adventurous and militarily successful"" in Burmese history, but it was also the ""shortest-lived"".The empire grew out of the principality of Toungoo, a minor vassal state of Ava until 1510. The landlocked petty state began its rise in the 1530s under Tabinshwehti who went on to found the largest polity in Myanmar since the Pagan Empire by 1550. His more celebrated successor Bayinnaung then greatly expanded the empire, conquering much of mainland Southeast Asia by 1565. He spent the next decade keeping the empire intact, putting down rebellions in Siam, Lan Xang and the northernmost Shan states. From 1576 onwards, he declared a large sphere of influence in westerly lands—trans-Manipur states, Arakan and Ceylon. The empire, held together by patron-client relationships, declined soon after his death in 1581. His successor Nanda never gained the full support of the vassal rulers, and presided over the empire's precipitous collapse in the next 18 years. The First Toungoo Empire marked the end of the period of petty kingdoms in mainland Southeast Asia. Although the overextended empire proved ephemeral, the forces that underpinned its rise were not. Its two main successor states—Restored Toungoo Burma and Ayutthaya Siam—went on to dominate western and central mainland Southeast Asia, respectively, down to the mid-18th century. === Iran === ==== Safavid Empire ==== 1501–1736The Safavid Empire was one of the most significant ruling dynasties of Iran. They ruled one of the greatest Iranian Empires after the Muslim conquest of Persia. The Safavids ruled from 1501 to 1736 and at their height, they controlled all of modern Iran, Azerbaijan and Armenia, most of Iraq, Georgia, Afghanistan, and the Caucasus, as well as parts of modern-day Pakistan, Turkmenistan and Turkey. Safavid Iran was one of the Islamic ""gunpowder empires"". The Safavid Empire originated from Ardabil in Iran and had its origins in a long established Sufi order, called the Safaviyeh. The Safavids established an independent unified Iranian state for the first time after the Muslim conquest of Persia and reasserted Iranian political identity, and established Shia Islam as the official religion in Iran. Despite their demise in 1736, the legacy that they left behind was the revival of Iran as an economic stronghold between East and West, the establishment of an efficient state and bureaucracy based upon ""checks and balances"", their architectural innovations and their patronage for fine arts. The Safavids have also left their mark down to the present era by spreading Shi'a Islam in Iran, as well as major parts of the Caucasus, Mesopotamia, and Anatolia. ==== Afsharid Empire ==== The Afsharid dynasty was an Iranian dynasty that originated from the Afshar tribe in Iran's north-eastern province of Khorasan, ruling Iran in the mid-eighteenth century. The dynasty was founded in 1736 by the military genius Nader Shah, who deposed the last member of the Safavid dynasty and proclaimed himself as the Shah of Iran. At its peak, the empire was arguably the most powerful in the world. During Nader's reign, Iran reached its greatest extent since the Sasanian Empire. At its height it controlled modern-day Iran, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan Republic, parts of the North Caucasus (Dagestan), Afghanistan, Bahrain, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Pakistan, and parts of Iraq, Turkey, United Arab Emirates and Oman. === Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth === 1410–1699The union of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, formed in 1385, emerged as a major power in Central and Eastern Europe following its victory at the Battle of Grunwald in 1410. Poland–Lithuania covered a large territory in Central and Eastern Europe, making it the largest state in Europe at the time. Through its territorial possessions and vassal principalities and protectorates, its influence extended from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea, reaching Livonia (present-day Estonia and Latvia) in the north, and Moldavia and Crimea in the south and southeast. In the 15th century the ruling Jagiellonian dynasty managed to place its members on the thrones of the neighbouring kingdoms of Bohemia and Hungary, becoming one of the most powerful houses in Europe.The Rzeczpospolita was one of the largest, most powerful and most populous countries in 16th, 17th, and 18th century Europe. In fact, Poland was a major power that imposed its will on weaker neighbors. Its political structure was formed in 1569 by the Union of Lublin, which transformed the previous Polish–Lithuanian union into the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and lasted in this form until the adoption of the Constitution of May 3, 1791. In the 16th century, the area of the Rzeczpospolita reached almost 1 million km2, with a population of 11 million. At that time, it was the third largest country in Europe, and the largest country of Western Christian Europe. Poland was a political, military and economic power. The Union possessed features unique among contemporary states. This political system unusual for its time stemmed from the ascendance of the szlachta noble class over other social classes and over the political system of monarchy. In time, the szlachta accumulated enough privileges (such as those established by the Nihil novi Act of 1505) that no monarch could hope to break the szlachta's grip on power. The Commonwealth's political system does not readily fit into a simple category; it may best be described as a melange of: confederation and federation, with regard to the broad autonomy of its regions. It is, however, difficult to decisively call the Commonwealth either confederation or federation, as it had some qualities of both of them; oligarchy, as only the szlachta—around 15% of the population—had political rights; democracy, since all the szlachta were equal in rights and privileges, and the Sejm could veto the king on important matters, including legislation (the adoption of new laws), foreign affairs, declaration of war, and taxation (changes of existing taxes or the levying of new ones). Also, the 9% of Commonwealth population who enjoyed those political rights (the szlachta) was a substantially larger percentage than in majority European countries; note that in 1789 in France only about 1% of the population had the right to vote, and in 1867 in the United Kingdom, only about 3%. elective monarchy, since the monarch, elected by the szlachta, was Head of State; constitutional monarchy, since the monarch was bound by pacta conventa and other laws, and the szlachta could disobey decrees of the king that they deemed illegal. The Polish ""Golden Age"", in the reigns of Sigismund I and Sigismund II, the last two Jagiellonian kings, and more generally the 16th century, is identified with the culture of the Polish Renaissance. This flowering had its material base in the prosperity of the elites, both the landed nobility and urban patriciate at such centers as Kraków and Gdańsk. The University of Kraków became one of the leading centers of learning in Europe, and in Poland Nicolaus Copernicus formulated a model of the universe that placed the Sun rather than Earth at its center, making a groundbreaking contribution, which sparked the Scientific Revolution in Europe. Following the Union of Lublin, at various times, through personal unions and vassalages, Poland's sphere of influence reached Sweden and Finland in Northern Europe, the Danube in Southeastern Europe, and the Caribbean and West Africa. After victories in the Dimitriads (the Battle of Klushino, 1610), with Polish forces entering Moscow, Sigismund III's son, Prince Władysław of Poland, was briefly elected Tsar of Russia. The victory of Polish-led forces at the Battle of Vienna in 1683 saved Austria from Ottoman conquest and marked the end of Ottoman advances into Europe. === Swedish Empire === 1611–1721Sweden emerged as a great European power under Axel Oxenstierna and King Gustavus Adolphus. As a result of acquiring territories seized from Russia and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, as well as its involvement in the Thirty Years' War, Sweden found itself transformed into the leader of Protestantism. The mid-17th and early 18th centuries were Sweden's most successful years as a great power. Sweden also had colonial possessions as a minor colonial Empire that existed from 1638 to 1663 and later from 1784 to 1878. Sweden founded overseas colonies, principally in the New World. New Sweden was founded in the valley of the Delaware River in 1638, and Sweden later laid claim to a number of Caribbean islands. A string of Swedish forts and trading posts was constructed along the coast of West Africa as well, but these were not designed for Swedish settlers. Sweden reached its largest territorial extent during the rule of Charles X (1622–1660) after the treaty of Roskilde in 1658. After half a century of expansive warfare, the Swedish economy had deteriorated. It would become the lifetime task of Charles' son, Charles XI (1655–1697), to rebuild the economy and refit the army. His legacy to his son, the coming ruler of Sweden Charles XII, was one of the finest arsenals in the world, with a large standing army and a great fleet. Sweden's largest threat at this time, Russia, had a larger army but was far behind in both equipment and training. The Swedish army crushed the Russians at the Battle of Narva in 1700, one of the first battles of the Great Northern War. This led to an overambitious campaign against Russia in 1707, however, ending in a decisive Russian victory at the Battle of Poltava (1709). The campaign had a successful opening for Sweden, which came to occupy half of Poland and Charles laid claim to the Polish throne. But after a long march exposed by cossack raids, the Russian Tsar Peter the Great's scorched-earth techniques and the very cold Russian climate, the Swedes stood weakened with shattered confidence and enormously outnumbered by the Russian army at Poltava.During the Thirty Years' War, Sweden managed to conquer approximately half of the member states of the Holy Roman Empire. The fortunes of war would shift back and forth several times. After its defeat in the Battle of Nördlingen (1634), confidence in Sweden among the Swedish-controlled German states was damaged, and several of the provinces refused further Swedish military support, leaving Sweden with only a couple of northern German provinces. After France intervened on the same side as Sweden, fortunes shifted again. As the war continued, the civilian and military death toll grew, and when it was over, it led to severe depopulation in the German states. Although exact population estimates do not exist, historians estimate that the population of the Holy Roman Empire fell by one-third as a result of the war. === Egypt === 1805–1882, 1882–1914 The Egyptian Khedivate was a major world and regional power which began to emerge starting from the defeat and expulsion of Napoleon Bonaparte from Egypt. This modern-age Egyptian Empire has expanded to control several countries and nations including present-day Sudan, South Sudan, Eritrea, Djibouti, northern Somalia, Israel, Lebanon, Jordan, Syria, Greece, Cyprus, southern and central Turkey, in addition to parts from Libya, Chad, Central African Republic, and Democratic Republic of Congo, as well as northwestern Saudi Arabia, parts of Yemen and the Kingdom of Hejaz. During that era, Egypt has succeeded to re-emerged again to its previous centuries-long glory as a global Islamic power to an extent that was even stronger and healthier than the fading Ottoman Empire. Egypt maintained its status as a regional power until the British occupation of the country after the Anglo-Egyptian War. The Egyptian-based Albanian Muhammad Ali dynasty has brought several social, educational, political, economic, judicial, strategic and military reforms that have deeply depended on the human resources of Egyptians as the native powerhouse of the country instead of depending on foreigner Circassians and Turks who were associated with the Ottoman warlords during the Ottoman control of Egypt. With the emerging world-class national Egyptian industries, the Egyptian Army has showed an international level of prowess to the extent that it was the major Islamic military in the Islamic World. Egypt became also one of the first countries in the world to introduce railway transportation. Egypt has been successful in reforming its economy to become based on developed agriculture and modernised industries. A big number of factories have been set up and new Nile canals have been dug to increase the surface area of Egyptian fertile arable land. Another notable fact of the internationally competitive economic progress of Egypt during that era was the development of new cultivations such as Cotton, Mango and many other crops. The legacy of these agricultural advancements was the base of Egypt's current success in taking its rightful place as one of the best sources of high-quality cotton on a global scale. == High modern great powers == === Second British Empire === 1815–1956 The Second British Empire was built primarily in Asia, the Middle East and Africa after 1800. It included colonies in Canada, the Caribbean, and India, and shortly thereafter began the settlement of Australia and New Zealand. Following France's 1815 defeat in the Napoleonic Wars, Great Britain took possession of many more overseas territories in Africa and Asia, and established informal empires of free trade in South America, Persia, etc. At its height the British Empire was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost global power. In 1815–1914 the Pax Britannica was the most powerful unitary authority in history due to the Royal Navy's unprecedented naval predominance.During the 19th century, the United Kingdom was the first country in the world to industrialise and embrace free trade, giving birth to the Industrial Revolution. The rapid industrial growth after the conquests of the wealthy Mughal Bengal, transformed Great Britain into the world's largest industrial and financial power, while the world's largest navy gave it undisputed control of the seas and international trade routes, an advantage which helped the British Empire, after a mid-century liberal reaction against empire-building, to grow faster than ever before. The Victorian empire colonised large parts of Africa, including such territories as South Africa, Egypt, Kenya, Sudan, Nigeria, and Ghana, most of Oceania, colonies in the Far East, such as Singapore, Malaysia, and Hong Kong, and took control over the whole Indian subcontinent, making it the largest empire in the world.After victory in the First World War, the Empire gained control of territories such as Tanzania and Namibia from the German Empire, and Iraq and Palestine (including the Transjordan) from the Ottoman Empire. By this point in 1920 the British empire had grown to become the largest empire in history, controlling approximately 25% of the world's land surface and 25% of the world's population. It covered about 36.6 million km2 (14.2 million square miles). Because of its magnitude, it was often referred to as the empire on which the sun never sets.The political and social changes and economic disruption in the United Kingdom and throughout the world caused by First World War followed only two decades later by the Second World War caused the Empire to gradually break up as colonies were given independence. Much of the reason the Empire ceased was because many colonies by the mid-20th century were no longer as undeveloped as at the arrival of British control nor as dependent and social changes throughout the world during the first half of the 20th century gave rise to national identity. The British Government, reeling from the economic cost of two successive world wars and changing social attitudes towards empire, felt it could no longer afford to maintain it if the country were to recover economically, pay for the newly created welfare state, and fight the newly emerged Cold War with the Soviet Union. The influence and power of the British Empire dropped dramatically after the Second World War, especially after the Partition of India in 1947 and the Suez Crisis in 1956. The Commonwealth of Nations is the successor to the Empire, where the United Kingdom is an equal member with all other states. === France === 1815–1956 France was a dominant empire possessing many colonies in various locations around the world. The French colonial empire is the set of territories outside Europe that were under French rule primarily from the 17th century to the late 1960s (some see the French control of places such as New Caledonia as a continuation of that colonial empire). The first French colonial empire reached its peak in 1680 at over 10,000,000 km2 (3,900,000 sq mi), which at the time, was the second largest in the world behind the Spanish Empire. In the 19th and 20th centuries, the colonial empire of France was the second largest in the world behind the British Empire. The French colonial empire extended over 13,500,000 km2 (5,200,000 sq mi) of land at its height in the 1920s and 1930s. Including metropolitan France, the total amount of land under French sovereignty reached 13,500,000 km2 (5,200,000 sq mi) at the time, which is 10.0% of the Earth's total land area. The total area of the French colonial empire, with the first (mainly in the Americas and Asia) and second (mainly in Africa and Asia), the French colonial empires combined, reached 24,000,000 km2 (9,300,000 sq mi), the second largest in the world (the first being the British Empire). France began to establish colonies in North America, the Caribbean and India, following Spanish and Portuguese successes during the Age of Discovery, in rivalry with Britain for supremacy. A series of wars with Britain during the 18th and early 19th centuries which France lost ended its colonial ambitions on these continents, and with it is what some historians term the ""first"" French colonial empire. In the 19th century, France established a new empire in Africa and South East Asia. Some of these colonies lasted beyond the Second World War. === Late Spanish Empire === 1815–1898 After the Napoleonic period the Bourbon dynasty was restored in Spain and over the huge number of Spanish territories around the world. But the shock of the Peninsular War sparked declarations of independence in the Latin America controlled by Spain and by 1835 successive revolutions had signed the end of the Spanish rule over the majority of this countries. Spain retained fragments of its empire in the Caribbean (Cuba and Puerto Rico); Asia (Philippines); and Oceania (Guam, Micronesia, Palau, and Northern Marianas) until the Spanish–American War of 1898. Spanish participation in the Scramble for Africa was minimal: Spanish Morocco was held until 1956 and Spanish Guinea and the Spanish Sahara were held until 1968 and 1975 respectively. The Canary Islands, Ceuta, Melilla and the other Plazas de Soberanía on the northern African coast have remained part of Spain. === Austrian Empire (and Austria-Hungary) === 1804–1867 and 1867–1918 The Habsburg Empire became one of the key powers in Europe after the Napoleonic wars, with a sphere of influence stretching over Central Europe, Germany, and Italy. During the second half of the 19th century, the Habsburgs could not prevent the unification of Italy and Germany. Eventually, the complex internal power struggle resulted in the establishment of a so-called dual monarchy between Austria and Hungary. Following the defeat and dissolution of the monarchy after the First World War, both Austria and Hungary became independent and self-governing countries (First Austrian Republic, Kingdom of Hungary). Other political entities emerged from the destruction of the Great War including Poland, Czechoslovakia, and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes. === Prussia and Germany === 1701–1871, 1871–1918 and 1933–1945 The Kingdom of Prussia attained its greatest importance in the 18th and 19th centuries, when it conquered various territories previously held by Sweden, Austria, Poland, France, Denmark, and various minor German principalities. It became a European great power under the reign of Frederick II of Prussia (1740–1786). It dominated northern Germany politically, economically, and in terms of population, and played a key role in the unification of Germany in 1871 (see Prussia and Germany section below). After the territorial acquisitions of the Congress of Vienna (1815), the Kingdom of Prussia became the only great power with a majority German-speaking population. During the 19th century, Chancellor Otto von Bismarck pursued a policy of uniting the German principalities into a ""Lesser Germany"" which would exclude the Austrian Empire. Prussia was the core of the North German Confederation formed in 1867, which became part of the German Empire or Deutsches Reich in 1871 when the southern German states, excluding Austria, were added. After 1850, the states of Germany had rapidly become industrialized, with particular strengths in coal, iron (and later steel), chemicals, and railways. In 1871, Germany had a population of 41 million people; by 1913, this had increased to 68 million. A heavily rural collection of states in 1815, the now united Germany became predominantly urban. The success of German industrialization manifested itself in two ways since the early 20th century: The German factories were larger and more modern than their British and French counterparts. The dominance of German Empire in natural sciences, especially in physics and chemistry was such that one-the of all Nobel Prizes went to German inventors and researchers. During its 47 years of existence, the German Empire became the industrial, technological, and scientific giant of Europe, and by 1913, Germany was the largest economy in Continental Europe and the third-largest in the world. Germany also became a great power, it built up the longest railway network of Europe, the world's strongest army, and a fast-growing industrial base. Starting very small in 1871, in a decade, the navy became second only to Britain's Royal Navy. After the removal of Otto von Bismarck by Wilhelm II in 1890, the empire embarked on Weltpolitik – a bellicose new course that ultimately contributed to the outbreak of World War I. Wilhelm II wanted Germany to have her ""place in the sun"", like Britain, which he constantly wished to emulate or rival. With German traders and merchants already active worldwide, he encouraged colonial efforts in Africa and the Pacific (""new imperialism""), causing the German Empire to vie with other European powers for remaining ""unclaimed"" territories. With the encouragement or at least the acquiescence of Britain, which at this stage saw Germany as a counterweight to her old rival France, Germany acquired German Southwest Africa (modern Namibia), German Kamerun (modern Cameroon), Togoland (modern Togo) and German East Africa (modern Rwanda, Burundi, and the mainland part of current Tanzania). Islands were gained in the Pacific through purchase and treaties and also a 99-year lease for the territory of Kiautschou in northeast China. But of these German colonies only Togoland and German Samoa (after 1908) became self-sufficient and profitable; all the others required subsidies from the Berlin treasury for building infrastructure, school systems, hospitals and other institutions. After the World War I broke out, Germany participated in the war as a part of the Central Powers. At its height, Germany occupied Belgium and parts of France, as well as acquired Ukraine and the Baltic States in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. Soon, Germany lost its status as a great power in the Treaty of Versailles as it ceded some of its territories and all of its overseas territories to the Britain and France, as well as gave up part of its military. Germany rose back to be a great power in 1933, when the Nazi Germany replaced the Weimar Republic as the new government of Germany. The most pressing economic matter the Nazis initially faced was the 30 per cent national unemployment rate. Economist Dr. Hjalmar Schacht, President of the Reichsbank and Minister of Economics, created a scheme for deficit financing in May 1933. Capital projects were paid for with the issuance of promissory notes called Mefo bills. When the notes were presented for payment, the Reichsbank printed money. Hitler and his economic team expected that the upcoming territorial expansion would provide the means of repaying the soaring national debt. Schacht's administration achieved a rapid decline in the unemployment rate, the largest of any country during the Great Depression. Economic recovery was uneven, with reduced hours of work and erratic availability of necessities, leading to disenchantment with the regime as early as 1934.In October 1933, the Junkers Aircraft Works was expropriated. In concert with other aircraft manufacturers and under the direction of Aviation Minister Göring, production was ramped up. From a workforce of 3,200 people producing 100 units per year in 1932, the industry grew to employ a quarter of a million workers manufacturing over 10,000 technically advanced aircraft annually less than ten years later.An elaborate bureaucracy was created to regulate imports of raw materials and finished goods with the intention of eliminating foreign competition in the German marketplace and improving the nation's balance of payments. The Nazis encouraged the development of synthetic replacements for materials such as oil and textiles. As the market was experiencing a glut and prices for petroleum were low, in 1933 the Nazi government made a profit-sharing agreement with IG Farben, guaranteeing them a 5 per cent return on capital invested in their synthetic oil plant at Leuna. Any profits in excess of that amount would be turned over to the Reich. By 1936, Farben regretted making the deal, as excess profits were by then being generated. In another attempt to secure an adequate wartime supply of petroleum, Germany intimidated Romania into signing a trade agreement in March 1939. Major public works projects financed with deficit spending included the construction of a network of Autobahnen and providing funding for programmes initiated by the previous government for housing and agricultural improvements. To stimulate the construction industry, credit was offered to private businesses and subsidies were made available for home purchases and repairs. On the condition that the wife would leave the workforce, a loan of up to 1,000 Reichsmarks could be accessed by young couples of Aryan descent who intended to marry, and the amount that had to be repaid was reduced by 25 per cent for each child born. The caveat that the woman had to remain unemployed outside the home was dropped by 1937 due to a shortage of skilled labourers.Envisioning widespread car ownership as part of the new Germany, Hitler arranged for designer Ferdinand Porsche to draw up plans for the KdF-wagen (Strength Through Joy car), intended to be an automobile that everyone could afford. A prototype was displayed at the International Motor Show in Berlin on 17 February 1939. With the outbreak of World War II, the factory was converted to produce military vehicles. None were sold until after the war, when the vehicle was renamed the Volkswagen (people's car). Six million people were unemployed when the Nazis took power in 1933 and by 1937 there were fewer than a million. This was in part due to the removal of women from the workforce. Real wages dropped by 25 per cent between 1933 and 1938. After the dissolution of the trade unions in May 1933, their funds were seized and their leadership arrested, including those who attempted to co-operate with the Nazis. A new organisation, the German Labour Front, was created and placed under Nazi Party functionary Robert Ley. The average work week was 43 hours in 1933; by 1939 this increased to 47 hours.By early 1934, the focus shifted towards rearmament. By 1935, military expenditures accounted for 73 per cent of the government's purchases of goods and services. On 18 October 1936, Hitler named Göring as Plenipotentiary of the Four Year Plan, intended to speed up rearmament. In addition to calling for the rapid construction of steel mills, synthetic rubber plants, and other factories, Göring instituted wage and price controls and restricted the issuance of stock dividends. Large expenditures were made on rearmament in spite of growing deficits. Plans unveiled in late 1938 for massive increases to the navy and air force were impossible to fulfil, as Germany lacked the finances and material resources to build the planned units, as well as the necessary fuel required to keep them running. With the introduction of compulsory military service in 1935, the Reichswehr, which had been limited to 100,000 by the terms of the Versailles Treaty, expanded to 750,000 on active service at the start of World War II, with a million more in the reserve. By January 1939, unemployment was down to 301,800 and it dropped to only 77,500 by September.After triumphing in economic success, the Nazis started a hostile foreign expansion policy. They first sent troops to occupy the demilitarized Rhineland in 1936, then annexed Austria and Sudetenland of Czechoslovakia in 1938. In 1939, they further annexed the Czech part of Czechoslovakia and founded the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, and annexed the Lithuanian port city of Klaipėda. The Slovak part of Czechoslovakia declared independence under German support and the Slovak Republic is established. World War II broke out in 1939, when Germany invaded Poland with the Soviet Union. After occupying Poland, Germany started the conquest of Europe, and occupied Belgium, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Denmark, Norway, France and the British Channel Islands in 1940, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Greece and Yugoslavia in 1941, Italy, Albania, Montenegro and Monaco in 1943, and Hungary in 1944. The French government continued to operate after the defeat, but was actually a client state of Germany. Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union in 1941, only to face defeat. This marks the start of the collapse of the German Reich. On 8 May 1945, Nazi Germany officially surrendered and marks the end of the Nazi Regime. === United States === 1848–presentThe United States of America has exercised and continues to exercise worldwide economic, cultural, and military influence. Founded in 1776 by thirteen coastal colonies that declared their independence from Great Britain, the United States began its western expansion following the end of the American Revolutionary War and the recognition of U.S. sovereignty in the 1783 Treaty of Paris. The treaty bequeathed to the nascent republic all land between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River, and Americans began migrating there in large numbers at the end of the 18th Century, resulting in the displacement of Native American cultures, often through native peoples' forcible deportation and violent wars of eviction. These efforts at expansion were greatly strengthened by the 1787 Constitutional Convention, which resulted in the ratification of the United States Constitution and transformed the U.S. from a loose confederation of semi-autonomous states into a federal entity with a strong national core. In 1803, the United States acquired Louisiana from France, doubling the country's size and extending its borders to the Rocky Mountains. American power and population grew rapidly, so that by 1823 President James Monroe felt confident enough to issue his Monroe Doctrine, which proclaimed the Americas as the express sphere of the United States and threatened military action against any European power that attempted to make advances in the area. This was the beginning of the U.S.'s emergence as a regional power in North America. That process was confirmed in the Mexican–American War of 1846–1848, in which the United States, following a skirmish between Mexican and U.S. forces in land disputed between Mexico and the U.S., invaded Mexico. The war, which included the deployment of U.S. forces into Mexico, the taking of Veracruz by sea, and the occupation of Mexico City by American troops (which finally resulted in Mexico's defeat), stunned much of the world. In the peace treaty (Treaty of Guadelupe Hidalgo) that followed, the U.S. annexed the northern half of Mexico, comprising what is now the Southwestern United States. During the course of the war, the United States also negotiated by treaty the acquisition of the Oregon Territory's southern half from Great Britain. In 1867, William H. Seward, the U.S. Secretary of State, negotiated the purchase of Alaska from the Russian Empire. The United States defeated Spain in the Spanish–American War in 1898, and gained the possessions of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines. The territory of Hawaii was also acquired in 1898. The United States became a major victorious power in both World Wars, and became a major economic power after World War I tires out the European powers. === Russian Empire and Soviet Union === 1815–1917 and 1917–1991 The Russian Empire as a state, existed from 1721 until it was declared a republic 1 September 1917. The Russian Empire was the successor to the Tsardom of Russia and the predecessor of the Soviet Union. It was one of the largest empires in world history, surpassed in landmass only by the British and Mongolian empires: at one point in 1866, it stretched from Northern Europe across Asia and into North America. At the beginning of the 19th century the Russian Empire extended from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Black Sea on the south, from the Baltic Sea on the west to the Pacific Ocean on the east. With 125.6 million subjects registered by the 1897 census, it had the third largest population of the world at the time, after Qing China and the British Empire. Like all empires it represented a large disparity in economic, ethnic, and religious positions. Its government, ruled by the Emperor, was one of the last absolute monarchies in Europe. Prior to the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 Russia was one of the five major Great Powers of Europe. Following the October Revolution that overthrew the Russian Republic, the Soviet Union was established by the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union began to resemble the old Russian Empire in landmass, with its territory stretching from Eastern Europe to Siberia, and from Northern Europe to Central Asia. After the death of the first Soviet leader, Vladimir Lenin, in 1924, Joseph Stalin eventually won a power struggle and led the country through a large-scale industrialization with a command economy and political repression. On 23 August 1939, after unsuccessful efforts to form an anti-fascist alliance with Western powers, the Soviets signed the non-aggression agreement with Nazi Germany. After the start of World War II, the formally neutral Soviets invaded and annexed territories of several Central and Eastern European states, including eastern Poland, the Baltic states, northeastern Romania and eastern Finland. In June 1941 the Germans invaded, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the majority of Allied casualties of the conflict in the process of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at intense battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin and won World War II in Europe on 9 May 1945. The territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged in 1947, where the Eastern Bloc confronted the Western Bloc, which would unite in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalin's death in 1953, a period known as de-Stalinization and the Khrushchev Thaw occurred under the leadership of Nikita Khrushchev. The country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took an early lead in the Space Race with the first ever satellite and the first human spaceflight and the first probe to land on another planet, Venus. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, but tensions resumed when the Soviet Union deployed troops in Afghanistan in 1979. The war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to further reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost and perestroika. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing economic stagnation. The Cold War ended during his tenure and in 1989, Warsaw Pact countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective Marxist–Leninist regimes. Strong nationalist and separatist movements broke out across the USSR. Gorbachev initiated a referendum—boycotted by the Baltic republics, Armenia, Georgia, and Moldova—which resulted in the majority of participating citizens voting in favor of preserving the Union as a renewed federation. In August 1991, a coup d'état was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a high-profile role in facing down the coup. The main result was the banning of the Communist Party. The republics led by Russia and Ukraine declared independence. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned. All the republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states. The Russian Federation (formerly the Russian SFSR) assumed the Soviet Union's rights and obligations and is recognized as its continued legal personality in world affairs. The Soviet Union produced many significant social and technological achievements and innovations regarding military power. It boasted the world's second-largest economy and the largest standing military in the world. The USSR was recognized as one of the five nuclear weapons states. It was a founding permanent member of the United Nations Security Council as well as a member of the OSCE, the WFTU and the leading member of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance and the Warsaw Pact. Before its dissolution, the USSR had maintained its status as a world superpower alongside the United States, for four decades after World War II. Sometimes also called ""Soviet Empire"", it exercised its hegemony in Central and Eastern Europe and worldwide with military and economic strength, proxy conflicts and influence in developing countries and funding of scientific research, especially in space technology and weaponry. === Italian Empire === 1871–1947 The Italian colonial empire was created after the Kingdom of Italy joined other European powers in establishing colonies overseas during the ""scramble for Africa"". Modern Italy as a unified state only existed from 1861. By this time France, Spain, Portugal, Britain, and the Netherlands, had already carved out large empires over several hundred years. One of the last remaining areas open to colonisation was on the African continent.By the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Italy had annexed Eritrea and Somalia, and had wrested control of portions of the Ottoman Empire, including Libya, though it was defeated in its attempt to conquer Ethiopia. The Fascist regime under Italian dictator Benito Mussolini which came to power in 1922 sought to increase the size of the empire further. Ethiopia was successfully taken, four decades after the previous failure, and Italy's European borders were expanded. An official ""Italian Empire"" was proclaimed on 9 May 1936 following the conquest of Ethiopia.Italy sided with Nazi Germany during World War II but Britain soon captured Italian overseas colonies. By the time Italy itself was invaded in 1943, its empire had ceased to exist. On 8 September 1943 the Fascist regime of Mussolini collapsed, and a Civil War broke out between Italian Social Republic and Italian Resistance Movement, supported by Allied forces. === Empire of Japan === 1868–1945 The Empire of Japan, officially the Empire of Great Japan or simply Great Japan (Dai Nippon), was an empire that existed from the Meiji Restoration on 3 January 1868 to the enactment of the post-World War II Constitution of Japan on 3 May 1947. Imperial Japan's rapid industrialization and militarization under the slogan Fukoku Kyōhei (富国強兵, ""Enrich the Country, Strengthen the Army"") led to its emergence as a great power, eventually culminating in its membership in the Axis alliance and the conquest of a large part of the Asia-Pacific region. At the height of its power in 1942, the Japanese Empire ruled over a geographic area spanning 7,400,000 km2 (2,857,200 sq mi). This made it the 12th largest empire in history.In August 1914, former President of the United States William Howard Taft listed Japan and his country as the only two great powers uninvolved in World War I. After winning wars against China (First Sino-Japanese War, 1894–95) and Russia (Russo-Japanese War, 1904–05) the Japanese Empire was considered to be one of the major powers worldwide. The maximum extent of the empire was gained during Second World War, when Japan conquered many Asian and Pacific countries (see Greater East Asian Co-Prosperity Sphere). After suffering many defeats and the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, however, the Empire of Japan surrendered to the Allies on 2 September 1945. A period of occupation by the Allies followed the surrender, and a new constitution was created with American involvement. The constitution came into force on 3 May 1947, officially dissolving the Empire. American occupation and reconstruction of the country continued well into the 1950s, eventually forming the current nation-state whose title is simply that (""the nation of Japan"" Nippon-koku) or just ""Japan"". == Post–Cold War era great powers == === United States === The United States was the foremost of the world's two superpowers during the Cold War. After the Cold War, the most common belief held that only the United States fulfilled the criteria to be considered a superpower. Its geographic area composed the third or fourth-largest state in the world, with an area of approximately 9.37 million km2. The population of the US was 248.7 million in 1990, at that time the fourth-largest nation.In the mid-to-late 20th century, the political status of the US was defined as a strongly capitalist federation and constitutional republic. It had a permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council plus two allies with permanent seats, the United Kingdom and France. The US had strong ties with capitalist Europe, Latin America, the British Commonwealth, and several East Asian countries (South Korea, Taiwan, Japan). It allied itself with both right-wing dictatorships and democracies.The political and economic force of the United States is also a major driving force of its power. Many states around the world would, over the course of the 20th century, adopt the economic policies of the Washington Consensus, sometimes against the wishes of their populations. The United States is a highly developed country, and its economy accounts for approximately a quarter of global GDP and is the world's largest by GDP at market exchange rates. By value, the United States is the world's largest importer and second-largest exporter. Although it accounts for just over 4.2% of the world's total population, the U.S. holds over 30% of the total wealth in the world, the largest share held by any country. The US has large resources of minerals, energy resources, metals, and timber, a large and modernized farming industry and a large industrial base. The United States dollar is the dominant world reserve currency under the Bretton Woods system. US systems were rooted in capitalist economic theory based on supply and demand, that is, production determined by customers' demands. America was allied with the G7 major economies. US economic policy prescriptions were the ""standard"" reform packages promoted for crisis-wracked developing countries by Washington, DC-based international institutions such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank, as well as the US Treasury Department. The military of the United States is a naval-based advanced military with by far the highest military expenditure in the world. The United States Navy is the world's largest navy, with the largest number of aircraft carriers, bases all over the world (particularly in an incomplete ""ring"" bordering the Warsaw Pact states to the west, south and east). The US had the largest nuclear arsenal in the world during the first half of the Cold War, one of the largest armies in the world and one of the two largest air forces in the world. Its powerful military allies in Western Europe (the North Atlantic Treaty Organization states) had their own nuclear capabilities. The US also possessed a powerful global intelligence network in the Central Intelligence Agency. The cultural impact of the US, often known as Americanization, is seen in the influence on other countries of US music, TV, films, art, and fashion, as well as the desire for freedom of speech and other guaranteed rights its residents enjoy. Various styles of music born in the US have become globally influential.The United States emerged as the world's sole superpower following the dissolution of the Soviet Union after the conclusion of the cold war. This was followed by a period where the United States was seen as in its greatest by the majority of the population inside of the United States. This led to a period of absolute dominance by the United States of America, stretching from 1993 to 2001. The War on Terrorism, the response to the Great Recession and the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States were all seen to damage the credibility of the United States.In March 2003, the United States led an international coalition to invade Iraq because Saddam Hussein, then-President of Iraq, refused to cooperate with UN weapons inspectors seeking to verify that Iraq had dismantled its weapons of mass destruction capabilities. After a month of combat with Iraqi military and paramilitary units, the Battle of Baghdad was won by coalition forces, though an insurgency would soon emerge, greatly prolonging the American military presence in Iraq. In 2011, the U.S. had 10 major strengths according to Chinese scholar Peng Yuan, the director of the Institute of American Studies of the China Institutes for Contemporary International Studies. He noted that the United States had a sizable population (300 million), enjoys its position as a two-ocean power, and has abundant natural resources. Besides, he believed that the United States' military muscle, high technology, fair education system, cultural power, cyber power, allies (as the United States has more allies than any other state), global force projection, intelligence capabilities (as demonstrated by the killing of Osama bin Laden), intellectual think tanks and research institutes, and strategic power (as the US is the world's only country with a truly global strategy) lead the United States into the superpower status it now enjoys. However, he noted that the recent breakdown of bipartisanship in the US, economic slowdown, intractable deficits and rising debt, societal polarization, and the weakening of US institutional power since the US can no longer dominate global institutions, are the current flaws of the United States' power. === China === China became a great power during World War II as one of the Four Policemen and principal Allies of World War II. After the Korean war in 1950–1953 and the Sino-Soviet split in the 1960s, China emerged as one of the three big players in the tri-polar geopolitics (PRC-US-USSR) during the late Cold war (1956–1991) with its status as a recognized nuclear weapons state in the 1960s. Currently, China has the world's second largest population, after India, second largest GDP (nominal) (after the U.S.) and the largest economy in the world by PPP. China created the Belt and Road Initiative which according to analysts has been a geostrategic effort to take a more significant role in global affairs and challenge US post-war hegemony. It has also been argued that China co-founded the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank and New Development Bank to compete with the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund in development finance. In 2015, China launched the Made in China 2025 strategic plan to further develop its manufacturing sector. There have been debates on the effectiveness and practicality of these programs in promoting China's global status. According to The Economist, on a purchasing-power-parity (PPP) basis, the Chinese economy became the world's largest in 2013. On a foreign exchange rate basis, some estimates in 2020 and early 2021 said that China could overtake the U.S. in 2028, or 2026 if the Chinese currency further strengthened. As of July 2021, Bloomberg L.P. analysts estimated that China may either overtake the U.S. to become the world's biggest economy in the 2030s or never be able to reach such a goal.The nation receives continual coverage in the popular press of its emerging superpower status, and has been identified as a rising or emerging economic growth and military superpower by academics and other experts. The ""rise of China"" has been named the top news story of the 21st century by the Global Language Monitor, as measured by the number of appearances in the global print and electronic media, on the Internet and blogosphere, and in social media. The term ""Second Superpower"" has been applied by scholars to the possibility that the People's Republic of China could emerge with global power and influence on par with the United States. The potential for the two countries to form stronger relations to address global issues is sometimes referred to as the Group of Two. Barry Buzan asserted in 2004 that ""China certainly presents the most promising all-round profile"" of a potential superpower. Buzan claimed that ""China is currently the most fashionable potential superpower and the one whose degree of alienation from the dominant international society makes it the most obvious political challenger."" However, he noted this challenge is constrained by the major challenges of development and by the fact that its rise could trigger a counter-coalition of states in Asia.Parag Khanna stated in 2008 that by making massive trade and investment deals with Latin America and Africa, China had established its presence as a superpower along with the European Union and the United States. China's rise is demonstrated by its ballooning share of trade in its gross domestic product. He believed that China's ""consultative style"" had allowed it to develop political and economic ties with many countries including those viewed as rogue states by the United States. He stated that the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation founded with Russia and the Central Asian countries may eventually be the ""NATO of the East"".Historian Timothy Garton Ash argued in 2011, that the International Monetary Fund predicting that China's GDP (purchasing power parity adjusted) will overtake that of the United States in 2016, that a power shift to a world with several superpowers was happening in the early 21st century. However, China was still lacking in soft power and power projection abilities and had a low GDP/person. The article also stated that the Pew Research Center in a 2009 survey found that people in 15 out of 22 countries believed that China had or would overtake the US as the world's leading superpower.In an interview given in 2011, Singapore's first premier, Lee Kuan Yew, stated that while China supplanting the United States is not a foregone conclusion, Chinese leaders are nonetheless serious about displacing the United States as the most powerful country in Asia. ""They have transformed a poor society by an economic miracle to become now the second-largest economy in the world. How could they not aspire to be number 1 in Asia, and in time the world?"" The Chinese strategy, Lee maintains, will revolve around their ""huge and increasingly highly skilled and educated workers to out-sell and out-build all others"". Nevertheless, relations with the United States, at least in the medium term, will not take a turn for the worse because China will ""avoid any action that will sour up relations with the U.S. To challenge a stronger and technologically superior power like the U.S. will abort their 'peaceful rise.'"" Though Lee believes China is genuinely interested in growing within the global framework the United States has created, it is biding its time until it becomes strong enough to successfully redefine the prevailing political and economic order.China is thought to be becoming the world's largest economy and is making rapid progress in many areas. The United States is seen as a declining superpower as indicated by factors such as poor economic recovery, financial disorder, high deficits gaining close to GDP levels and unemployment, increasing political polarization, and overregulation forcing jobs overseas in China. Some consensus has concluded that China has reached the qualifications of superpower status, citing China's growing political clout and leadership in the economic sectors has given the country renewed standings in the International Community. Although China's military projection is still premature and untested, the perceived humiliation of US leadership in failing to prevent its closest allies from joining the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank, along with the Belt and Road Initiative and China's role in the worldwide groundings of the Boeing 737 MAX, was seen as a paradigm shift or an inflection point to the unipolar world order that dominated post-Cold War international relations. University Professor Øystein Tunsjø argues that competition between China and the USA will increase, leading to the gap between them decreasing, while the gap between the two countries and the rest of the top ten largest economies will widen. Additionally, economics correspondent, Peter S. Goodman and Beijing Bureau Chief of China, Jane Perlez further stated that China is using a combination of its economic might and growing military advancements to pressure, coerce and change the current world order to accommodate China's interests at the expense of the United States and its allies.The 2019 Chinese Defense White Paper highlights the growing strategic competition between China and the United States. According to Anthony H. Cordesman, although the paper flags both China and the US as competing superpowers, it was far more moderate in its treatment of the US in contrast to the United States' view on Chinese military developments. Cordesman states that the paper was a warning that will shape Sino-American relations as China becomes stronger than Russia in virtually every aspect other than its nuclear arsenal.On 19 August 2019, the United States Studies Centre published a report, suggesting that Washington no longer enjoys primacy in the Indo-Pacific. It stresses that the War on Terror has greatly distracted the US response to China's role in the Pacific; that US military force in the region has greatly atrophied whereas Beijing only grew stronger and more capable since 9/11, to the point that China could now actively challenge the United States over the Indo-Pacific. China's challenging the United States for global predominance constitutes the core issue in the debate over the American decline.China's emergence as a global economic power is tied to its large working population. However, the population in China is aging faster than almost any other country in history. Current demographic trends could hinder economic growth, create challenging social problems, and limit China's capabilities to act as a new global hegemon. China's primarily debt-driven economic growth also creates concerns for substantial credit default risks and a potential financial crisis. === United Kingdom === The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is a sovereign country in north-western Europe, off the north-­western coast of the European mainland. The United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, the north-­eastern part of the island of Ireland, and many smaller islands within the British Isles. Northern Ireland shares a land border with the Republic of Ireland. Otherwise, the United Kingdom is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the North Sea to the east, the English Channel to the south and the Celtic Sea to the south-west, giving it the 12th-longest coastline in the world. The Irish Sea separates Great Britain and Ireland. The total area of the United Kingdom is 242,500 square kilometres (93,628 sq mi), with an estimated population in 2020 of 68 million.The nearby Isle of Man, Guernsey and Jersey are not part of the UK, being Crown Dependencies with the British Government responsible for defence and international representation. There are also 14 British Overseas Territories, the last remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, encompassed almost a quarter of the world's landmass and a third of the world's population, and was the largest empire in history. British influence can be observed in the language, culture and the legal and political systems of many of its former colonies.The United Kingdom has the world's fifth-largest economy by nominal gross domestic product (GDP), and the tenth-largest by purchasing power parity (PPP). It has a high-income economy and a very high human development index rating, ranking 13th in the world. The UK became the world's first industrialised country and was the world's foremost power during the 19th and early 20th centuries. Today the UK remains one of the world's great powers, with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific, technological and political influence internationally. It is a recognised nuclear state and is ranked fourth globally in military expenditure. It has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946. The United Kingdom is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, the Council of Europe, the G7, the Group of Ten, the G20, the United Nations, NATO, AUKUS, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Interpol, and the World Trade Organization (WTO). It was a member state of the European Communities (EC) and its successor, the European Union (EU), from its accession in 1973 until its withdrawal in 2020 following a referendum held in 2016. Since the end of the second World War, the United Kingdom has been described as a ""super power in decline"". Nonetheless, a 2019 study in geopolitical capability found the United Kingdom to be the most powerful nation in Europe and the second most powerful in the world behind the United States. In the aftermath of the second World War and the Suez crisis, the United Kingdom substantially declined as a world power. Towards the end of the 20th century, and especially under the Conservative-led government of Margaret Thatcher and the Labour-led government of Tony Blair, the United Kingdom underwent a period of strong economic growth and cultural reach, especially in the United States; the relationship between the UK and the US is generally considered to be among the strongest international relationships. A notable break in this tradition occurred under the administration of Barack Obama who sought to align with Germany as a principal European ally. Although a highly controversial figure in the United Kingdom, President Donald Trump described the UK-US relationship as ""just so important"" and the administration of President Joe Biden has restored traditional relations, reiterating that ""the United States has no closer ally than the United Kingdom"".The UK has been described as a ""cultural superpower"", and London has been described as a world cultural capital. A global opinion poll for the BBC saw the UK ranked the third most positively viewed nation in the world (behind Germany and Canada) in 2013 and 2014, although the 2003 War in Iraq considerably damaged perception of the UK outside of the Anglosphere. While the United Kingdom has maintained ""exceptionally strong"" relations with Italy and the Netherlands, the decision to withdraw from the European Union sparked sharp criticism of the United Kingdom across other major European powers. === France === France is considered to be a great power. France retains its centuries-long status as a global centre of art, science and philosophy. It hosts the fifth-largest number of UNESCO World Heritage Sites and is the world's leading tourist destination, receiving over 89 million foreign visitors in 2018. France is a cultural superpower. France is a developed country with the world's fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP and eight-largest by PPP; in terms of aggregate household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy and human development. It remains a great power in global affairs, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council and an official nuclear-weapon state. France is a founding and leading member of the European Union and the Eurozone, as well as a key member of the Group of Seven, North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and La Francophonie. It is also a transcontinental country spanning Western Europe and overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. Including all of its territories, France has twelve time zones, the most of any country. Its metropolitan area extends from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean and from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea; overseas territories include French Guiana in South America, Saint Pierre and Miquelon in the North Atlantic, the French West Indies, and several islands in Oceania and the Indian Ocean. Due to its several coastal territories, France has the largest exclusive economic zone in the world. France borders Belgium, Luxembourg, Germany, Switzerland, Monaco, Italy, Andorra and Spain in Europe, as well as the Netherlands, Suriname and Brazil in the Americas. Its eighteen integral regions (five of which are overseas) span a combined area of 643,801 km2 (248,573 sq mi) and over 68 million people (as of January 2021). France has a developed, high-income mixed economy, characterised by sizeable government involvement, economic diversity, a skilled labour force, and high innovation. For roughly two centuries, the French economy has consistently ranked among the ten largest globally; it is currently the world's eight-largest by purchasing power parity, the fifth-largest by nominal GDP, and the second-largest in the European Union by both metrics. France is considered an economic power, with membership in the Group of Seven leading industrialised countries, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), and the Group of Twenty largest economies. France's economy is highly diversified; services represent two-thirds of both the workforce and GDP, while the industrial sector accounts for a fifth of GDP and a similar proportion of employment. France is the third-biggest manufacturing country in Europe, behind Germany and Italy, and ranks eighth in the world by share of global manufacturing output, at 1.9 percent. Less than 2 percent of GDP is generated by the primary sector, namely agriculture; however, France's agricultural sector is among the largest in value and leads the EU in terms of overall production.In 2018, France was the fifth-largest trading nation in the world and the second-largest in Europe, with the value of exports representing over a fifth of GDP. Its membership in the Eurozone and the broader European Single Market facilitate access to capital, goods, services, and skilled labour. Despite protectionist policies over certain industries, particularly in agriculture, France has generally played a leading role in fostering free trade and commercial integration in Europe in order to enhance its economy. In 2019, it ranked first in Europe and 13th in the world in foreign direct investment, with European countries and the United States being leading sources. According to the Bank of France, the leading recipients of FDI were manufacturing, real estate, finance and insurance. The Paris region has the highest concentration of multinational firms in Europe. With 31 companies that are part of the world's biggest 500 companies, France was in 2020 the most represented European country in the 2020 Fortune Global 500, ahead of Germany (27 companies) and the UK (22).As of August 2020, France was also the country that weighed the most on the Eurozone's EURO STOXX 50 (representing 36.4% of all total assets), ahead of Germany (35.2%).Several French corporations rank amongst the largest in their industries such as AXA in insurance and Air France in air transportation. Luxury and consumer good are particularly relevant, with L'Oreal being the world's largest cosmetic company while LVMH and Kering are the world's two largest luxury product companies. In energy and utilities, GDF-Suez and EDF are amongst the largest energy companies in the world, and Areva is a large nuclear-energy company; Veolia Environnement is the world's largest environmental services and water management company; Vinci SA, Bouygues and Eiffage are large construction companies; Michelin ranks in the top 3 tire manufacturers; JCDecaux is the world's largest outdoor advertising corporation; BNP Paribas, Credit Agricole and Société Générale rank amongst the largest in the world by assets. Capgemini and Atos are among the largest technology consulting companies. Carrefour is the world's second-largest retail group in terms of revenue; Total is the world's fourth-largest private oil company; Danone is the world's fifth-largest food company and the world's largest supplier of mineral water; Sanofi is the world's fifth-largest pharmaceutical company; Publicis is the world's third-largest advertising company; Groupe PSA is the world's 6th and Europe's 2nd largest automaker; Accor is the leading European hotel group; Alstom is one of the world's leading conglomerates in rail transport. Under the doctrine of Dirigisme, the government historically played a major role in the economy; policies such as indicative planning and nationalisation are credited for contributing to three decades of unprecedented postwar economic growth known as Trente Glorieuses. At its peak in 1982, the public sector accounted for one-fifth of industrial employment and over four-fifths of the credit market. Beginning in the late 20th century, France loosened regulations and state involvement in the economy, with most leading companies now being privately owned; state ownership now dominates only transportation, defence and broadcasting. Policies aimed at promoting economic dynamism and privatisation have improved France's economic standing globally: it is among the world's 10 most innovative countries in the 2020 Bloomberg Innovation Index, and the 15th most competitive, according to the 2019 Global Competitiveness Report (up two places from 2018).According to the IMF, France ranked 30th in GDP per capita, with roughly $45,000 per inhabitant. It placed 23rd in the Human Development Index, indicating very high human development. Public corruption is among the lowest in the world, with France consistently ranking among the 30 least corrupt countries since the Corruption Perceptions Index began in 2012; it placed 22nd in 2021, up one place from the previous year. France is Europe's second-largest spender in research and development, at over 2 percent of GDP; globally, it ranks 12th. France is also the second largest contributor to the European Space Agency after Germany.Financial services, banking, and insurance are important part of the economy. AXA is the world's second-largest insurance company by total nonbanking assets in 2020. As of 2011, the three largest financial institutions cooperatively owned by their customers were French: Crédit Agricole, Groupe Caisse D'Epargne, and Groupe Caisse D'Epargne. According to a 2020 report by S&P Global Market Intelligenc, France's leading banks, BNP Paribas and Crédit Agricole, are among the top world's 10 largest bank by assets, with Société Générale and Groupe BPCE ranking 17th and 19th globally, respectively.Paris is a leading global city, and has one of the largest city GDP in the world and the largest in Europe. It ranks as the first city in Europe (and 3rd worldwide) by the number of companies classified in Fortune's Fortune Global 500. Paris produced US$984 billion at market exchange rates or around 1/3 of the economy of France in 2021 while the economy of the Paris metropolitan area — the largest in Europe with London—generates around 1/3 of France's GDP or around $1.0 trillion. Paris has been ranked as the 2nd most attractive global city in the world in 2019 by KPMG. La Défense, Paris's Central Business District, was ranked by Ernst & Young in 2017 as the leading business district in continental Europe, and fourth in the world. The OECD is headquartered in Paris, the nation's financial capital. The other major economic centres of the country include Lyon, Toulouse (centre of the European aerospace industry), Marseille and Lille. The Paris stock exchange (French: La Bourse de Paris) is one of the oldest in the world, created by Louis XV in 1724. In 2000, it merged with counterparts in Amsterdam and Brussels to form Euronext, which in 2007 merged with the New York stock exchange to form NYSE Euronext, the world's largest stock exchange. Euronext Paris, the French branch of Euronext, is Europe's second-largest stock exchange market, behind the London Stock Exchange. === Russia === Russia, the world's largest nation, is home to over 30% of the world's natural resources according to some sources. Since its imperial times, it has been both a great power and a regional power. Throughout most of the Soviet-era, Russia was one of the world's two superpowers. However, after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, it lost its superpower status, and recently has been suggested as a potential candidate for resuming superpower status in the 21st century. While others have made the assertion that it is already a superpower. In 2009, Hugo Chavez, late President of Venezuela whose government was noted to have enjoyed warm relations with the Kremlin, stated that ""Russia is a superpower"", citing waning American influence in global affairs, and suggested the ruble be elevated to a global currency. Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu called Russia an important superpower, praising its effectiveness as an ally of Israel. In his 2005 publication entitled Russia in the 21st Century: The Prodigal Superpower, Steven Rosefielde, a professor of economics at University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, predicted that Russia would emerge as a superpower before 2010 and augur another arms race. However, Rosefielde noted that such an end would come with tremendous sacrifice to global security and the Russian people's freedom.In 2014, Stephen Kinzer of The Boston Globe compared Russia's actions with its own neighbouring territories, to those of ""any other superpower"", taking Ukraine and Crimea as examples. A mixed opinion has been offered by Matthew Fleischer of the Los Angeles Times: he contends that Russia will not become a superpower unless climate change eats away at the permafrost that covers, as of March 2014, two-thirds of the country's landmass. The absence of this permafrost would reveal immense stores of oil, natural gas, and precious minerals, as well as potential farmland, which would allow Russia to ""become the world's bread basket—and control the planet's food supply"".Russian news agency RIA Novosti called Russia a ""superpower"" after its actions in Syria, and after the formation of a coalition to fight ISIS in Syria and Iraq, Benny Avni of the New York Post called Russia the ""world's new sole superpower"".However, several analysts commented on the fact that Russia showed signs of an aging and shrinking population. Fred Weir said that this severely constricts and limits Russia's potential to re-emerge as a central world power. In 2011, British historian and professor Niall Ferguson also highlighted the negative effects of Russia's declining population, and suggested that Russia is on its way to ""global irrelevance"". Russia has, however, shown a slight population growth since the late 2000s, partly due to immigration and slowly rising birth rates.Nathan Smith of the National Business Review has said that despite Russia having potential, it did not win the new ""Cold War"" in the 1980s, and thus makes superpower status inaccurate. Dmitry Medvedev predicted that if the Russian elite is not consolidated, Russia will disappear as a single state. Vladimir Putin said the moment the Caucasus leaves Russia, other territorial regions would follow.Besides, other analysts state that despite having a formidable military, Russia can only be considered as a regional power as it only has major political and military influences on most Post-Soviet states, but not a country which has international economic influence like China. After Russia's poor performance in the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, some analysts questioned Russia's military and power projection capabilities. === Germany === Germany is a great power with a strong economy; it has the largest economy in Europe, the world's fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP, and the fifth-largest by PPP. As a global leader in several industrial, scientific and technological sectors, it is both the world's third-largest exporter and importer of goods. As a developed country, which ranks very high on the Human Development Index, it offers social security and a universal health care system, environmental protections, and a tuition-free university education. Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G7, the G20, and the OECD. It has the third-greatest number of UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Germany also has a social market economy with a highly skilled labour force, a low level of corruption, and a high level of innovation. It is the world's third-largest exporter and third-largest importer of goods, and has the largest economy in Europe, which is also the world's fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP, and the fifth-largest by PPP. Its GDP per capita measured in purchasing power standards amounts to 121% of the EU27 average (100%). The service sector contributes approximately 69% of the total GDP, industry 31%, and agriculture 1% as of 2017. The unemployment rate published by Eurostat amounts to 3.2% as of January 2020, which is the fourth-lowest in the EU.Germany is part of the European single market which represents more than 450 million consumers. In 2017, the country accounted for 28% of the Eurozone economy according to the International Monetary Fund. Germany introduced the common European currency, the Euro, in 2002. Its monetary policy is set by the European Central Bank, which is headquartered in Frankfurt.Being home to the modern car, the automotive industry in Germany is regarded as one of the most competitive and innovative in the world, and is the fourth-largest by production. The top ten exports of Germany are vehicles, machinery, chemical goods, electronic products, electrical equipments, pharmaceuticals, transport equipments, basic metals, food products, and rubber and plastics.Of the world's 500 largest stock-market-listed companies measured by revenue in 2019, the Fortune Global 500, 29 are headquartered in Germany. 40 major Germany-based companies are included in the DAX, the German stock market index which is operated by Frankfurt Stock Exchange. Well-known international brands include Mercedes-Benz, BMW, Volkswagen, Audi, Siemens, Allianz, Adidas, Porsche, Bosch and Deutsche Telekom. Berlin is a hub for startup companies and has become the leading location for venture capital funded firms in the European Union. Germany is recognised for its large portion of specialised small and medium enterprises, known as the Mittelstand model. These companies represent 48% global market leaders in their segments, labelled hidden champions.Research and development efforts form an integral part of the German economy. In 2018 Germany ranked fourth globally in terms of number of science and engineering research papers published. Germany was ranked 9th in the Global Innovation Index in 2019 and 2020. Research institutions in Germany include the Max Planck Society, the Helmholtz Association, and the Fraunhofer Society and the Leibniz Association. Germany is the largest contributor to the European Space Agency. === Japan === Japan is a great power and a member of numerous international organizations, including the United Nations (since 1956), the OECD, and the Group of Seven. Although it has renounced its right to declare war, the country maintains Self-Defense Forces that rank as one of the world's strongest militaries. After World War II, Japan experienced record growth in an economic miracle, becoming the second-largest economy in the world by 1990. Japanese economy was the world's second largest economy in terms of GDP until it was surpassed by China in 2010. As of 2021, the country's economy is the third-largest by nominal GDP and the fourth-largest by PPP. The country is the third-largest in the world by total wealth. It is also ranked ""very high"" on the Human Development Index. In the 1980s, many political and economic analysts predicted that Japan would eventually accede to superpower status, due to its large population, huge gross domestic product and high economic growth at that time. Japan was expected to eventually surpass the economy of the United States, which never happened. However, Japan is considered a cultural superpower in terms of the large-scale influence Japanese food, music, video games, manga, anime and movies have on the world. In 2021, U.S. News & World Report ranked Japan as the most culturally influential country in Asia and 5th in the world.Japan is also considered to be a technological power, being the leader in the automotive, electronics (though its present-day position in the electronics field had declined by the 2010s) and robotics industries. As of 2022, 47 of the Fortune Global 500 companies are based in Japan. Japan's most valuable and internationally known brands include: Toyota, Honda, Sony, Soft Bank, Subaru, Nissan, Mazda, Canon Inc., Uniqlo and Nintendo.Japan was ranked as the world's fourth most-powerful military in 2015. The military capabilities of the Japan Self-Defense Forces are held back by the pacifist 1947 constitution. However, there is a gradual push for a constitutional amendment. On 18 September 2015, the National Diet enacted the 2015 Japanese military legislation, a series of laws that allow Japan's Self-Defense Forces to collective self-defense of allies in combat for the first time under its constitution. In May 2017, former Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe set a 2020 deadline for revising Article 9, which would legitimize the JSDF in the Constitution. === India === The Republic of India is considered a great power, but the country was not considered a great power until recently, given its recent history and economic and military expansion. There is no collective agreement among observers for the status of India. However, many scholars believe that India is a great power or emerging as so. It maintains one of the largest armed forces and military budgets in the world. Since the 1990s, Indian culture has become more prominent around the world. Bollywood movies and Indian cuisine are some of the major aspects of the culture of India. Although India maintains a position as a major economic and military power, it is not a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council. India has seen considerable coverage of its potential of becoming a superpower, both in the media and among academics. In 2006, Newsweek and the International Herald Tribune joined several academics in discussing India's potential of becoming a superpower.Anil Gupta believes that due to India's functional institutions of democracy, the country will emerge as a desirable, entrepreneurial and resource and energy-efficient superpower in the near future. He had predicted the nation's emergence as a full-fledged economic superpower by 2025. In addition, he believed that India has the potential to serve as a leading example of how to combine rapid economic growth with fairness towards and inclusion of those at the bottom rungs of the ladder and of efficient resource utilization, especially in energy. India briefly became the world's fastest growing economy in 2015 but growth declined below China's since 2018.Economists and Researchers at Harvard University have projected India's 7% projected annual growth rate through 2024 would continue to put it ahead of China, making India the fastest growing economy in the world. In 2017, Center for International Development at Harvard University, published a research study, projecting that India has emerged as the economic pole of global growth by surpassing China and is expected to maintain its lead over the coming decade.Robyn Meredith pointed out in 2007 that the average incomes of European and Americans are higher than Chinese and Indians, and hundreds of millions of Chinese as well as Indians live in poverty, she also suggested that economic growth of these nations has been the most important factor in reducing global poverty of the last two decades, as per the World Bank report.Amy Chua adds to this, that India has made tremendous strides to fix its internal problems, stating that some of India's achievements, such as working to dismantle the centuries-old caste system and maintaining the world's largest diverse democracy, are historically unprecedented.Fareed Zakaria pointing out that India's young population coupled with the second-largest English-speaking population in the world could give India an advantage over China. He also believes that while other industrial countries will face a youth gap, India will have many young people, or in other words, workers, and by 2050, its per capita income will rise by twenty times its current level. According to Zakaria, another strength that India has is that its democratic government has lasted for 60 years, stating that a democracy can provide for long-term stability, which has given India a name.Clyde V. Prestowitz Jr., founder and president of the Economic Strategy Institute and former counselor to the Secretary of Commerce in the Reagan administration, has predicted that ""It is going to be India's century. India is going to be the biggest economy in the world. It is going to be the biggest superpower of the 21st century.""According to the report named ""Indian Century: Defining India's Place in a Rapidly Changing Global Economy"" by IBM Institute for Business Value, India is predicted to be among the world's highest-growth nations over the coming years. === Brazil === The Federative Republic of Brazil has been cited by former US president Barack Obama to be a great power, and has been cited as an 'environmental superpower'. This unique environmental heritage positions inputs responsibilities in the preservation of the Amazon, creating a fund for mainteance of the rainforest and a pact to preserve the rainforest. Brazil has been central in the discussions concerning the climate changes and hosting the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development. The economy of Brazil is historically the largest in Latin America and the Southern Hemisphere in nominal terms. The Brazilian economy is the third largest in the Americas. The economy is a middle income developing mixed economy. In 2022, according to International Monetary Fund (IMF), Brazil has the 10th largest gross domestic product expenditure (GDP) and has the 8th largest purchasing power parity. Brazil is a member of diverse economic organizations, such as Mercosur, Prosur, G8+5, G20, WTO, Paris Club, Cairns Group, and is advanced to be a permanent member of the OECD.Is the largest country in South America and in Latin America. At 8.5 million square kilometers (3,300,000 sq mi) and with over 217 million people, Brazil is the world's fifth-largest country by area and the seventh most populous. Brazil is member of various international organizations, and is actively engaged in the reform of the United Nations Security Council. It formed the G4 alliance with Germany, India, and Japan for the purpose of supporting each other's bids for permanent seats. Their proposal calls for an enlarged Security Council, expanded in both the permanent and non-permanent categories of membership. A wide coalition of member states from all regional groups of the United Nations supported the initiative. As a founding member of the United Nations, Brazil has a long tradition of contributing to peacekeeping operations. Brazil has participated in 33 United Nations peacekeeping operations and contributed with over 27,000 troops. Currently, Brazil contributes with more than 2,200 troops, military observers and police officers in three continents. Brazil has led the military component of the United Nations Stabilisation Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH) since its establishment in 2004. The mission's Force Commander is Major General Fernando Rodrigues Goulart of the Brazilian Army. Brazil is the biggest troop contributing country to MINUSTAH, with 2,200 active military personnel. === Italy === Italy has been referred to as a great European power with almost the same power as Germany, France, and the UK., but due to internal political instability, a large public debt, a diminishing economic productivity, low economic growth in the last ten years and a significant Centre-North/South socio-economic divide, it is considered as the least of the great powers. Due to the lack of international influence in recent years, Italy is now considered as a European power instead of a global power. Italy's great power strength includes a vast advanced economy (in terms of national wealth, net wealth per capita and national GDP), a strong manufacturing industry, a large luxury goods market, a large national budget and the third largest gold reserve in the world. It has one of the largest SDRs and Voting Power in the IMF. The country is a cultural superpower and it has close ties with the rest of the Catholic world as the home of the Pope. Italy is a key player in maintaining international security, especially in the wider Mediterranean region, by performing air policing duties for its allies and commanding multinational forces in foreign countries. The country has therefore developed considerable military capabilities by building two aircraft carriers and establishing some overseas military bases. The Italian navy was the first to launch an intermediate-range ballistic missile from the sea, an UGM-27 Polaris launched from the cruiser Giuseppe Garibaldi. The country is home to two nuclear bases and, as part of the NATO nuclear sharing program, therefore has a retaliatory nuclear capacity despite nominally being a non-nuclear state. According to the former Italian President Francesco Cossiga, Italy's plans of nuclear retaliation during the Cold War consisted of targeting nuclear weapons in Czechoslovakia and Hungary in case the Soviet Union waged nuclear war against NATO. He acknowledged the presence of U.S. nuclear weapons in Italy, and speculated about the possible presence of British and French nuclear weapons. Italy secretly developed its own nuclear weapons program, and one in collaboration with France and Germany, but abandoned such projects when it joined the nuclear sharing program. The country has developed the ABM PAAMS system. It has developed several space-launch vehicles such as Alfa and more recently Vega. In more recent years, under the auspices of European space agency, it has demonstrated the reentry and landing of a spacecraft, the Intermediate eXperimental Vehicle. Italy is home to one of two ground operations centres of the Galileo global satellite navigation system. Besides, Italy has as one of the most advanced economies in the world as the eighth-largest economy by nominal GDP (third in the European Union), the sixth-largest national wealth and the third-largest central bank gold reserve. It ranks very high in life expectancy, quality of life, healthcare, and education. The country is considered a great power and it plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural, and diplomatic affairs. Italy is a founding and leading member of the European Union and a member of numerous international institutions, including the United Nations, NATO, the OECD, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, the World Trade Organization, the Group of Seven, the G20, the Union for the Mediterranean, the Latin Union, the Council of Europe, Uniting for Consensus, the Schengen Area, and many more. The source of many inventions and discoveries, the country has long been a global centre of art, music, literature, philosophy, science and technology, and fashion, and has greatly influenced and contributed to diverse fields including cinema, cuisine, sports, jurisprudence, banking, and business. As a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy has the world's largest number of World Heritage Sites (58), and is the fifth-most visited country. Moreover, Italy contributes greatly to scientific research and operates some permanent research stations in Antarctica. In terms of spaceflight capability, the country owns the Broglio Space Centre. The country is a major contributor to the European Space Agency and the International Space Station. == See also == Cold War 1947–1989 Concert of Europe, after 1814 Diplomatic history of World War I Diplomatic history of World War II European balance of power Foreign policy of the Russian Empire Great Eastern Crisis, 1875–1878 Historic recurrence Historiography of the British Empire History of the foreign relations of the United Kingdom Pax Britannica Timeline of British diplomatic history History of colonialism History of French foreign relations History of German foreign policy History of globalization International relations (1648–1814) International relations (1919–1939) International relations (1814–1919) List of ancient great powers List of largest empires List of medieval great powers Precedence among European monarchies Middle power New Imperialism Potential superpower Power (international relations) Timeline of European imperialism Timeline of United States diplomatic history == Notes == == References == == Bibliography == DeLong, J. Bradford (February 1997). ""Slouching Towards Utopia?: The Economic History of the Twentieth Century. XV. Nazis and Soviets"". econ161.berkeley.edu. University of California at Berkeley. Archived from the original on 11 May 2008. Retrieved 21 April 2013. Evans, Richard J. (2005). The Third Reich in Power. New York: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-303790-3. Ingrao, Charles & Szabo, Franz A.J., eds. (2007). The Germans and the East. Purdue University Press. ISBN 978-155753-443-9. Kershaw, Ian (2008). Hitler: A Biography. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-06757-6. McNab, Chris (2009). The Third Reich. London: Amber Books. ISBN 978-1-906626-51-8. Reinach, Joseph (1920). ""Le rôle de l'impératrice Eugénie en septembre et octobre 1870"". Revue d'Histoire du XIXe siècle – 1848 (in French). Société d'Histoire de la Révolution de 1848. 17 (85): 193. doi:10.3406/r1848.1920.1652. Shirer, William L. (1960). The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-62420-0. Truitt, Wesley B. (2010). Power and Policy: Lessons for Leaders in Government and Business. Praeger. ISBN 978-031338-240-6. Tooze, Adam (2006). The Wages of Destruction: The Making and Breaking of the Nazi Economy. New York; Toronto: Viking. ISBN 978-0-670-03826-8. == Further reading == Banks, Arthur. (1988) A World Atlas of Military History 1861–1945 Cambridge Modern History Atlas (1912) online. 141 maps Catchpole, Brian. (1982) Map History of the Modern World Cooper, F. (2008). Empires and Political Imagination in World History. Princeton [u.a.]: Princeton University Press. Daniels, Patricia S. and Stephen G. Hyslop, Almanac of World History (3rd ed 2014); 384pp well illustrated Doyle, M. W. (1986). Empires. Ithaca, N.Y: Cornell University Press. Farrington, K. (2003). Historical Atlas of Empires. London: Mercury. Grenville, J.A.S. (1994) A History of the World in the Twentieth Century (1994). online Haywood, John. (1997) Atlas of world history online Joffe, Josef. The myth of America's decline: Politics, economics, and a half century of false prophecies ( WW Norton & Company, 2014). Kinder, Hermann and Werner Hilgemann. The Penguin Atlas of World History (2 vol, 2004); advanced topical atlas. excerpt of vol 1 also see excerpt vol 2 Langer, William, ed. (1973) An Encyclopedia of World History (1948 And later editions) online Stearns, Peter, ed. The Encyclopedia of World History (2007), 1245pp; update of Langer Mckay, Derek, and H.M. Scott (1983). The Rise of the Great Powers 1648 – 1815. Pearson. ISBN 9781317872849.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Pella, John & Erik Ringmar, (2019) History of international relations Online Archived 16 August 2019 at the Wayback Machine O'Brian, Patrick K. Atlas of World History (2007) online Pastor, Robert, ed. A Century's Journey How The Great Powers Shape The World (2000) Rand McNally Atlas of World History (1983), maps #76–81. Published in Britain as the Hamlyn Historical Atlas online Roberts, J. M. and Odd Arne Westad, eds. The Penguin History of the World (6th ed. 2014) 1280pp excerpt Robertson, Charles Grant. An historical atlas of modern Europe from 1789 to 1922 with an historical and explanatory text (1922) online" Countries,Post-Soviet states,"The post-Soviet states, also referred to as the former Soviet Union (FSU) or the former Soviet republics, are the independent sovereign states that emerged/re-emerged out of the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. Prior to their independence, they existed as Union Republics — top-level constituents of the Soviet Union. There are 15 post-Soviet states in total: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan. Each of these countries succeeded their respective Union Republics: the Armenian SSR, the Azerbaijan SSR, the Byelorussian SSR, the Estonian SSR, the Georgian SSR, the Kazakh SSR, the Kirghiz SSR, the Latvian SSR, the Lithuanian SSR, the Moldavian SSR, the Russian SFSR, the Tajik SSR, the Turkmen SSR, the Ukrainian SSR, and the Uzbek SSR. In Russia, the term ""near abroad"" (Russian: ближнее зарубежье bližneye zarʉbežye) is sometimes used to refer to other post-Soviet states. Following the end of the Cold War, the international community de facto recognized Russia as the successor state to the Soviet Union as a whole, rather than to just the Russian SFSR. In contrast, the other post-Soviet states were recognized as successors only to their corresponding Union Republics. However, Russia's status as the sole legitimate successor in this capacity has been disputed by Ukraine, which has proclaimed by law that it is the successor state to both the Ukrainian SSR and the Soviet Union as a whole. The question of whether Russia or Ukraine succeeded the Soviet Union in 1991 arose due to a comprehensive dispute between the two countries over what had been collective Soviet state-owned properties, now divided by the Russia–Ukraine border.The Union Republics of the Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania) were the first to break away from the Soviet Union by proclaiming the restoration of their national independence between March and May 1990; they cited legal continuity from the original Baltic states, asserting that Baltic sovereignty had continued on a de jure basis due to the belligerent nature of the 1940 Soviet annexation. Subsequently, the 12 remaining Union Republics seceded, with all of them jointly establishing the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) and most of them later joining the Russian-led Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO). On the other hand, the three Baltic states pursued a policy of near-total disengagement with the Russian-dominated post-Soviet sphere, instead focusing on integrating themselves with the European Union (EU) and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). They successfully attained NATO membership in March 2004, and were granted EU membership two months later. Since the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the integration of the Baltic states with the EU and NATO, many EU officials have stressed the importance of establishing EU Association Agreements with the other post-Soviet states. Since the 2000s, Ukraine and Georgia have actively sought NATO membership due to increasingly hostile Russian interference in their internal affairs. However, the prospect of NATO's eastward enlargement further escalated regional tensions, culminating in the Russo-Georgian War since 2008 and the Russo-Ukrainian War since 2014. Due to the post-Soviet conflicts, several disputed states with varying degrees of international recognition have emerged within the territory of the former Soviet Union. These include Transnistria, an unrecognized Russian-backed state in eastern Moldova; Abkhazia and South Ossetia, two partially recognized Russian-backed states in northern Georgia; and Artsakh, an unrecognized Armenian breakaway state in southwestern Azerbaijan. The United Nations (UN) has historically considered Russian-backed states in the ""near abroad"" to be illegitimate, instead viewing them as constituting Russian-occupied territories. The aftermath of the Maidan Revolution saw the emergence of Russian-backed states in Ukraine in 2014: the Republic of Crimea in southern Ukraine briefly claimed independence before being annexed by Russia in 2014; and the Donetsk People's Republic and the Luhansk People's Republic, both located in Ukraine's Donbas, declared independence in 2014 before being annexed by Russia in 2022, amidst the ongoing Russian invasion of Ukraine. == Name == In the political language of Russia and some other post-Soviet states, the term near abroad (Russian ближнее зарубежье ""blizhnee zarubezhe"") refers to the independent republics that emerged after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Increasing usage of the term in English is connected to assertions of Russia's right to maintain significant influence in the region. Russian President Vladimir Putin has declared the region to be a component of Russia's ""sphere of influence"", and strategically vital to Russian interests. The concept has been compared to the Monroe Doctrine.The AP Styleguide recommends avoiding using the shorthand ""former Soviet republic(s)"" unless relevant to the story. == Country comparison == The 15 states may be divided into four subregions. Not included in these categories are the several de facto independent states presently lacking international recognition (read below: Separatist conflicts). === Current leaders === ==== Heads of state ==== ==== Heads of government ==== == Economy == The dissolution of the Soviet Union took place as one result of and against the backdrop of the general stagnation, even regression, of the economy of the USSR. As the Gosplan, which had set up production chains to cross SSR lines, broke down, the inter-republic economic connections were also disrupted, leading to even more serious effects on the post-Soviet economies. Most of the formerly Soviet states began the transition to a market economy from a command economy in 1990–1991 and made efforts to rebuild and restructure their economic systems, often following neoliberal shock therapy policies, with varying results. In all, the process triggered severe economic declines, with gross domestic product (GDP) dropping by more than 40% overall between 1990 and 1995. This decline in GDP was much more intense than the 27% decline that the United States suffered in the wake of the Great Depression between 1930 and 1934. The reconfiguration of public finance in compliance with capitalist principles resulted in dramatically reduced spending on health, education and other social programs, leading to a sharp increase in poverty and economic inequality. The economic shocks associated with wholesale privatization resulted in the excess deaths of roughly 1 million working age individuals throughout the former Soviet bloc in the 1990s. A study by economist Steven Rosefielde asserts that 3.4 million Russians died premature deaths from 1990 to 1998, partly as the result of the shock therapy policies imposed by the Washington Consensus.The initial transition decline was eventually arrested, and after 1995 the economy in the post-Soviet states began to recover, with GDP switching from negative to positive growth rates. By 2007, 10 of the 15 post-Soviet states had recovered their 1991 GDP levels. According to economist Branko Milanović, in 2015 many former Soviet republics and other former communist countries still have not caught up to their 1991 levels of output, including Bosnia-Herzegovina, Georgia, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Serbia, Tajikistan and Ukraine. He concluded that ""only 1 out of 10 people living in 'transition' countries have seen a successful transition to capitalism and more democracy."" Commenting on Milanović's report in 2021, Kristen Ghodsee says this view is ""essentially correct"" and perhaps underestimates ""the negative impacts of transition by focusing only on GDP, inequality and democratic consolidation"" whereas Mitchell A. Orenstein says this view is ""overly pessimistic"" and notes that ""Poland had done spectacularly well and living standards had increased in many countries.""Most of the new states' constitutions define directly or indirectly the economic system of the countries parallel to the democratic transition of the 1990s, emphasising the free market economy. The average government debt in these countries is nearly 44%, but the deviation is great, because the lowest figure is close to 10% but the highest is 97%. The trend shows that the sovereign debt-to-GDP ratio in most of the countries has been rising. The constitutional background for taxation is similar. Central banks are often independent state institutions, which possess the monopoly on managing and implementing a state's or federation's monetary policy. Besides monetary policy, some of them also perform the supervision of the financial intermediary system.Change in gross domestic product (GDP) in constant prices, 1991–2015 *Economy of most Soviet republics started to decline in 1989–1990, thus indices for 1991 do not match pre-reform maximums. **The year when GDP decline switched to GDP growth List of the present gross domestic product (GDP) (figures are given in 2023 United States dollars for the year 2023 according to the IMF) == Developmental progress == The post-Soviet states listed according to their Human Development Index scores in 2021 Very High Human Development: Estonia: 0.890 Lithuania: 0.875 Latvia: 0.863 Russia: 0.822 Kazakhstan: 0.811 Belarus: 0.808 Georgia: 0.802High Human Development: Ukraine: 0.773 Moldova: 0.767 Armenia: 0.759 Azerbaijan: 0.745 Turkmenistan: 0.745 Uzbekistan: 0.727Medium Human Development: Kyrgyzstan: 0.692 Tajikistan: 0.685 == Regional organizations == A number of regional organizations and cooperating blocs have sprung up since the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Only organizations that are mainly (or completely) composed of post-Soviet states are listed in this section; organizations with wider memberships are not discussed. The 15 post-Soviet states are divided in their participation to the regional blocs: Belarus, Russia and Ukraine founded the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) in December 1991. It was conceived as a successor organization to the USSR, and in December 1993 it included 12 of the 15 former Soviet republics (except the three Baltic states). It currently consists of nine of the 15 former Soviet republics, with one associate state (Turkmenistan). Georgia withdrew from the CIS in August 2008, while Ukraine stopped participating from the CIS in May 2018. The three Baltic states have not sought membership in any of these post-Soviet organizations, seeking and achieving membership in the European Union and NATO instead, although their electricity and rail systems remain closely connected with former Soviet organizations. The sole exception to the above has been their recent membership in the Community of Democratic Choice. The Central Asian states of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan (as well as Belarus) are members of the CIS and participate in several regional organizations that have Russia as a primary mover. Such organizations are the Eurasian Economic Community (later merged with Eurasian Economic Union, which Tajikistan and Uzbekistan are not members of), Collective Security Treaty Organization and the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation. The last two groups only became distinct once Uzbekistan withdrew from GUAM and sought membership in EurAsEc and CSTO (which it subsequently withdrew from in 2008 and 2012, respectively). Armenia, besides its membership in CIS participates in Collective Security Treaty Organization and the Eurasian Economic Union. Moldova and Azerbaijan participate in the CIS but other than that they mostly cooperate within regional organizations that are not dominated by Russia. Such organizations are GUAM and the Community of Democratic Choice. Although Ukraine is one of the three founding countries of the CIS, it is legally not a member because it has never ratified the 1993 CIS Charter. Turkmenistan is an associate member of CIS (having withdrawn from full membership in August 2005) and a member in the Economic Cooperation Organization; it has not sought closer integration in any of the other Western or post-Soviet organizations. In 2008, Georgia notified the CIS executive bodies of its decision to leave the regional organization, and according to the CIS Charter (sec. 1, art. 9) this decision went into force 12 months after the notification date. === Commonwealth of Independent States === The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) consists of 10 former Soviet Republics that differ in their membership status. As of December 2010, 9 countries have ratified the CIS charter and are full CIS members (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Moldova, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan), one country (Turkmenistan) is an associate member and two countries (Georgia, Ukraine) left the organization in 2009 and in 2018. In 2014, Ukraine declined its CIS chairmanship and considered withdrawal from the organization.In 1994, the CIS countries agreed to create a free trade area, but the agreements were never signed. On 19 October 2011, Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan and Ukraine signed a free trade agreement. Uzbekistan joined the free trade area in 2013. === Eurasian Economic Community === The Eurasian Economic Community (EURASEC), formerly the CIS Customs Union, was established by Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan. Ukraine and Moldova have observer status in the community; however, Ukraine has declared its desire not to become a full member state. Because having common borders with the rest of the community is a prerequisite for full membership, Moldova is barred from seeking it. Uzbekistan applied for membership in October 2005, when the process of merging Central Asian Cooperation Organization and the Eurasian Economic Community began; it joined on 25 January 2006. Uzbekistan subsequently suspended its membership in 2008.On 10 October 2014 an agreement on the termination of the Eurasian Economic Community was signed in Minsk after a session of the Interstate Council of the EAEC. The Eurasian Economic Community was terminated from 1 January 2015 in connection with the launch of the Eurasian Economic Union. === Customs Union of Belarus, Kazakhstan and Russia === Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan created a customs union that entered into force in July 2010. Ukraine, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan indicated interest in joining at the time. Russia has been eager for Armenia, Moldova and Ukraine to join the custom union instead of the European Union, and the Moldovan break-away state of Transnistria has supported this. In 2013, Kyrgyzstan and Armenia announced plans to seek membership, but division over the issue in Ukraine led to the Revolution of Dignity after the Ukrainian government backed out of an EU Eastern Partnership in favor of the union. In 2014, voters in the Moldovan autonomous region of Gagauzia rejected closer ties to the EU in favor of the union.On 1 January 2012, Russia, Kazakhstan and Belarus established the Single Economic Space which ensures the effective functioning of a single market for goods, services, capital and labour, and to establish coherent industrial, transport, energy and agricultural policies. The agreement included a roadmap for future integration and established the Eurasian Economic Commission (modelled on the European Commission). The Eurasian Economic Commission serves as the regulatory agency for the Eurasian Customs Union, the Single Economic Space and the Eurasian Economic Union. === Eurasian Economic Union === The Eurasian Economic Union is an economic union of post-Soviet states. The treaty aiming for the establishment of the EAEU was signed on 29 May 2014 by the leaders of Belarus, Kazakhstan and Russia, and came into force on 1 January 2015. Treaties aiming for Armenia's and Kyrgyzstan's accession to the Eurasian Economic Union were signed on 9 October 2014 and 23 December respectively. Armenia's accession treaty came into force on 2 January 2015. Although Kyrgyzstan's accession treaty will not come into force until May 2015, provided it has been ratified, it will participate in the EAEU from the day of its establishment as an acceding state. Moldova and Tajikistan are prospective members. === Collective Security Treaty Organization === Seven CIS member states, namely Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and Armenia, have enhanced their military cooperation, establishing the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO), this being an expansion of the previous Collective Security Treaty (CST). Uzbekistan which (alongside Georgia and Azerbaijan) withdrew from the CST in 1999, joined GUAM. Then in 2005, it withdrew from GUAM and joined the CSTO in 2006. On 28 June 2012, Uzbekistan suspended its membership in the CSTO. === North Atlantic Treaty Organization === Three former Soviet states are members of NATO: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. Georgia, where both public opinion and the ruling government favor NATO membership, is in the Intensified Dialogue program with NATO. Ukraine also declared joining NATO as its geopolitical goal once again in 2017 (the first time being right after the Orange Revolution and in the beginning of presidency of Viktor Yushchenko), after the presidency of Viktor Yanukovych, during which the government officially declared neutrality and ceased to seek NATO membership.Other states in the Partnership for Peace and Individual Partnership Action Plan program include Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. === GUAM === Four member states, namely Georgia, Ukraine, Azerbaijan and Moldova, established the GUAM group that was largely seen as intending to counter Russian dominance in the region. Notably, these four nations do not participate in any of the other regional organizations that sprang up in the region since the dissolution of the Soviet Union (other than the CIS). === Union State === The Union State of Russia and Belarus was originally formed on 2 April 1996 under the name Commonwealth of Russia and Belarus, before being tightened further on 8 December 1999. It was initiated by the president of Belarus, Alexander Lukashenko. On paper, the Union of Russia and Belarus intends further integration, beyond the scope of mere cooperation, including the introduction of the rouble as a common currency. == Other regional organizations == === Economic Cooperation Organization === The Economic Cooperation Organization was originally formed in 1985 by Turkey, Iran and Pakistan but in 1992 the organization was expanded to include Afghanistan and the six primarily Muslim former Soviet republics: Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. === Community for Democracy and Rights of Nations === The post-Soviet disputed states of Abkhazia, Artsakh, South Ossetia and Transnistria are all members of the Community for Democracy and Rights of Nations which aims to forge closer integration. === Community of Democratic Choice === The Community of Democratic Choice (CDC) was formed in December 2005 at the primary instigation of Ukraine and Georgia, and composed of six post-Soviet states (Ukraine, Georgia, Moldova, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania) and three other countries of Eastern and Central Europe (Slovenia, Romania and North Macedonia). The Black Sea Forum (BSF) is a closely related organization. Observer countries include Armenia, Bulgaria and Poland. Just like GUAM before it, this forum is largely seen as intending to counteract Russian influence in the area. This is the only international forum centered in the post-Soviet space in which the Baltic countries also participate. In addition, the other three post-Soviet states in it are all members of GUAM. === Shanghai Cooperation Organisation === The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), is composed of China and five post-Soviet states, namely Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. The organization was founded in 2001, though its predecessor, the Shanghai Five grouping, has existed since 1996. Its aims revolve around security-related issues such as border demarcation, terrorism and energy. === Economic cooperation organizations === Central European Free Trade Agreement (CEFTA) with Moldova (it includes also non post-Soviet countries of the former Yugoslavia; previously, also included other Central European countries that left CEFTA when joining the European Union; CEFTA plays a role in Central Europe similar to what European Free Trade Association (EFTA) provides in Western Europe for non EU-members; this alliance an economical organization with strong cooperation with the European Union, for countries that do not want to participate in EurAsEC centered on Russia but that are seeking alliances to the West); even if Moldova is the only CEFTA country that is still within a weakening CIS, it no longer participates to the CSTO for most of the common security policy (but cannot join the EU because of incompatibility with WEU stability rules and the unsolved problem of Transnistria) but can still benefit from the Free Trade Area notably with Romania and Bulgaria (in the EU). Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC) with Russia, Georgia, Ukraine, Azerbaijan, Moldova, Turkey, Albania, Greece, Romania, Bulgaria, Serbia and Armenia (an economic organisation closely related to the SCO but more focused regionally to include also Armenia; it also aims for the harmonious development of democracy for increasing the commerce in South-East Europe and includes some EU members, so it cannot be a regional free-trade union). The European Union (EU) with the three Baltic countries that were the first ones to declare independence from the former USSR have never joined CIS after the collapse of USSR (it includes also now some post-communist countries in Central Europe, that have left CEFTA when entering the EU : Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria and Slovenia). === Political integration and security alliances === Stability Pact for South Eastern Europe (SPforSEE) with Moldova (similar in structure to CEFTA, but does not focus on economy but security, for those countries that are not NATO members); this organization largely cooperates with NATO, and is related to the group of observers at Western European Union (WEU). The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), for Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland and Central European countries that have also joined the EU (the EU membership includes also WEU membership because they follow the Common Foreign and Security Policy and European Security and Defence Policy policies shared now by the EU, the WEU and all European NATO members). The other remaining countries are those part of the former Yugoslavia, but their recent conflict and political tensions still does not allow them to cooperate efficiently for their political integration and for their mutual security; in addition, they still do not have full sovereignty in this domain (some of them are still under surveillance by EU or NATO, as mandated by UNO). They still need to find an internal stability and they can collaborate economically with the help of other organizations focusing on economy or political cooperation and development. However, a more limited cooperation for security is possible through their membership to the larger Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE). The only exception is Belarus (whose post-soviet democratic transition did not occur) that still rejects political integration, and all security alliances with NATO, OSCE, WEU or other countries in Europe other than Russia (which the process of reintegration of Belarus has been tightened in almost all domains). ==== Organizations in other domains ==== Southeast European Cooperation Process (SEECP) with Moldova (similar to SPforSEE, but focuses on political integration than cooperation for security, and to CEFTA but does not focus on trade). Southeast European Cooperative Initiative (SECI) with Moldova (closely related to SEECP). Central European Initiative (CEI) with Moldova, Ukraine and Belarus (and also Central and South-Western European countries in the European Union; it aims at helping Eastern European countries to reach the EU standards and cooperate politically and find a better economic development and a strong, working but more democratic legal system); it is the only regional organization where Belarus is still a member (but the political cooperation with Belarus is almost stalled, as it is the only country of the former Communist bloc country that balances in favor of stronger cooperation with Russia and against integration with EU and NATO; however, Belarus remains isolated and still does not cooperate too in the SCO group led by Russia and China). Black Sea Forum for Partnership and Dialogue (BSF) with Georgia, Ukraine, Azerbaijan, Moldova and Armenia (also non post-soviet countries that are NATO members, interested in their maintaining political stability and avoiding conflicts in the region: Romania, Bulgaria and Turkey, whose first two are also now EU and CEI members, using EU rules for their political development); however, this organization does not focus on helping countries to join the EU, but reaching common standards and good governance and internal stability and democracy like in the CEI. Community for Democracy and Rights of Nations === Other organizations === Apart from above, the former Soviet republics also hold membership in a number of multinational organizations such as: FIBA FIFA International Ice Hockey Federation International Olympic Committee International Paralympic Committee Kontinental Hockey League (Belarus, Kazakhstan, Russia) UNESCO World Health Organization World Trade Organization == Politics == Regarding political freedom in the former Soviet republics, Freedom House's 2021 report listed the following: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania as ""free"" countries. Armenia, Georgia, Moldova and Ukraine were listed as ""partly free"". Azerbaijan, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan were listed as ""not free"".Similarly, the Press Freedom Index published by Reporters Without Borders in 2022 recorded the following as regards press freedom: Estonia – ""Good situation"" Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova – ""Satisfactory situation"" Armenia, Georgia, Kyrgyzstan, Ukraine – ""Problematic situation"" Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan – ""Difficult situation"" Azerbaijan, Belarus, Russia, Turkmenistan – ""Very serious situation""It has been remarked that several post-Soviet states did not change leadership for decades since their independence, such as Nursultan Nazarbayev in Kazakhstan until his surprise resignation in 2019, and Islam Karimov in Uzbekistan, until his death in September 2016. All of these had originally more limited terms but through decrees or referendums prolonged their stay in office (a practice also followed by Presidents Alexander Lukashenko of Belarus and Emomali Rahmon of Tajikistan). Askar Akayev of Kyrgyzstan had likewise served as President since its independence until he was forced to resign as a result of the Kyrgyz revolution of 2005. Saparmurat Niyazov in Turkmenistan ruled from independence until his death in 2006, creating a personality cult around himself. His successor, Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedov, has maintained a personality cult of his own that has replaced the worshipping of Niyazov.The issue of dynastical succession has been another element affecting the politics of some post-Soviet States. Heydar Aliyev, after constructing an extensive and ongoing cult of personality, handed the Presidency of Azerbaijan to his son, Ilham Aliyev. Theories about the children of other leaders in Central Asia being groomed for succession abound. The participation of Akayev's son and daughter in the 2005 Kyrgyz parliamentary elections boosted fears of dynastic succession being used in Kyrgyzstan as well, and may have contributed to the anti-Akayev climate that led to his overthrow. === Separatist conflicts === Economic, political, national, military and social problems have all been factors in separatism in the post-Soviet space. In many cases, problems due to factors such as ethnic divisions existed before the fall of the Soviet Union, and upon the fall of the union were brought into the open. Such territories and resulting military conflicts have so far been: ==== Current self-declared states ==== Transnistria, which is de facto independent from Moldova. It declared independence in 1990, due to its majority Russian-speaking population fearing union with Romania. A ceasefire between Transnistrian forces and Moldovan forces has been in place since 1992, enforced by the presence of Russian forces in Transnistria. Republic of Artsakh, which is de facto independent from Azerbaijan. Ethnic conflict between Armenians and Azerbaijanis began in 1988, and expanded into a war which lasted until a ceasefire in 1994. Sporadic attempts at negotiating a final peace and sporadic bursts of violence have continued since then. South Ossetia, which is de facto independent from Georgia. The region declared its intent to seek independence in 1990, leading to a conflict which led to a ceasefire in 1992. Separatism became powerful after the election of Georgian President Mikhail Saakashvili in 2004, and a referendum in 2006 was in favour of declaring independence. The 2008 war between Georgian forces and the separatist and Russian forces led to Russia's recognition of South Ossetia's independence. Abkhazia, which is de facto independent from Georgia. Tensions in the area broke out when Georgia sent in troops in 1992 to control groups who wanted separation. The troops and most of the Georgian and Mingrelian speaking population were forced out in 1993, and the region declared independence in 1999. The 2008 war between Georgian forces and the separatist and Russian forces led to Russia's recognition of Abkhazia's independence. ==== Former self-declared states ==== Gagauz Republic, declared itself the ""Gagauz Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic"" within Moldova on 12 November 1989, and the ""Gagauz Soviet Socialist Republic"" (the Gagauz Republic), separate from Moldova but still within the Soviet Union, on 19 August 1990; reintegrated into Moldova as an autonomous region through a law passed on 23 December 1994 which entered into force on 14 January 1995. Tatarstan, declared itself to be a sovereign state after a referendum on 21 March 1992. Negotiations with Russia led to the signing of a treaty in 1994 which ended Tatarstan's de facto independence, but reserved significant autonomy for the Tatarstan government. In 2002 a new constitution was enacted for Tatarstan which removed the prior constitution's declaration that Tatarstan was a sovereign state. Republic of Crimea. The entire Crimean Peninsula has been outside the control of Ukrainian authorities since late February 2014, when Russian special forces, some disguised as ""armed self-defence forces"" occupied the peninsula and seized the local parliament.: 11  In March 2014, a popular referendum in favor of accession to Russia was held in Crimea and Sevastopol, although Ukraine and most of the international community refused to recognize the vote. The next day, the Republic of Crimea declared independence, and within days Russia absorbed the peninsula. Ukraine continues to claim Crimea as an integral part of its territory. Chechen Republic of Ichkeria, where Dzhokhar Dudayev declared independence from Russia in 1991, leading to a violent war between local separatist forces and the Russian army. Russia first invaded in 1994, withdrawing after a deal for increased autonomy was granted in 1996. Tensions have continued in the years since then, and the conflict has spilled over into neighbouring regions such as Dagestan, Ingushetia and North Ossetia–Alania. Russia claims that the situation in Chechnya has normalised. Donetsk People's Republic and Luhansk People's Republic, states which declared independence from Ukraine in 2014. The two breakaway states were recognized by Russia on 21 February 2022, followed by North Korea and Syria, and they were subsequently annexed by Russia on 4 October of that year after a controversial referendum that were recognized as sham referendums. Talysh-Mughan, declared autonomy within Azerbaijan, that lasted from June to August 1993. === Civil wars === Civil wars unrelated to separatist movements have occurred twice in the region: The Georgian Civil War between the forces of Zviad Gamsakhurdia and Eduard Shevardnadze. The war ended after Russian forces intervened in support of Shevardnadze's government, which in turn agreed to join the Commonwealth of Independent States. The Tajikistani Civil War that lasted between 1992 and 1997. === Colour revolutions === Since 2003, a number of (largely) peaceful ""colour revolutions"" have happened in some post-Soviet states after disputed elections, with popular protests bringing into power the former opposition. The Rose Revolution in Georgia, leading to the resignation of Eduard Shevardnadze The Orange Revolution in Ukraine, bringing into power Viktor Yushchenko and toppling the pro-Russian leader Viktor Yanukovych The Tulip Revolution in Kyrgyzstan, leading to the resignation of Askar Akayev The Velvet Revolution in Armenia, leading to the resignation of Serzh Sargsyan === Russian population in post-Soviet states === There is a significant Russophone population in most of the post-Soviet states, whose political position as an ethnic minority varies from country to country. While Belarus, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, in addition to Russia, have kept Russian as an official language, the language lost its status in other post-Soviet states after the end of the Soviet Union. It maintains semi-official status in all CIS member states, because it is the organisation's official working language, but in the three Baltic states, the Russian language is not recognized in any official capacity. Georgia, since its departure from the CIS in 2009, has begun operating its government almost exclusively in the Georgian language. === Religion === While the Soviet system placed severe restrictions on religious intellectual life, traditions continued to survive. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Islamic movements have emerged alongside ethnic and secular ones. Vitaly Naumkin gives the following assessment: ""Throughout the time of change, Islam has served as a symbol of identity, a force for mobilization, and a pressure for democracy. This is one of the few social disasters that the church has survived, in which it was not the cause. But if successful politically, it faces economic challenges beyond its grasp.""The Central Asian states (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan) plus Azerbaijan in the Southern Caucasus are Muslim, except for their dwindling Russian and other European minorities. The Baltic countries are historically Western Christian (Protestant and Roman Catholic), which adds another layer of pro-Western orientation to those countries, although the majority of what has been the traditionally Protestant population there (in Estonia and northern Latvia) is now relatively irreligious. The dominant religion in the other former Soviet countries (Armenia, Belarus, Georgia, Moldova, Russia and Ukraine) is Eastern Orthodox Christianity. In most countries, religiosity has increased since the Soviet collapse. === LGBT rights === LGBT people may encounter difficulties not shared by non-LGBT residents. In Transnistria homosexuality is illegal. In some other regions, such as Russia and Ukraine, homosexual actions are legal, but there is still discrimination and bias towards the gay community. === Environment === The Soviet Union inherited environmental problems from the pre-Revolutionary era that it blamed on the failings and evils of capitalism. The Soviet Union promoted environmental sentiments; it had a constitutional clause on environmental protection and promoted the idea that, by ending capitalism, environmental problems would cease to arise. Some environmental strides were made, such as the banning of lead-based paint and leaded gasoline in the 20th century. However, the prioritization of industrial production over environmental protection meant that many environmental issues were left to post-Soviet institutions, particularly air and water pollution in the Northern regions where industrialism was heaviest. The Northern countries of Central Europe, including Poland, East Germany and Czechoslovakia formed what is referred to as the ""black triangle"" due to their heavy use of brown coal for energy. Environmental degradation in the former Soviet Union is attributed to rapid industrialization and a lack of institutions that were able to curb pollution levels. Many republics of the Soviet Union experienced soil degradation due to collective farming In the 1970s, a Soviet study revealed vast technological inefficiencies in the USSR: compared to the West, the USSR created double the amount of pollutants for each product produced, and quadruple the amount of pollution for each car. The Soviet regime also withheld information regarding the environmental problems facing them, and when these problems became evident to the public, authorities continued to attribute them to capitalism. The Chernobyl disaster was a turning point in which the Soviets had to take responsibility for a huge environmental disaster amid pressures to disclose information regarding its causes and consequences, and this led to a broader discussion about the state of the environment as well as to concerns about nuclear energy. As general unrest grew in the final years of the Soviet Union, the public began to demand environmental reform as part of their resistance to Communism. Many citizens wanted to capitalize on the political turnover to achieve an environmentalist agenda. There was a push away from coal and towards cleaner forms of energy in the 1980s, and 1986–1987 saw the first wave of environmental protests. Village Prose literature by authors such as Valentin Rasputin fostered an environmentalist sentiment. The Soviet ""Green Front"" was a populist environmental movement that had five subgroups: the Social-Ecological Union which promoted environmental solutions based in ecological practice, the Ecological Union which advocated for greater monitoring of pollution, the Ecological Foundation that sought to create funds through pollution taxes, the Ecological Society of the Soviet Union that called for a return to the Russian way of life that was closely connected to nature, and the All-Union Movement of Greens which was a culminating body of the four preceding groups. Russian oil-drilling and the military were among the things they took issue with. Critics of the Green Front opposed their effects on the chemical industry and claimed that it led to reduced commercial product availability of items such as soap, which was in very short supply in the late 1980s, and restricted access to pharmaceutical goods.It was expected that the transition to post-Soviet society would bring about environmental change from both democratic governments and NGOs, but the dissolution of the Soviet Union had both positive and negative effects on the environment. Transition brought about numerous changes that had both positive and negative environmental effects. The abandonment of croplands following dissolution of the Soviet Union led to the creation of carbon sinks. Industrial activity drastically decreased, which reduced air pollution even as the economy took an upturn. However, the introduction of a capitalist market caused new environmental problems: the increase in privately owned cars and the infrastructure changes to accommodate them, the increase in consumerism with no waste management to handle its byproducts, and the poorly planned construction of retail sites. Environmental clean-up efforts by post-Soviet regimes included institutional changes through the creation of or reformation of environmental agencies, and legislative changes through the introduction of new environmental regulations and their enforcement. However, some contend that the efficacy of these reforms was curtailed by economic troubles in the 1990s. New environmental standards were sometimes used by governments to lower preexisting ones, and many of the post-Soviet initiatives have been criticized as ""neoliberal"" for their basis in free market principles and belief that the market would correct for environmental problems. Technological innovation was generally directed towards ""end-of-pipe"" technologies, which deal with the clean-up of emissions and their byproducts rather than the reduction of emissions.Nongovernmental environmental organizations did not exist under the Soviet Union. Rather, some republics had state and local institutions for environmental oversight where citizens could voice concerns, but open criticism of the state was prohibited. Conservation brigades, otherwise known as druzhiny, engaged in preservationist and recreational outdoor activities. However, environmental damage and openings in political freedom in the 1980s led to greater grassroots activism. The Chernobyl disaster of 1986, its cover-up by national, republic and local government officials, and its environmental and health effects spurred many to action. General dissatisfaction with the socialist regime and a push for democratization took an environmental focus. As Soviet citizens became more comfortable with the Gorbachev-era ideals of glasnost and perestroika in the late 20th century, environmentalists became more outspoken in their demands, and radical splinter groups formed in the late 1980s. The opening of borders led to the spread of ideas and partnership with international environmental NGOs who were able to visit and converse with environmentalists of post-Soviet nations. The conservation state institutions from the Soviet era continued to exist into the post-Soviet era but experienced difficulty getting funding due to their connection with the socialist regime in national memory. New environmental NGOs had challenges receiving funding as well as organizing, and the NGOs that survived were not as influential on national decision-making as the state. Many NGOs expressed disappointment with the lack of substantial environmental change during times of political transformation. It has also been contended that environmental issues are of little importance to Russian citizens today. Many former-Soviet citizens abandoned their earlier interest in the environment after the achievement of independence, while continued demands for environmental reform were suppressed. ==== Russia ==== Russia has an expansive amount of land which contains a high amount of natural resources and biodiversity. Protected natural areas, or zapovedniki, were created under the Soviet Union. Soviet leaders attributed former pollution and environmental degradation in Russia to private enterprise and capitalism. However, environmental problems arose in Russia under the Soviets because industrialization was favored over environmentalism, and there was little discussion on how to properly use resources and they were depreciated. The task of environmental governance was distributed among 15 different ministries. There is controversy among academics as to whether environmental destruction under the Soviet Union can be attributed more to Marxist ideology or to the industrialization push.In 1988, the Central Committee and the USSR Council of Ministers formed the USSR Union Republic State Committee for Environmental Control, or the Goskompriroda. The intention of this institution was resource management and environmental testing and oversight. Eventually, however, the Goskompriroda was accused of holding ""entrepreneurial interests,"" particularly related to nuclear power. The 1990s saw experiments in taxing pollution of various forms, though this was largely ineffective due to the low charge levels and inflation, as well as more areas of protected land, but there was difficulty overseeing these areas due to small budgets. In 1991, the Federal Act on the Protection of the Natural Environment was passed in the independent Russian Federation, and the Goskompriroda became the Ministry of the Environment, or the Minpriroda, and developed sustainable development goals. In 1996, Yeltsin demoted the Ministry of the Environment to the State Committee on Environmental Protection, and in 2000 Putin ended the State Committee on Environmental Protection and the Federal Forestry Service and tasked the Ministry of Natural Resources with their responsibilities. In 2001, to the ire of many environmental advocates, Russia passed a law that allowed the acceptance, treatment, and storage of nuclear fuel from other nations for profit. The Environmental Doctrine was passed in 2002, the Water Code was passed in 2006, and the Forest Code was passed in 2007, though these policies have been critiqued for the difficulty in enforcing them. Today, Russia has a low population density with most citizens gathered in the cities, so environmental degradation is concentrated in certain areas. Putin is criticized by environmental advocates for prioritizing economic gain over environmental protection, and there are high levels of greenhouse gas emissions and frequent oil spills. ==== Ukraine ==== Ukraine is made up of a diverse landscape consisting of plains, temperate forest and mountains, five densely populated cities, and agricultural land that makes up 70% of the country. Ukraine heavily increased industrial and agricultural production in the Soviet period, which had negative effects on the environment, as did the 1986 Chernobyl disaster. Many of these issues have not been addressed post-independence due to lack of funding. Since independence, Ukraine has experienced a decrease in agricultural and industrial productivity and an increase in diseases, birth abnormalities and child mortality, claimed to have been caused at least in part from the Chernobyl disaster and from polluted water and air. The number of cars in Ukraine has increased post-independence. Sewage waste has increased, but there has been no increase in wastewater treatment facilities to accommodate it, diverting the waste into natural bodies of water; the Black and Azov seas have been polluted by wastewater, though this occurs less with the reduction of industry; agricultural runoff has led to decreased fish populations, particularly in the Azov Sea. The damming of the Dnipro for hydroelectric power caused flooding in local and residential areas, though the river has been recovering from contamination caused by the Chernobyl disaster. Radioactive waste remains from the Chernobyl accident, the uranium industry, mining and industrial processing. There are numerous environmental agencies in Ukraine. In 1991, the Ukrainian Ministry of Environmental Protection (MEP) was formed. It manages the environment and its resources, but it has experienced decreased funding and staff since 1996. There is also the Ministry for Forestry, the State Committee on Geology and Natural Resource Use, the State Committee on Water Management, the State Committee on Land Use, the Health Ministry, the Road Traffic Inspectorate of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, and the State Committee on Hydrometeorology. Environmental education was also introduced into the school curriculum in the 1990s by the Ministry of Education. Zelenyi svit, or ""Green World,"" was a successful Ukrainian environmental organization whose mission was to hold the Ukrainian government accountable for their environmental failings, particularly the Chernobyl disaster, and to protect the Azov Sea through preventing construction of the Danube-Dnieper Canal. ==== Central Asia ==== Proper water resource management is a significant environmental concern in the post-Soviet nations of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan and the Karakalpakstan region, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan. Central Asia has an arid climate with hot summers and cold winters. Once within the USSR, the Aral Sea Basin now crosses the geopolitical boundaries of these independent nations. Along with the Aral Sea Basin, Central Asia nations also extract freshwater from the Syr Darya, Amu Darya and Zeravshan rivers. These rivers receive the snowmelt of surrounding mountains.Following the fall of the Soviet Union, the newly independent states kept their Soviet-era internal administrative structure but were unpracticed in cross-national natural resource management. This has led to conflict regarding proper water allocation to meet the agricultural, industrial and consumer demands of these nations. Water quality degradation, diversion and withdrawal has led to increased insecurity and conflict.Most of the water is used for irrigation of agriculture, with Uzbekistan the largest user of agricultural water. Uzbekistan has double the population of its fellow nations and uses 3/5 of regional water supplies. Together, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan use twice the amount of water for industrial activities used by Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan.The Interstate Coordinating Commission for Water Resources was formed in 1991 to allocate water from the Syr Darya and Amu Darya but has had difficulty distributing water fairly among nations due to limited funding and physical infrastructure. This has led to conflict between the states. To alleviate the stress on water resources in Central Asia, international organizations looking at the situation have advocated for creation of a river basin commission to represent each nation, equitably distribute water, and peacefully resolve conflicts. It has also been suggested that each nation take responsibility by limiting its downstream environmental effects through reducing agricultural runoff, informing fellow nations of proposed actions which may impact water quality and supply, and sharing data regarding these natural water sources. ==== Baltic states ==== The three Baltic countries—Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania—were de facto part of the Soviet Union after WWII until they restored independence in 1991. Afterwards, they have had difficulty acquiring fuels and meeting their energy needs. For this reason, they were reliant on Russian oil, and did not have the capacity to acquire fuel from other producers, which had led to frequent fuel shortages. Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania primarily used fossil fuels for energy including imported gas, oil and petroleum products. The Baltic states used fuels with high amounts of sulfur and pollutants, which has had a negative effect on the environment. Power plants constructed in the Baltic states under the USSR were inefficient, as they were designed to power the entire northwestern region of Soviet territory. During this time, environmental monitoring and regulation were controlled at the local level, but the Baltic states had little influence over the state-managed industrial activities in their area.Concern for the environment fueled a desire for independence from the USSR. Since declaring independence, the energy consumption of the Baltic states has declined due to a decrease in industrial activity, and each nation has created its own environmental oversight body: the Ministry of Environment in Estonia, the Environmental Protection Committee in Latvia, and the Environmental Protection Department in Latvia, all of which were under the legislative branch but independent from executive government. Air pollution was high in the Baltic states due to the high sulfur and other pollutants emitted from their fuel sources. Water pollution was also considerable due to agricultural and industrial activity, as well as the legacy of Soviet military installations. Emission charges were enacted in the Baltic states to reduce pollution levels. ===== Estonia ===== Northeastern Estonia and the Narva region in particular was the site of an oil-shale industry which provided electricity and heat. Estonia was the only nation to have ever had an oil-shale based energy system. Mining for oil-shale caused Estonia to have the highest amounts of pollution in the Baltic states. Surrounding nations pressured Estonia to reduce its emissions, but a lack of desulfurization equipment has forced Estonia to instead lower its energy production, which has hurt the nation economically. Water pollution has also been considered among the worst of Estonia's environmental problems because it does not have the infrastructure to effectively treat as much sewage as is created. ===== Latvia ===== Latvia produces the least amount of power and pollution and has the highest amount of forest damage of all the Baltic states. ===== Lithuania ===== Lithuania is the largest producer of electricity of all three Baltic states. Lithuania's land area is roughly 31% forested and is both state and privately owned. Under the USSR, forest and other natural resources were state-owned and centrally managed. The State determined how resources would be used and excluded the public from influencing forest policy. The transition to a post-Soviet political and economic system led to privatization of forests and a market economy. Today, Lithuania's forests are managed democratically and sustainably so as to preserve biodiversity and forest resources. == Demographics == Demographics of Armenia Demographics of Azerbaijan Demographics of Belarus Demographics of Estonia Demographics of Georgia Demographics of Kazakhstan Demographics of Kyrgyzstan Demographics of Latvia Demographics of Lithuania Demographics of Moldova Demographics of Russia Demographics of Tajikistan Demographics of Turkmenistan Demographics of Ukraine Demographics of Uzbekistan == Post-Soviet nostalgia == Ever since the dissolution of the Soviet Union a certain number of people (predominantly people around the age of ~ 55–80, which is most likely due to the USSR's peak performance in the time of Brezhnev) have expressed a longing for the Soviet period and its values. The level of post-Soviet nostalgia varies across the former republics. For example, certain groups of people may blend the Soviet and post-Soviet experience in their daily lives.A 2009 Pew Research Center poll showed that 62% of Ukrainians felt that their lives were worse off after 1989, when free markets were made dominant. A follow-up poll by Pew Research Center in 2011 showed that 45% of Lithuanians, 42% of Russians, and 34% of Ukrainians approved of the change to a post-Soviet market economy.According to July 2012 polling in Ukraine by RATING, 42% of respondents supported the formation of a unified state of Ukraine, Russia and Belarus; earlier in 2012 this support had been 48%.Polls of Russian citizens conducted by Levada Center in November of 2016, 2017, and 2018 showed that a majority viewed the collapse of the USSR negatively (56%, 58%, and 66% respectively) and felt that it could have been avoided (51%, 52%, and 60% respectively). The 2018 figure of 66% who regretted the USSR's collapse was the highest since 2004. A 2019 poll found that 59% of Russians felt that the Soviet government ""took care of ordinary people"". Joseph Stalin's favorability also hit record highs that same year. == Characteristics of regionalization == Various regional structures have emerged in the post-Soviet geography, which is fragmented in political and geopolitical terms. The first of these was the Independent State Society (CIS), which included former Soviet countries outside the Baltic countries. The failure of the CIS to meet the foreign policy needs of many post-Soviet countries has set the stage for a new regional integration. At the initiative of Georgia, Ukraine, Azerbaijan and Moldova, a GUAM organization was established in Strasbourg on 10 October 1997. The purpose and principles of the organization were determined at the first summit of GUAM on 7 June 2001 in Yalta. The countries participating in the GUAM aimed to maintain their national independence and sovereignty and to increase their maneuverability against Russia. == See also == Soviet Empire Border states (Eastern Europe) Russian world Russian irredentism Eastern Bloc Frozen conflict Operation Provide Hope Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe statistics Russification Russophilia Russophobia Second World Union of Sovereign States Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization == References == == Further reading == ""Geopolitical and Economic Significance of Central Eurasia: Indian Perspective"". Kundu, Nivedita Das. Indian Foreign Affairs Journal; New Delhi Vol. 5, Iss. 3, (Jul–Sep 2010): 324–337. == External links == Candid photos of the Eastern Bloc September–December 1991, in the last months of the USSR New Directions Post-Independence from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives Post-Soviet Russia and its Neighbor States from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives Discovering The Centuries-Old State Tradition, professor Pål Kolstø, University of Oslo Former Soviet war zones |The hazards of a long, hard freeze, The Economist, 19 August 2004 4 enclaves' post-Soviet fate in limbo, The Seattle Times, 20 August 2006 Are Independence Referendums First Step Toward Kremlin's 'Historical Revanchism'?, Radio Free Europe, 15 September 2006" Countries,List of sovereign states,"The following is a list providing an overview of sovereign states around the world with information on their status and recognition of their sovereignty. The 206 listed states can be divided into three categories based on membership within the United Nations System: 193 UN member states, 2 UN General Assembly non-member observer states, and 11 other states. The sovereignty dispute column indicates states having undisputed sovereignty (188 states, of which there are 187 UN member states and 1 UN General Assembly non-member observer state), states having disputed sovereignty (16 states, of which there are 6 UN member states, 1 UN General Assembly non-member observer state, and 9 de facto states), and states having a special political status (2 states, both in free association with New Zealand). Compiling a list such as this can be a complicated and controversial process, as there is no definition that is binding on all the members of the community of nations concerning the criteria for statehood. For more information on the criteria used to determine the contents of this list, please see the criteria for inclusion section below. The list is intended to include entities that have been recognised as having de facto status as sovereign states, and inclusion should not be seen as an endorsement of any specific claim to statehood in legal terms. == Criteria for inclusion == The dominant customary international law standard of statehood is the declarative theory of statehood, which was codified by the Montevideo Convention of 1933. The Convention defines the state as a person of international law if it ""possess[es] the following qualifications: (a) a permanent population; (b) a defined territory; (c) government; and (d) a capacity to enter into relations with the other states"" so long as it was not ""obtained by force whether this consists in the employment of arms, in threatening diplomatic representations, or in any other effective coercive measure"".Debate exists on the degree to which recognition should be included as a criterion of statehood. The declarative theory of statehood argues that statehood is purely objective and recognition of a state by other states is irrelevant. On the other end of the spectrum, the constitutive theory of statehood defines a state as a person under international law only if it is recognised as sovereign by other states. For the purposes of this list, included are all polities that consider themselves sovereign states (through a declaration of independence or some other means) and either: are often regarded as satisfying the declarative theory of statehood, or are recognised as a sovereign state by at least one UN member stateIn some cases, there is a divergence of opinion over the interpretation of the first point, and whether an entity satisfies it is disputed. Unique political entities which fail to meet the classification of a sovereign state are considered proto-states.On the basis of the above criteria, this list includes the following 206 entities: 203 states recognised by at least one UN member state 2 states that satisfy the declarative theory of statehood and are recognised only by non-UN member states 1 state that satisfies the declarative theory of statehood and is not recognised by any other stateThe table includes bullets in the right-hand column representing entities that are either not sovereign states or have a close association to another sovereign state. It also includes subnational areas where the sovereignty of the titular state is limited by an international agreement. Taken together, these include: Entities that are in a free association relationship with another state 2 entities controlled by Pakistan which are neither sovereign states, dependent territories, nor part of another state: Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan Dependent territories of another state, as well as areas that exhibit many characteristics of dependent territories according to the dependent territory page Subnational entities created by international agreements == List of states == === UN member states and General Assembly observer states === === Other states === == See also == == Notes == == References == == Bibliography ==" Countries,Titular nation,"The titular nation is the single dominant ethnic group in a particular state, typically after which the state was named. The term was first used by Maurice Barrès in the late 19th century. == Soviet Union == The notion was used in the Soviet Union to denote nations that give rise to titles of autonomous entities within the union: Soviet republics, autonomous republics, autonomous regions, etc., such as Byelorussian SSR for Belarusians. For an ethnos to become a Soviet titular nation, it had to satisfy certain criteria in terms of the amount of population and compactness of its settlement. The language of a titular nation was declared an additional (after Russian) official language of the corresponding administrative unit.The notion worked well for the cases of well established, homogeneous and relatively developed nations.In a number of cases, in certain highly multiethnic regions, such as North Caucasus, the notion of a titular nation introduced intrinsic inequality between titular and non-titular nations, especially since the introduction of the ""korenizatsiya"" politics, according to which representatives of a titular nation were promoted to management positions. == China == The People's Republic of China government has adopted some of the principles behind this Soviet concept in its ethnic minority policy—see Autonomous administrative divisions of China. == Yugoslavia == The federal republics of Socialist Yugoslavia were perceived as nation-states of the constitutional peoples. After the breakup of Yugoslavia, only Bosnia and Herzegovina was not defined in its constitution as a nation-state of its titular nation. == See also == Lenin's national policy Nation state Princely state == References ==" Countries,Category:Countries by continent, Countries,Category:Countries by form of government, Countries,Category:Countries by international organization, Countries,Category:Countries by status, Countries,Category:Categories by country, Countries,Category:Outlines of countries,"Each entry below is an outline, an introduction to a subject structured as a hierarchical list of the essential points. Each of these outlines focuses on a country. Along with Portal:Contents/Outlines, the outlines on Wikipedia form an all-encompassing outline of the knowledge of humankind. Pages included here should also be included in Category:Wikipedia outlines." Countries,Category:Lists of countries,Resources: Help:Sorting • Template:Rank order Countries,Category:Works about countries, Countries,Category:City-states, Countries,Category:Country classifications,This category is only about classification systems. There shouldn't be any individual countries in this category. Countries,Category:Country codes, Countries,Category:Country lockdowns,"Country-wide lockdowns, emergency protocols that usually prevent people or information from leaving an area." Countries,Category:Dependent territories,"See also: Category:Divided regions Category:Integral overseas territories Category:Territorial disputes" Countries,Category:Former countries, Countries,Category:Island countries,"This includes countries that consist of an island, an archipelago, or part of an island." Countries,Category:Landlocked countries, Countries,Category:Country names, Countries,Category:Post-Soviet states, Countries,Category:Proposed countries, Countries,Category:Republics,Countries that are Republics — by their form of government. Countries,Category:Transcontinental countries, Countries,Category:Wikipedia categories named after countries, Cities,Portal:Cities, Cities,Antarctic gateway cities,"The Antarctic gateway cities are five cities on the rim of the Southern Ocean through which nearly all cargo and personnel bound for Antarctica pass. From west to east, they are Punta Arenas, Chile; Ushuaia, Argentina; Cape Town, South Africa; Hobart, Australia; and Christchurch, New Zealand. As Antarctica is a low-resource environment with no major transportation infrastructure of its own, gateway cities are a necessary part of all Antarctic activities. Each of the gateway cities accommodate both planes and ships traveling to Antarctica, and generally service the areas of the continent closest to them. The cities are used by both national Antarctic programs and Antarctic commercial tourism companies, although they differ in how much of each they facilitate. As a result of their status as transportation hubs, the cities also have cultural, economic, ecological, and political connections to Antarctica. == History == === Early Antarctic exploration === In the 1820s when mainland Antarctica was first discovered, the current gateway cities didn't have the infrastructure to support expeditions so ships departed from more northerly ports such as Valparaíso, Chile and Sydney, Australia. The current gateway cities began establishing themselves as important Antarctic supply hubs around the turn of the 20th Century when several of the most notable Heroic Age expeditions first traveled through them, beginning with the British Southern Cross Expedition in 1898. === 21st century === Though the cities operated almost entirely independently through most of their history as Antarctic gateways, the cities have made efforts to build relationships with one another in the 21st century. In 2009, officials from each city met in Christchurch and signed a ""Statement of Intent Between the Southern Rim Gateway Cities to Antarctica"" to promote peaceful cooperation among the cities. The statement expired two and a half years later. From 2017 to 2020, an Australian-led project called Antarctic Cities recruited partners from each of the gateway cities to study their relationship with one another and with Antarctica. The project aimed to transition the cities from gateways, which participate in purely transportation activities, to custodial cities, which also participate in Antarctic stewardship activities. If geographic proximity to Antarctica is not considered necessary, other cities could also be called Antarctic gateways or become gateways in the future. For instance, Shanghai has a growing role through the Polar Research Institute of China and could potentially become recognized as a gateway city in the future. == Public relationship to Antarctica == A 2020 survey found that roughly three-quarters of respondents from each of the gateway cities felt Antarctica was ""very/fairly important to the city's identity."" A majority of respondents also reported feeling ""very/fairly responsible for Antarctica's future"" and that it was important for their city to develop a relationship with Antarctica to promote better care for the environment. In recent years the cities have seen efforts by municipal officials to promote stronger relationships with the continent, such as Antarctic festivals, education programs for K-12 students, museum exhibits, and public outreach campaigns. == Cities == === Punta Arenas === Punta Arenas is located on the Southern Cone near the Antarctic Peninsula. More than 20 national Antarctic programs travel through Punta Arenas, more than any other gateway city. In 2016 the municipal government launched a project to increase infrastructure and promote a cultural connection to Antarctica. === Ushuaia === Ushuaia is the most southerly of the gateway cities and is located roughly 1000 km from the Antarctic Peninsula. Ushuaia is by far the most popular gateway city for tourism to Antarctica, accounting for 90% of all tourists to the continent. Nearly all of the passengers departing Ushuaia for Antarctica travel by cruise ship. It services Argentina's own National Antarctic Directorate, but no other national Antarctic program. It is also home to Antarctic-related tourism attractions, such as the Antarctic Museum. === Cape Town === Cape Town is the largest of the gateway cities and the farthest from Antarctica. In addition to South Africa's own national Antarctic program, the programs of Russia, Germany, Belgium, Norway, and Japan also reach Antarctica via Cape Town. As of 2021, tourism company White Desert has offered direct commercial flights from Cape Town to Antarctica. === Hobart === Hobart services the national Antarctic programs of Australia, France, and China. Hobart offers the least transportation to Antarctica among the gateway cities, but has the highest number of Antarctic scientists. It also houses several Antarctic policy and research organizations including the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources, the Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies at the University of Tasmania, the Tasmanian Polar Network, and Antarctica Tasmania. It also hosts Antarctic museum exhibits and an annual Australian Antarctic Festival. === Christchurch === Christchurch offers almost no commercial travel to Antarctica, but it is a logistics center for the national Antarctic programs of New Zealand, the United States, Italy, and South Korea. Christchurch also houses the headquarters for the Council of Members of National Antarctic Programs, an international organization comprising representatives from each of the governmental research programs operating in Antarctica. In addition to its services for national Antarctic programs, Christchurch is home to several locations and events for the local public. These include the International Antarctic Centre, the Christchurch Antarctic Office, an annual Antarctic festival called Days of Ice, and many permanent museum exhibits. The local University of Canterbury houses Gateway Antarctica, a center for Antarctic studies and research. == References ==" Cities,City,"A city is a human settlement of a notable size. It can be defined as a permanent and densely settled place with administratively defined boundaries whose members work primarily on non-agricultural tasks. Cities generally have extensive systems for housing, transportation, sanitation, utilities, land use, production of goods, and communication. Their density facilitates interaction between people, government organizations, and businesses, sometimes benefiting different parties in the process, such as improving the efficiency of goods and service distribution. Historically, city dwellers have been a small proportion of humanity overall, but following two centuries of unprecedented and rapid urbanization, more than half of the world population now lives in cities, which has had profound consequences for global sustainability. Present-day cities usually form the core of larger metropolitan areas and urban areas—creating numerous commuters traveling toward city centres for employment, entertainment, and education. However, in a world of intensifying globalization, all cities are to varying degrees also connected globally beyond these regions. This increased influence means that cities also have significant influences on global issues, such as sustainable development, climate change, and global health. Because of these major influences on global issues, the international community has prioritized investment in sustainable cities through Sustainable Development Goal 11. Due to the efficiency of transportation and the smaller land consumption, dense cities hold the potential to have a smaller ecological footprint per inhabitant than more sparsely populated areas. Therefore, compact cities are often referred to as a crucial element in fighting climate change. However, this concentration can also have significant negative consequences, such as forming urban heat islands, concentrating pollution, and stressing water supplies and other resources. Other important traits of cities besides population include the capital status and relative continued occupation of the city. For example, country capitals such as Beijing, Jakarta, Kuala Lumpur, London, Manila, Mexico City, Moscow, Nairobi, New Delhi, Paris, Rome, Athens, Seoul, Singapore, Tokyo, and Washington, D.C. reflect the identity and apex of their respective nations. Some historic capitals, such as Kyoto, Yogyakarta, and Xi'an, maintain their reflection of cultural identity even without modern capital status. Religious holy sites offer another example of capital status within a religion; examples include Jerusalem, Mecca, Varanasi, Ayodhya, Haridwar, and Prayagraj. == Meaning == A city can be distinguished from other human settlements by its relatively great size, but also by its functions and its special symbolic status, which may be conferred by a central authority. The term can also refer either to the physical streets and buildings of the city or to the collection of people who dwell there and can be used in a general sense to mean urban rather than rural territory.National censuses use a variety of definitions – invoking factors such as population, population density, number of dwellings, economic function, and infrastructure – to classify populations as urban. Typical working definitions for small-city populations start at around 100,000 people. Common population definitions for an urban area (city or town) range between 1,500 and 50,000 people, with most U.S. states using a minimum between 1,500 and 5,000 inhabitants. Some jurisdictions set no such minima. In the United Kingdom, city status is awarded by the Crown and then remains permanent. (Historically, the qualifying factor was the presence of a cathedral, resulting in some very small cities such as Wells, with a population of 12,000 as of 2018, and St Davids, with a population of 1,841 as of 2011.) According to the ""functional definition"", a city is not distinguished by size alone, but also by the role it plays within a larger political context. Cities serve as administrative, commercial, religious, and cultural hubs for their larger surrounding areas.The presence of a literate elite is often associated with cities because of the cultural diversities present in a city. A typical city has professional administrators, regulations, and some form of taxation (food and other necessities or means to trade for them) to support the government workers. (This arrangement contrasts with the more typically horizontal relationships in a tribe or village accomplishing common goals through informal agreements between neighbors, or the leadership of a chief.) The governments may be based on heredity, religion, military power, work systems such as canal-building, food distribution, land-ownership, agriculture, commerce, manufacturing, finance, or a combination of these. Societies that live in cities are often called civilizations. The degree of urbanization is a modern metric to help define what comprises a city: ""a population of at least 50,000 inhabitants in contiguous dense grid cells (>1,500 inhabitants per square kilometer)"". This metric was ""devised over years by the European Commission, OECD, World Bank and others, and endorsed in March [2021] by the United Nations ... largely for the purpose of international statistical comparison"". == Etymology == The word city and the related civilization come from the Latin root civitas, originally meaning 'citizenship' or 'community member' and eventually coming to correspond with urbs, meaning 'city' in a more physical sense. The Roman civitas was closely linked with the Greek polis—another common root appearing in English words such as metropolis.In toponymic terminology, names of individual cities and towns are called astionyms (from Ancient Greek ἄστυ 'city or town' and ὄνομα 'name'). == Geography == Urban geography deals both with cities in their larger context and with their internal structure. Cities are estimated to cover about 3% of the land surface of the Earth. === Site === Town siting has varied through history according to natural, technological, economic, and military contexts. Access to water has long been a major factor in city placement and growth, and despite exceptions enabled by the advent of rail transport in the nineteenth century, through the present most of the world's urban population lives near the coast or on a river.Urban areas as a rule cannot produce their own food and therefore must develop some relationship with a hinterland that sustains them. Only in special cases such as mining towns which play a vital role in long-distance trade, are cities disconnected from the countryside which feeds them. Thus, centrality within a productive region influences siting, as economic forces would, in theory, favor the creation of marketplaces in optimal mutually reachable locations. === Center === The vast majority of cities have a central area containing buildings with special economic, political, and religious significance. Archaeologists refer to this area by the Greek term temenos or if fortified as a citadel. These spaces historically reflect and amplify the city's centrality and importance to its wider sphere of influence. Today cities have a city center or downtown, sometimes coincident with a central business district. === Public space === Cities typically have public spaces where anyone can go. These include privately owned spaces open to the public as well as forms of public land such as public domain and the commons. Western philosophy since the time of the Greek agora has considered physical public space as the substrate of the symbolic public sphere. Public art adorns (or disfigures) public spaces. Parks and other natural sites within cities provide residents with relief from the hardness and regularity of typical built environments. Urban green spaces are another component of public space that provides the benefit of mitigating the urban heat island effect, especially in cities that are in warmer climates. These spaces prevent carbon imbalances, extreme habitat losses, electricity and water consumption, and human health risks. === Internal structure === The urban structure generally follows one or more basic patterns: geomorphic, radial, concentric, rectilinear, and curvilinear. The physical environment generally constrains the form in which a city is built. If located on a mountainside, urban structures may rely on terraces and winding roads. It may be adapted to its means of subsistence (e.g. agriculture or fishing). And it may be set up for optimal defense given the surrounding landscape. Beyond these ""geomorphic"" features, cities can develop internal patterns, due to natural growth or to city planning. In a radial structure, main roads converge on a central point. This form could evolve from successive growth over a long time, with concentric traces of town walls and citadels marking older city boundaries. In more recent history, such forms were supplemented by ring roads moving traffic around the outskirts of a town. Dutch cities such as Amsterdam and Haarlem are structured as a central square surrounded by concentric canals marking every expansion. In cities such as Moscow, this pattern is still clearly visible. A system of rectilinear city streets and land plots, known as the grid plan, has been used for millennia in Asia, Europe, and the Americas. The Indus Valley civilization built Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa, and other cities on a grid pattern, using ancient principles described by Kautilya, and aligned with the compass points. The ancient Greek city of Priene exemplifies a grid plan with specialized districts used across the Hellenistic Mediterranean. === Urban areas === The urban-type settlement extends far beyond the traditional boundaries of the city proper in a form of development sometimes described critically as urban sprawl. Decentralization and dispersal of city functions (commercial, industrial, residential, cultural, political) has transformed the very meaning of the term and has challenged geographers seeking to classify territories according to an urban-rural binary.Metropolitan areas include suburbs and exurbs organized around the needs of commuters, and sometimes edge cities characterized by a degree of economic and political independence. (In the US these are grouped into metropolitan statistical areas for purposes of demography and marketing.) Some cities are now part of a continuous urban landscape called urban agglomeration, conurbation, or megalopolis (exemplified by the BosWash corridor of the Northeastern United States.) == History == The cities of Jericho, Aleppo, Faiyum, Yerevan, Athens, Matera, Damascus, and Argos are among those laying claim to the longest continual inhabitation.Cities, characterized by population density, symbolic function, and urban planning, have existed for thousands of years. In the conventional view, civilization and the city were both followed by the development of agriculture, which enabled the production of surplus food and thus a social division of labor (with concomitant social stratification) and trade. Early cities often featured granaries, sometimes within a temple. A minority viewpoint considers that cities may have arisen without agriculture, due to alternative means of subsistence (fishing), to use as communal seasonal shelters, to their value as bases for defensive and offensive military organization, or to their inherent economic function. Cities played a crucial role in the establishment of political power over an area, and ancient leaders such as Alexander the Great founded and created them with zeal. === Ancient times === Jericho and Çatalhöyük, dated to the eighth millennium BC, are among the earliest proto-cities known to archaeologists. However, the Mesopotamian city of Uruk from the mid-fourth millennium BC (ancient Iraq) is considered by most archaeologists to be the first true city, innovating many characteristics for cities to follow, with its name attributed to the Uruk period.In the fourth and third millennium BC, complex civilizations flourished in the river valleys of Mesopotamia, India, China, and Egypt. Excavations in these areas have found the ruins of cities geared variously towards trade, politics, or religion. Some had large, dense populations, but others carried out urban activities in the realms of politics or religion without having large associated populations. Among the early Old World cities, Mohenjo-Daro of the Indus Valley civilization in present-day Pakistan, existing from about 2600 BC, was one of the largest, with a population of 50,000 or more and a sophisticated sanitation system. China's planned cities were constructed according to sacred principles to act as celestial microcosms.The Ancient Egyptian cities known physically by archaeologists are not extensive. They include (known by their Arab names) El Lahun, a workers' town associated with the pyramid of Senusret II, and the religious city Amarna built by Akhenaten and abandoned. These sites appear planned in a highly regimented and stratified fashion, with a minimalistic grid of rooms for the workers and increasingly more elaborate housing available for higher classes.In Mesopotamia, the civilization of Sumer, followed by Assyria and Babylon, gave rise to numerous cities, governed by kings and fostered multiple languages written in cuneiform. The Phoenician trading empire, flourishing around the turn of the first millennium BC, encompassed numerous cities extending from Tyre, Cydon, and Byblos to Carthage and Cádiz. In the following centuries, independent city-states of Greece, especially Athens, developed the polis, an association of male landowning citizens who collectively constituted the city. The agora, meaning ""gathering place"" or ""assembly"", was the center of the athletic, artistic, spiritual, and political life of the polis. Rome was the first city that surpassed one million inhabitants. Under the authority of its empire, Rome transformed and founded many cities (Colonia), and with them brought its principles of urban architecture, design, and society.In the ancient Americas, early urban traditions developed in the Andes and Mesoamerica. In the Andes, the first urban centers developed in the Norte Chico civilization, Chavin and Moche cultures, followed by major cities in the Huari, Chimu, and Inca cultures. The Norte Chico civilization included as many as 30 major population centers in what is now the Norte Chico region of north-central coastal Peru. It is the oldest known civilization in the Americas, flourishing between the 30th and 18th centuries BC. Mesoamerica saw the rise of early urbanism in several cultural regions, beginning with the Olmec and spreading to the Preclassic Maya, the Zapotec of Oaxaca, and Teotihuacan in central Mexico. Later cultures such as the Aztec, Andean civilizations, Mayan, Mississippians, and Pueblo peoples drew on these earlier urban traditions. Many of their ancient cities continue to be inhabited, including major metropolitan cities such as Mexico City, in the same location as Tenochtitlan; while ancient continuously inhabited Pueblos are near modern urban areas in New Mexico, such as Acoma Pueblo near the Albuquerque metropolitan area and Taos Pueblo near Taos; while others like Lima are located nearby ancient Peruvian sites such as Pachacamac. Jenné-Jeno, located in present-day Mali and dating to the third century BC, lacked monumental architecture and a distinctive elite social class—but nevertheless had specialized production and relations with a hinterland. Pre-Arabic trade contacts probably existed between Jenné-Jeno and North Africa. Other early urban centers in sub-Saharan Africa, dated to around 500 AD, include Awdaghust, Kumbi-Saleh the ancient capital of Ghana, and Maranda a center located on a trade route between Egypt and Gao. === Middle Ages === In the remnants of the Roman Empire, cities of late antiquity gained independence but soon lost population and importance. The locus of power in the West shifted to Constantinople and to the ascendant Islamic civilization with its major cities Baghdad, Cairo, and Córdoba. From the 9th through the end of the 12th century, Constantinople, the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, was the largest and wealthiest city in Europe, with a population approaching 1 million. The Ottoman Empire gradually gained control over many cities in the Mediterranean area, including Constantinople in 1453. In the Holy Roman Empire, beginning in the 12th century, free imperial cities such as Nuremberg, Strasbourg, Frankfurt, Basel, Zurich, and Nijmegen became a privileged elite among towns having won self-governance from their local lord or having been granted self-governance by the emperor and being placed under his immediate protection. By 1480, these cities, as far as still part of the empire, became part of the Imperial Estates governing the empire with the emperor through the Imperial Diet.By the 13th and 14th centuries, some cities become powerful states, taking surrounding areas under their control or establishing extensive maritime empires. In Italy, medieval communes developed into city-states including the Republic of Venice and the Republic of Genoa. In Northern Europe, cities including Lübeck and Bruges formed the Hanseatic League for collective defense and commerce. Their power was later challenged and eclipsed by the Dutch commercial cities of Ghent, Ypres, and Amsterdam. Similar phenomena existed elsewhere, as in the case of Sakai, which enjoyed considerable autonomy in late medieval Japan. In the first millennium AD, the Khmer capital of Angkor in Cambodia grew into the most extensive preindustrial settlement in the world by area, covering over 1,000 km2 and possibly supporting up to one million people. === Early modern === In the West, nation-states became the dominant unit of political organization following the Peace of Westphalia in the seventeenth century. Western Europe's larger capitals (London and Paris) benefited from the growth of commerce following the emergence of an Atlantic trade. However, most towns remained small. During the Spanish colonization of the Americas, the old Roman city concept was extensively used. Cities were founded in the middle of the newly conquered territories and were bound to several laws regarding administration, finances, and urbanism. === Industrial age === The growth of the modern industry from the late 18th century onward led to massive urbanization and the rise of new great cities, first in Europe and then in other regions, as new opportunities brought huge numbers of migrants from rural communities into urban areas. England led the way as London became the capital of a world empire and cities across the country grew in locations strategic for manufacturing. In the United States from 1860 to 1910, the introduction of railroads reduced transportation costs, and large manufacturing centers began to emerge, fueling migration from rural to city areas. Some industrialized cities were confronted with health challenges associated with overcrowding, occupational hazards of industry, contaminated water and air, poor sanitation, and communicable diseases such as typhoid and cholera. Factories and slums emerged as regular features of the urban landscape. === Post-industrial age === In the second half of the 20th century, deindustrialization (or ""economic restructuring"") in the West led to poverty, homelessness, and urban decay in formerly prosperous cities. America's ""Steel Belt"" became a ""Rust Belt"" and cities such as Detroit, Michigan, and Gary, Indiana began to shrink, contrary to the global trend of massive urban expansion. Such cities have shifted with varying success into the service economy and public-private partnerships, with concomitant gentrification, uneven revitalization efforts, and selective cultural development. Under the Great Leap Forward and subsequent five-year plans continuing today, China has undergone concomitant urbanization and industrialization and become the world's leading manufacturer.Amidst these economic changes, high technology and instantaneous telecommunication enable select cities to become centers of the knowledge economy. A new smart city paradigm, supported by institutions such as the RAND Corporation and IBM, is bringing computerized surveillance, data analysis, and governance to bear on cities and city dwellers. Some companies are building brand-new master-planned cities from scratch on greenfield sites. == Urbanization == Urbanization is the process of migration from rural to urban areas, driven by various political, economic, and cultural factors. Until the 18th century, an equilibrium existed between the rural agricultural population and towns featuring markets and small-scale manufacturing. With the agricultural and industrial revolutions urban population began its unprecedented growth, both through migration and demographic expansion. In England, the proportion of the population living in cities jumped from 17% in 1801 to 72% in 1891. In 1900, 15% of the world's population lived in cities. The cultural appeal of cities also plays a role in attracting residents.Urbanization rapidly spread across Europe and the Americas and since the 1950s has taken hold in Asia and Africa as well. The Population Division of the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs reported in 2014 that for the first time, more than half of the world population lives in cities.Latin America is the most urban continent, with four-fifths of its population living in cities, including one-fifth of the population said to live in shantytowns (favelas, poblaciones callampas, etc.). Batam, Indonesia, Mogadishu, Somalia, Xiamen, China, and Niamey, Niger, are considered among the world's fastest-growing cities, with annual growth rates of 5–8%. In general, the more developed countries of the ""Global North"" remain more urbanized than the less developed countries of the ""Global South""—but the difference continues to shrink because urbanization is happening faster in the latter group. Asia is home to by far the greatest absolute number of city-dwellers: over two billion and counting. The UN predicts an additional 2.5 billion city dwellers (and 300 million fewer country dwellers) worldwide by 2050, with 90% of urban population expansion occurring in Asia and Africa.Megacities, cities with populations in the multi-millions, have proliferated into the dozens, arising especially in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. Economic globalization fuels the growth of these cities, as new torrents of foreign capital arrange for rapid industrialization, as well as the relocation of major businesses from Europe and North America, attracting immigrants from near and far. A deep gulf divides the rich and poor in these cities, with usually contain a super-wealthy elite living in gated communities and large masses of people living in substandard housing with inadequate infrastructure and otherwise poor conditions.Cities around the world have expanded physically as they grow in population, with increases in their surface extent, with the creation of high-rise buildings for residential and commercial use, and with development underground.Urbanization can create rapid demand for water resources management, as formerly good sources of freshwater become overused and polluted, and the volume of sewage begins to exceed manageable levels. == Government == The local government of cities takes different forms including prominently the municipality (especially in England, in the United States, India, and other British colonies; legally, the municipal corporation; municipio in Spain and Portugal, and, along with municipalidad, in most former parts of the Spanish and Portuguese empires) and the commune (in France and Chile; or comune in Italy). The chief official of the city has the title of mayor. Whatever their true degree of political authority, the mayor typically acts as the figurehead or personification of their city.Legal conflicts and issues arise more frequently in cities than elsewhere due to the bare fact of their greater density. Modern city governments thoroughly regulate everyday life in many dimensions, including public and personal health, transport, burial, resource use and extraction, recreation, and the nature and use of buildings. Technologies, techniques, and laws governing these areas—developed in cities—have become ubiquitous in many areas. Municipal officials may be appointed from a higher level of government or elected locally. === Municipal services === Cities typically provide municipal services such as education, through school systems; policing, through police departments; and firefighting, through fire departments; as well as the city's basic infrastructure. These are provided more or less routinely, in a more or less equal fashion. Responsibility for administration usually falls on the city government, but some services may be operated by a higher level of government, while others may be privately run. Armies may assume responsibility for policing cities in states of domestic turmoil such as America's King assassination riots of 1968. === Finance === The traditional basis for municipal finance is local property tax levied on real estate within the city. Local government can also collect revenue for services, or by leasing land that it owns. However, financing municipal services, as well as urban renewal and other development projects, is a perennial problem, which cities address through appeals to higher governments, arrangements with the private sector, and techniques such as privatization (selling services into the private sector), corporatization (formation of quasi-private municipally-owned corporations), and financialization (packaging city assets into tradeable financial public contracts and other related rights). This situation has become acute in deindustrialized cities and in cases where businesses and wealthier citizens have moved outside of city limits and therefore beyond the reach of taxation. Cities in search of ready cash increasingly resort to the municipal bond, essentially a loan with interest and a repayment date. City governments have also begun to use tax increment financing, in which a development project is financed by loans based on future tax revenues which it is expected to yield. Under these circumstances, creditors and consequently city governments place a high importance on city credit ratings. === Governance === Governance includes government but refers to a wider domain of social control functions implemented by many actors including non-governmental organizations. The impact of globalization and the role of multinational corporations in local governments worldwide, has led to a shift in perspective on urban governance, away from the ""urban regime theory"" in which a coalition of local interests functionally govern, toward a theory of outside economic control, widely associated in academics with the philosophy of neoliberalism. In the neoliberal model of governance, public utilities are privatized, the industry is deregulated, and corporations gain the status of governing actors—as indicated by the power they wield in public-private partnerships and over business improvement districts, and in the expectation of self-regulation through corporate social responsibility. The biggest investors and real estate developers act as the city's de facto urban planners.The related concept of good governance places more emphasis on the state, with the purpose of assessing urban governments for their suitability for development assistance. The concepts of governance and good governance are especially invoked in emergent megacities, where international organizations consider existing governments inadequate for their large populations. === Urban planning === Urban planning, the application of forethought to city design, involves optimizing land use, transportation, utilities, and other basic systems, in order to achieve certain objectives. Urban planners and scholars have proposed overlapping theories as ideals for how plans should be formed. Planning tools, beyond the original design of the city itself, include public capital investment in infrastructure and land-use controls such as zoning. The continuous process of comprehensive planning involves identifying general objectives as well as collecting data to evaluate progress and inform future decisions.Government is legally the final authority on planning but in practice, the process involves both public and private elements. The legal principle of eminent domain is used by the government to divest citizens of their property in cases where its use is required for a project. Planning often involves tradeoffs—decisions in which some stand to gain and some to lose—and thus is closely connected to the prevailing political situation.The history of urban planning dates to some of the earliest known cities, especially in the Indus Valley and Mesoamerican civilizations, which built their cities on grids and apparently zoned different areas for different purposes. The effects of planning, ubiquitous in today's world, can be seen most clearly in the layout of planned communities, fully designed prior to construction, often with consideration for interlocking physical, economic, and cultural systems. == Society == === Social structure === Urban society is typically stratified. Spatially, cities are formally or informally segregated along ethnic, economic, and racial lines. People living relatively close together may live, work, and play in separate areas, and associate with different people, forming ethnic or lifestyle enclaves or, in areas of concentrated poverty, ghettoes. While in the US and elsewhere poverty became associated with the inner city, in France it has become associated with the banlieues, areas of urban development that surround the city proper. Meanwhile, across Europe and North America, the racially white majority is empirically the most segregated group. Suburbs in the West, and, increasingly, gated communities and other forms of ""privatopia"" around the world, allow local elites to self-segregate into secure and exclusive neighborhoods.Landless urban workers, contrasted with peasants and known as the proletariat, form a growing stratum of society in the age of urbanization. In Marxist doctrine, the proletariat will inevitably revolt against the bourgeoisie as their ranks swell with disenfranchised and disaffected people lacking all stake in the status quo. The global urban proletariat of today, however, generally lacks the status of factory workers which in the nineteenth century provided access to the means of production. === Economics === Historically, cities rely on rural areas for intensive farming to yield surplus crops, in exchange for which they provide money, political administration, manufactured goods, and culture. Urban economics tends to analyze larger agglomerations, stretching beyond city limits, in order to reach a more complete understanding of the local labor market.As hubs of trade, cities have long been home to retail commerce and consumption through the interface of shopping. In the 20th century, department stores using new techniques of advertising, public relations, decoration, and design, transformed urban shopping areas into fantasy worlds encouraging self-expression and escape through consumerism.In general, the density of cities expedites commerce and facilitates knowledge spillovers, helping people and firms exchange information and generate new ideas. A thicker labor market allows for better skill matching between firms and individuals. Population density enables also sharing of common infrastructure and production facilities; however, in very dense cities, increased crowding and waiting times may lead to some negative effects.Although manufacturing fueled the growth of cities, many now rely on a tertiary or service economy. The services in question range from tourism, hospitality, entertainment, and housekeeping to grey-collar work in law, financial consulting, and administration.According to a scientific model of cities by Professor Geoffrey West, with the doubling of a city's size, salaries per capita will generally increase by 15%. === Culture and communications === Cities are typically hubs for education and the arts, supporting universities, museums, temples, and other cultural institutions. They feature impressive displays of architecture ranging from small to enormous and ornate to brutal; skyscrapers, providing thousands of offices or homes within a small footprint, and visible from miles away, have become iconic urban features. Cultural elites tend to live in cities, bound together by shared cultural capital, and themselves play some role in governance. By virtue of their status as centers of culture and literacy, cities can be described as the locus of civilization, human history, and social change.Density makes for effective mass communication and transmission of news, through heralds, printed proclamations, newspapers, and digital media. These communication networks, though still using cities as hubs, penetrate extensively into all populated areas. In the age of rapid communication and transportation, commentators have described urban culture as nearly ubiquitous or as no longer meaningful.Today, a city's promotion of its cultural activities dovetails with place branding and city marketing, public diplomacy techniques used to inform development strategy; attract businesses, investors, residents, and tourists; and to create shared identity and sense of place within the metropolitan area. Physical inscriptions, plaques, and monuments on display physically transmit a historical context for urban places. Some cities, such as Jerusalem, Mecca, and Rome have indelible religious status and for hundreds of years have attracted pilgrims. Patriotic tourists visit Agra to see the Taj Mahal, or New York City to visit the World Trade Center. Elvis lovers visit Memphis to pay their respects at Graceland. Place brands (which include place satisfaction and place loyalty) have great economic value (comparable to the value of commodity brands) because of their influence on the decision-making process of people thinking about doing business in—""purchasing"" (the brand of)—a city.Bread and circuses among other forms of cultural appeal, attract and entertain the masses. Sports also play a major role in city branding and local identity formation. Cities go to considerable lengths in competing to host the Olympic Games, which bring global attention and tourism. Paris, a city known for its cultural history, is the site of the next Olympics in the summer of 2024. === Warfare === Cities play a crucial strategic role in warfare due to their economic, demographic, symbolic, and political centrality. For the same reasons, they are targets in asymmetric warfare. Many cities throughout history were founded under military auspices, a great many have incorporated fortifications, and military principles continue to influence urban design. Indeed, war may have served as the social rationale and economic basis for the very earliest cities.Powers engaged in geopolitical conflict have established fortified settlements as part of military strategies, as in the case of garrison towns, America's Strategic Hamlet Program during the Vietnam War, and Israeli settlements in Palestine. While occupying the Philippines, the US Army ordered local people to concentrate in cities and towns, in order to isolate committed insurgents and battle freely against them in the countryside.During World War II, national governments on occasion declared certain cities open, effectively surrendering them to an advancing enemy in order to avoid damage and bloodshed. Urban warfare proved decisive, however, in the Battle of Stalingrad, where Soviet forces repulsed German occupiers, with extreme casualties and destruction. In an era of low-intensity conflict and rapid urbanization, cities have become sites of long-term conflict waged both by foreign occupiers and by local governments against insurgency. Such warfare, known as counterinsurgency, involves techniques of surveillance and psychological warfare as well as close combat, and functionally extends modern urban crime prevention, which already uses concepts such as defensible space.Although capture is the more common objective, warfare has in some cases spelled complete destruction for a city. Mesopotamian tablets and ruins attest to such destruction, as does the Latin motto Carthago delenda est. Since the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and throughout the Cold War, nuclear strategists continued to contemplate the use of ""counter-value"" targeting: crippling an enemy by annihilating its valuable cities, rather than aiming primarily at its military forces. === Climate change === == Infrastructure == Urban infrastructure involves various physical networks and spaces necessary for transportation, water use, energy, recreation, and public functions. Infrastructure carries a high initial cost in fixed capital but lower marginal costs and thus positive economies of scale. Because of the higher barriers to entry, these networks have been classified as natural monopolies, meaning that economic logic favors control of each network by a single organization, public or private.Infrastructure in general plays a vital role in a city's capacity for economic activity and expansion, underpinning the very survival of the city's inhabitants, as well as technological, commercial, industrial, and social activities. Structurally, many infrastructure systems take the form of networks with redundant links and multiple pathways, so that the system as a whole continue to operate even if parts of it fail. The particulars of a city's infrastructure systems have historical path dependence because new development must build from what exists already.Megaprojects such as the construction of airports, power plants, and railways require large upfront investments and thus tend to require funding from the national government or the private sector. Privatization may also extend to all levels of infrastructure construction and maintenance.Urban infrastructure ideally serves all residents equally but in practice may prove uneven—with, in some cities, clear first-class and second-class alternatives. === Utilities === Public utilities (literally, useful things with general availability) include basic and essential infrastructure networks, chiefly concerned with the supply of water, electricity, and telecommunications capability to the populace.Sanitation, necessary for good health in crowded conditions, requires water supply and waste management as well as individual hygiene. Urban water systems include principally a water supply network and a network (sewerage system) for sewage and stormwater. Historically, either local governments or private companies have administered urban water supply, with a tendency toward government water supply in the 20th century and a tendency toward private operation at the turn of the twenty-first. The market for private water services is dominated by two French companies, Veolia Water (formerly Vivendi) and Engie (formerly Suez), said to hold 70% of all water contracts worldwide.Modern urban life relies heavily on the energy transmitted through electricity for the operation of electric machines (from household appliances to industrial machines to now-ubiquitous electronic systems used in communications, business, and government) and for traffic lights, street lights, and indoor lighting. Cities rely to a lesser extent on hydrocarbon fuels such as gasoline and natural gas for transportation, heating, and cooking. Telecommunications infrastructure such as telephone lines and coaxial cables also traverse cities, forming dense networks for mass and point-to-point communications. === Transportation === Because cities rely on specialization and an economic system based on wage labor, their inhabitants must have the ability to regularly travel between home, work, commerce, and entertainment. City dwellers travel by foot or by wheel on roads and walkways, or use special rapid transit systems based on underground, overground, and elevated rail. Cities also rely on long-distance transportation (truck, rail, and airplane) for economic connections with other cities and rural areas.City streets historically were the domain of horses and their riders and pedestrians, who only sometimes had sidewalks and special walking areas reserved for them. In the West, bicycles or (velocipedes), efficient human-powered machines for short- and medium-distance travel, enjoyed a period of popularity at the beginning of the twentieth century before the rise of automobiles. Soon after, they gained a more lasting foothold in Asian and African cities under European influence. In Western cities, industrializing, expanding, and electrifying public transit systems, and especially streetcars enabled urban expansion as new residential neighborhoods sprung up along transit lines and workers rode to and from work downtown.Since the mid-20th century, cities have relied heavily on motor vehicle transportation, with major implications for their layout, environment, and aesthetics. (This transformation occurred most dramatically in the US—where corporate and governmental policies favored automobile transport systems—and to a lesser extent in Europe.) The rise of personal cars accompanied the expansion of urban economic areas into much larger metropolises, subsequently creating ubiquitous traffic issues with the accompanying construction of new highways, wider streets, and alternative walkways for pedestrians. However, severe traffic jams still occur regularly in cities around the world, as private car ownership and urbanization continue to increase, overwhelming existing urban street networks.The urban bus system, the world's most common form of public transport, uses a network of scheduled routes to move people through the city, alongside cars, on the roads. The economic function itself also became more decentralized as concentration became impractical and employers relocated to more car-friendly locations (including edge cities). Some cities have introduced bus rapid transit systems which include exclusive bus lanes and other methods for prioritizing bus traffic over private cars. Many big American cities still operate conventional public transit by rail, as exemplified by the ever-popular New York City Subway system. Rapid transit is widely used in Europe and has increased in Latin America and Asia.Walking and cycling (""non-motorized transport"") enjoy increasing favor (more pedestrian zones and bike lanes) in American and Asian urban transportation planning, under the influence of such trends as the Healthy Cities movement, the drive for sustainable development, and the idea of a carfree city. Techniques such as road space rationing and road use charges have been introduced to limit urban car traffic. == Housing == The housing of residents presents one of the major challenges every city must face. Adequate housing entails not only physical shelters but also the physical systems necessary to sustain life and economic activity.Homeownership represents status and a modicum of economic security, compared to renting which may consume much of the income of low-wage urban workers. Homelessness, or lack of housing, is a challenge currently faced by millions of people in countries rich and poor. Because cities generally have higher population densities than rural areas, city dwellers are more likely to reside in apartments and less likely to live in a single-family home. == Ecology == Urban ecosystems, influenced as they are by the density of human buildings and activities, differ considerably from those of their rural surroundings. Anthropogenic buildings and waste, as well as cultivation in gardens, create physical and chemical environments which have no equivalents in the wilderness, in some cases enabling exceptional biodiversity. They provide homes not only for immigrant humans but also for immigrant plants, bringing about interactions between species that never previously encountered each other. They introduce frequent disturbances (construction, walking) to plant and animal habitats, creating opportunities for recolonization and thus favoring young ecosystems with r-selected species dominant. On the whole, urban ecosystems are less complex and productive than others, due to the diminished absolute amount of biological interactions.Typical urban fauna includes insects (especially ants), rodents (mice, rats), and birds, as well as cats and dogs (domesticated and feral). Large predators are scarce. However, in North America, large predators such as coyotes and white-tailed deer roam in urban wildlife Cities generate considerable ecological footprints, locally and at longer distances, due to concentrated populations and technological activities. From one perspective, cities are not ecologically sustainable due to their resource needs. From another, proper management may be able to ameliorate a city's ill effects. Air pollution arises from various forms of combustion, including fireplaces, wood or coal-burning stoves, other heating systems, and internal combustion engines. Industrialized cities, and today third-world megacities, are notorious for veils of smog (industrial haze) that envelop them, posing a chronic threat to the health of their millions of inhabitants. Urban soil contains higher concentrations of heavy metals (especially lead, copper, and nickel) and has lower pH than soil in the comparable wilderness.Modern cities are known for creating their own microclimates, due to concrete, asphalt, and other artificial surfaces, which heat up in sunlight and channel rainwater into underground ducts. The temperature in New York City exceeds nearby rural temperatures by an average of 2–3 °C and at times 5–10 °C differences have been recorded. This effect varies nonlinearly with population changes (independently of the city's physical size). Aerial particulates increase rainfall by 5–10%. Thus, urban areas experience unique climates, with earlier flowering and later leaf dropping than in nearby countries.Poor and working-class people face disproportionate exposure to environmental risks (known as environmental racism when intersecting also with racial segregation). For example, within the urban microclimate, less-vegetated poor neighborhoods bear more of the heat (but have fewer means of coping with it).One of the main methods of improving the urban ecology is including in the cities more urban green spaces: parks, gardens, lawns, and trees. These areas improve the health and well-being of the human, animal, and plant populations of the cities. Well-maintained urban trees can provide many social, ecological, and physical benefits to the residents of the city.A study published in Nature's Scientific Reports journal in 2019 found that people who spent at least two hours per week in nature were 23 percent more likely to be satisfied with their life and were 59 percent more likely to be in good health than those who had zero exposure. The study used data from almost 20,000 people in the UK. Benefits increased for up to 300 minutes of exposure. The benefits are applied to men and women of all ages, as well as across different ethnicities, socioeconomic statuses, and even those with long-term illnesses and disabilities. People who did not get at least two hours – even if they surpassed an hour per week – did not get the benefits. The study is the latest addition to a compelling body of evidence for the health benefits of nature. Many doctors already give nature prescriptions to their patients. The study didn't count time spent in a person's own yard or garden as time in nature, but the majority of nature visits in the study took place within two miles of home. ""Even visiting local urban green spaces seems to be a good thing,"" Dr. White said in a press release. ""Two hours a week is hopefully a realistic target for many people, especially given that it can be spread over an entire week to get the benefit."" == World city system == As the world becomes more closely linked through economics, politics, technology, and culture (a process called globalization), cities have come to play a leading role in transnational affairs, exceeding the limitations of international relations conducted by national governments. This phenomenon, resurgent today, can be traced back to the Silk Road, Phoenicia, and the Greek city-states, through the Hanseatic League and other alliances of cities. Today the information economy based on high-speed internet infrastructure enables instantaneous telecommunication around the world, effectively eliminating the distance between cities for the purposes of the international markets and other high-level elements of the world economy, as well as personal communications and mass media. === Global city === A global city, also known as a world city, is a prominent centre of trade, banking, finance, innovation, and markets. Saskia Sassen used the term ""global city"" in her 1991 work, The Global City: New York, London, Tokyo to refer to a city's power, status, and cosmopolitanism, rather than to its size. Following this view of cities, it is possible to rank the world's cities hierarchically. Global cities form the capstone of the global hierarchy, exerting command and control through their economic and political influence. Global cities may have reached their status due to early transition to post-industrialism or through inertia which has enabled them to maintain their dominance from the industrial era. This type of ranking exemplifies an emerging discourse in which cities, considered variations on the same ideal type, must compete with each other globally to achieve prosperity.Critics of the notion point to the different realms of power and interchange. The term ""global city"" is heavily influenced by economic factors and, thus, may not account for places that are otherwise significant. Paul James, for example argues that the term is ""reductive and skewed"" in its focus on financial systems.Multinational corporations and banks make their headquarters in global cities and conduct much of their business within this context. American firms dominate the international markets for law and engineering and maintain branches in the biggest foreign global cities.Large cities have a great divide between populations of both ends of the financial spectrum. Regulations on immigration promote the exploitation of low- and high-skilled immigrant workers from poor areas. During employment, migrant workers may be subject to unfair working conditions, including working overtime, low wages, and lack of safety in workplaces. === Transnational activity === Cities increasingly participate in world political activities independently of their enclosing nation-states. Early examples of this phenomenon are the sister city relationship and the promotion of multi-level governance within the European Union as a technique for European integration. Cities including Hamburg, Prague, Amsterdam, The Hague, and City of London maintain their own embassies to the European Union at Brussels.New urban dwellers are increasingly transmigrants, keeping one foot each (through telecommunications if not travel) in their old and their new homes. === Global governance === Cities participate in global governance by various means including membership in global networks which transmit norms and regulations. At the general, global level, United Cities and Local Governments (UCLG) is a significant umbrella organization for cities; regionally and nationally, Eurocities, Asian Network of Major Cities 21, the Federation of Canadian Municipalities the National League of Cities, and the United States Conference of Mayors play similar roles. UCLG took responsibility for creating Agenda 21 for culture, a program for cultural policies promoting sustainable development, and has organized various conferences and reports for its furtherance.Networks have become especially prevalent in the arena of environmentalism and specifically climate change following the adoption of Agenda 21. Environmental city networks include the C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group, the United Nations Global Compact Cities Programme, the Carbon Neutral Cities Alliance (CNCA), the Covenant of Mayors and the Compact of Mayors, ICLEI – Local Governments for Sustainability, and the Transition Towns network.Cities with world political status as meeting places for advocacy groups, non-governmental organizations, lobbyists, educational institutions, intelligence agencies, military contractors, information technology firms, and other groups with a stake in world policymaking. They are consequently also sites for symbolic protest. South Africa has one of the highest rate of protests in the world. Pretoria, a city in South Africa had a rally where 5 thousand people took part in order to advocate for increasing wages to afford living costs. === United Nations System === The United Nations System has been involved in a series of events and declarations dealing with the development of cities during this period of rapid urbanization. The Habitat I conference in 1976 adopted the ""Vancouver Declaration on Human Settlements"" which identifies urban management as a fundamental aspect of development and establishes various principles for maintaining urban habitats. Citing the Vancouver Declaration, the UN General Assembly in December 1977 authorized the United Nations Commission Human Settlements and the HABITAT Centre for Human Settlements, intended to coordinate UN activities related to housing and settlements. The 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro resulted in a set of international agreements including Agenda 21 which establishes principles and plans for sustainable development. The Habitat II conference in 1996 called for cities to play a leading role in this program, which subsequently advanced the Millennium Development Goals and Sustainable Development Goals. In January 2002 the UN Commission on Human Settlements became an umbrella agency called the United Nations Human Settlements Programme or UN-Habitat, a member of the United Nations Development Group. The Habitat III conference of 2016 focused on implementing these goals under the banner of a ""New Urban Agenda"". The four mechanisms envisioned for effecting the New Urban Agenda are (1) national policies promoting integrated sustainable development, (2) stronger urban governance, (3) long-term integrated urban and territorial planning, and (4) effective financing frameworks. Just before this conference, the European Union concurrently approved an ""Urban Agenda for the European Union"" known as the Pact of Amsterdam.UN-Habitat coordinates the U.N. urban agenda, working with the UN Environmental Programme, the UN Development Programme, the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, the World Health Organization, and the World Bank.The World Bank, a U.N. specialized agency, has been a primary force in promoting the Habitat conferences, and since the first Habitat conference has used their declarations as a framework for issuing loans for urban infrastructure. The bank's structural adjustment programs contributed to urbanization in the Third World by creating incentives to move to cities. The World Bank and UN-Habitat in 1999 jointly established the Cities Alliance (based at the World Bank headquarters in Washington, D.C.) to guide policymaking, knowledge sharing, and grant distribution around the issue of urban poverty. (UN-Habitat plays an advisory role in evaluating the quality of a locality's governance.) The Bank's policies have tended to focus on bolstering real estate markets through credit and technical assistance.The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, UNESCO has increasingly focused on cities as key sites for influencing cultural governance. It has developed various city networks including the International Coalition of Cities against Racism and the Creative Cities Network. UNESCO's capacity to select World Heritage Sites gives the organization significant influence over cultural capital, tourism, and historic preservation funding. == Representation in culture == Cities figure prominently in traditional Western culture, appearing in the Bible in both evil and holy forms, symbolized by Babylon and Jerusalem. Cain and Nimrod are the first city builders in the Book of Genesis. In Sumerian mythology Gilgamesh built the walls of Uruk. Cities can be perceived in terms of extremes or opposites: at once liberating and oppressive, wealthy and poor, organized and chaotic. The name anti-urbanism refers to various types of ideological opposition to cities, whether because of their culture or their political relationship with the country. Such opposition may result from identification of cities with oppression and the ruling elite. This and other political ideologies strongly influence narratives and themes in discourse about cities. In turn, cities symbolize their home societies.Writers, painters, and filmmakers have produced innumerable works of art concerning the urban experience. Classical and medieval literature includes a genre of descriptiones which treat of city features and history. Modern authors such as Charles Dickens and James Joyce are famous for evocative descriptions of their home cities. Fritz Lang conceived the idea for his influential 1927 film Metropolis while visiting Times Square and marveling at the nighttime neon lighting. Other early cinematic representations of cities in the twentieth century generally depicted them as technologically efficient spaces with smoothly functioning systems of automobile transport. By the 1960s, however, traffic congestion began to appear in such films as The Fast Lady (1962) and Playtime (1967).Literature, film, and other forms of popular culture have supplied visions of future cities both utopian and dystopian. The prospect of expanding, communicating, and increasingly interdependent world cities has given rise to images such as Nylonkong (New York, London, Hong Kong) and visions of a single world-encompassing ecumenopolis. == See also == Lists of cities List of adjectivals and demonyms for cities Lost city Metropolis Compact city Megacity Settlement hierarchy Urbanization Cities portal == Notes == == References == === Bibliography === === Further reading === == External links == World Urbanization Prospects, Website of the United Nations Population Division (archived 10 July 2017) Urban population (% of total) – World Bank website based on UN data. Degree of urbanization (percentage of urban population in total population) by continent in 2016 – Statista, based on Population Reference Bureau data. Human Geography at Curlie Urban and Regional Planning at Curlie" Cities,City marketing,"City marketing (related to city branding) or Place Marketing is the promotion of a city, or a district within it, with the aim of encouraging certain activities to take place there (such as tourism and attraction of foreign direct investments).Place marketing ""refers to the application of marketing instruments to geographical locations, such as cities, towns, regions and communities i.e. coordinated use of marketing tools supported by a shared customer-oriented philosophy, for creating, communicating, delivering and exchanging urban offerings that have value for the city's customers and the city's community at large.The orchestrated attempt to differentiate place (city/ town or cities) aims at associating through: Design: describing place as a character Infrastructure: describing place as a fixed environment Basic services: place as a service provider Attraction: place as entertainment or recreationIt is used to alter the external perceptions of a city in order to encourage tourism, attract inward migration of residents, or enable business relocation. A significant feature of city marketing is the development of new landmark, or 'flagship', buildings and structures. The development of cities as a marketable product has led to competition between them for inward investment and government funding. It is often manifested in the attempts by cities to attract international sporting events, such as the Olympic Games. Competition between cities exists at the regional, national and international level; and is an effect of globalisation.Some places are associated with certain brands and build on each other, but sometimes the commercial brand is so powerful that eclipses the place brand. An example of this is Maranello, Italy, which uses the Ferrari headquarters as a primary attraction for tourists.City marketing can occur strategically or organically. An example of strategic city marketing is Las Vegas. The city is promoted through a variety of efforts with the strategic intent of acquiring cultural and economic bonuses. A case of organic city marketing is Jerusalem. The city is marketed without a grand strategy, as disorganized stakeholders over the course of centuries have glorified the city and encouraged pilgrimage, yielding cultural and economic bonuses. Both cases demonstrate city marketing, each with varying strategic and organic involvement. Generally, organic marketing occurs alongside strategic marketing, as the perception of the city is impossible to solely construct with strategic efforts. According to Scott Cutlip, ""one of the first, if not the first, municipal promotion programs"" was led by Erastus Brainerd for the city of Seattle beginning in 1896. Seattle was in competition with Portland and Victoria as the preferred city in which to get supplied for the Klondike Gold Rush. A Bureau of Public Information was established within the city's Chamber of Commerce.Like with any successful marketing effort, cities must be willing to commit to a long-term plan in order for their identity and message to be communicated effectively. A shared vision between stakeholders will help develop a cohesive overarching strategy for a city's image. == City Brand Index == The City Brand Index is released biannually and ranks the image of 50 cities on 6 components: presence, place, potential, pulse, people, and prerequisites. In the 2015 report, Paris took the top spot, with London, New York, Sydney, and Los Angeles taking the 2nd–5th spots respectively. == See also == Cities portal == References == == See also ==" Cities,Climate change and cities,"Climate change and cities are deeply connected. Cities are one of the greatest contributors and likely best opportunities for addressing climate change. Cities are also one of the most vulnerable parts of the human society to the effects of climate change, and likely one of the most important solutions for reducing the environmental impact of humans. More than half of the world's population is in cities, consuming a large portion of food and goods produced outside of cities. The increase of urban population growth is one of the main factors in air-quality problems. In the year 2016, 31 mega-cities reported having at least 10 million in their population, 8 of which surpassed 20 million people. However, secondary cities - small to medium size cities (500,000 to 1 million) are rapidly increasing in number and are some of the fastest growing urbanizing areas in the world further contributing to climate change impacts. The UN projects that 68% of the world population will live in urban areas by 2050. Hence, cities have a significant influence on construction and transportation—two of the key contributors to global warming emissions. Moreover, because of processes that create climate conflict and climate refugees, city areas are expected to grow during the next several decades, stressing infrastructure and concentrating more impoverished peoples in cities.Because of the high density and effects like the urban heat island affect, weather changes due to climate change are likely to greatly effect cities, exacerbating existing problems, such as air pollution, water scarcity, and heat illness in the metropolitan areas. Studies have shown that if body temperature exceeds 39°C for a period of time, serious heat stroke may occur. Some of the other extreme weather conditions caused by climate change include extreme floods, deathly snowstorms, ice storms, heat waves, droughts, and hurricanes, which are often deathly and harmful. Studies have shown that heat waves are three times more likely to occur and have become more intense since the 1960s. According to World Health Organization, from 1998-2017, heatwaves cost the lives of over 166,000 people. Moreover, because most cities have been built on rivers or coastal areas, cities are frequently vulnerable to the subsequent effects of sea level rise, which cause flooding and erosion, and those effects are deeply connected with other urban environmental problems, like subsidence and aquifer depletion. A report by the C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group described consumption based emissions as having significantly more impact than production-based emissions within cities. The report estimates that 85% of the emissions associated with goods within a city is generated outside of that city. Climate change adaptation and mitigation investments in cities will be important in reducing the impacts of some of the largest contributors of greenhouse gas emissions: for example, increased density allows for redistribution of land use for agriculture and reforestation, improving transportation efficiencies, and greening construction (largely due to cement's outsized role in climate change and improvements in sustainable construction practices and weatherization).In the most recent past, increasing urbanization has also been proposed as a phenomenon that has a reducing effect on the global rate of carbon emission primarily because with urbanization comes technical prowess which can help drive sustainability. Lists of high impact climate change solutions tend to include city-focused solutions; for example, Project Drawdown recommends several major urban investments, including improved bicycle infrastructure, building retrofitting, district heating, public transit, and walkable cities as important solutions.There are many cities that are attempting to reduce the effect of urban heat islands by painting the roads white. Temperatures on the roads with the coat were ~12 F less than roads without in Phoenix.Because of this, the international community has formed coalitions of cities (such as the C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group and ICLEI) and policy goals, such as Sustainable Development Goal 11 (""sustainable cities and communities""), to activate and focus attention on these solutions. Currently, in 2022, there is a deterioration in the progress of the goal. There is limited progress on making cities and human settlements more appropriate to live in Sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean and the Pacific island countries. There is fair progress in Central and Southern Asia and Eastern and South-Eastern Asian. However, it has been achieved in Developed countries. == Emissions == Cities globally house half of the world's people, consume two-thirds of the world's energy and 70% of its natural resources, and contribute more than 70% of global CO2 emissions. Cities and regions are also particularly vulnerable to climate-related hazards and pollution. Climate danger and pollution also disproportionately affect the poor, increasing inequality. With half of the world population residing in urban areas, there will be an increase in energy usage that comes with Climate Change. One of these will be AC, since climate change comes with higher temperatures many people will start needed more cooling systems, so this results in more air conditioning and newer models of cooling systems. Although more people are living in cities which can result in shortages, cities actually emit less carbon than rural areas since house sizes are smaller, more gas heat over propane is used, less carbon fueled transportation is used, and more people share communal spaces such as laundry rooms and kitchens. While cities create some problems, it is important to realize that the denser population creates less carbon emissions which benefits climate change. New policies now focus on the reduction of emissions from coal-fired power plants as well as increasing motor vehicle efficiency.With regard to methods of emissions counting cities can be challenging as production of goods and services within their territory can be related either to domestic consumption or exports. Conversely the citizens also consume imported goods and services. To avoid double counting in any emissions calculation it should be made clear where the emissions are to be counted: at the site of production or consumption. This may be complicated given long production chains in a globalized economy. Moreover, the embodied energy and consequences of large-scale raw material extraction required for renewable energy systems and electric vehicle batteries is likely to represent its own complications – local emissions at the site of utilization are likely to be very small but life-cycle emissions can still be significant. == Field of study == The research perspective of cities and climate change, started in the 1990s as the international community became increasingly aware of the potential impacts of climate change. Urban studies scholars Michael Hebbert and Vladmir Jankovic argue that this field of research grew out of a larger body of research on the effects of urban development and living on the environment starting as early as the 1950s. Since then, research has indicated relationships between climate change and sustainable urbanization: increase employment cities reduces poverty and increases efficiencies.Two international assessments have been published by the Urban Climate Change Research Network at The Earth Institute at Columbia University. The first of which was published in, the first of which (ARC3.1) was published in 2011, and the second of which (ARC3.2) was published in 2018. These papers act as summaries of the scholarship for the field similar to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change reports. A third report is being developed as of 2020. === Cities as laboratories === Cities are good subjects for study because they can invest heavily in large-scale experimental policies that could be scaled elsewhere (such as San Diego's advanced urban planning practices which could be applied elsewhere in the United States). Multiple scholars approach this in different ways, but describe this ""urban laboratory"" environment for testing a wide variety of practices. for example the book Life After Carbon documents a number of cities which act as ""urban climate innovation laboratories"". These cities as laboratories offer an efficient way to detect climate change by looking at the effects of the greenhouse effect on rooftops, street trees, and other environmental variables within a city setting. Though this method of looking at the heat waves effects in cities, it will offer a way of seeing the problem of the effect of heat that will be solved by cities within the future. === Health impacts === Climate change has been observed to have caused impact on human health and livelihoods in urban settings.Urbanization commonly occurs in cities with low and middle income communities that have high population density and a lack of understanding of how climate change, which degrades their environment, is affecting their health. Within urban settings, multiple climate and non-climate hazards impact cities which magnify the damages done to human health. For example, heatwaves have intensified in cities due to the combination of multiple factors adding to climate change. With heatwaves constantly increasing temperatures in cities, it has caused many illnesses such as heat stroke or heat cramps. The rise of temperatures due to climate change have also changed the distribution of diseases from mosquitoes, causing a rising rate of infectious diseases. Alongside infectious diseases and heatwaves, climate change can create natural hazards such as floods, droughts, and storms due to rising sea levels. It also harms those even more who have COVID-19, asthma, illnesses, etc. The impacts on human health in urban settings is more profound in economically and socially marginalized urban residents.: SPM-11  Low-income and remote populations are more vulnerable to physical hazards, undernutrition, diarrheal and other infectious diseases, and the health consequences of displacement. == Urban resilience == The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) defines resilience as ""the ability of a social or ecological system to absorb disturbances while retaining the same basic structure and ways of functioning, the capacity of self-organization, and the capacity to adapt to stress and change."" One of the most important notions emphasized in urban resiliency theory is the need for urban systems to increase their capacity to absorb environmental disturbances. By focusing on three generalizable elements of the resiliency movement, Tyler and Moench's urban resiliency framework serves as a model that can be implemented for local planning on an international scale. The first element of urban climate resiliency focuses on ""systems' or the physical infrastructure embedded in urban systems. A critical concern of urban resiliency is linked to the idea of maintaining support systems that in turn enable the networks of provisioning and exchange for populations in urban areas. These systems concern both physical infrastructure in the city and ecosystems within or surrounding the urban center; while working to provide essential services like food production, flood control, or runoff management. For example, city electricity, a necessity of urban life, depends on the performance of generators, grids, and distant reservoirs. The failure of these core systems jeopardizes human well-being in these urban areas, with that being said, it is crucial to maintain them in the face of impending environmental disturbances. Societies need to build resiliency into these systems in order to achieve such a feat. Resilient systems work to ""ensure that functionality is retained and can be re-instated through system linkages"" despite some failures or operational disturbances. Ensuring the functionality of these important systems is achieved through instilling and maintaining flexibility in the presence of a ""safe failure."" Resilient systems achieve flexibility by making sure that key functions are distributed in a way that they would not all be affected by a given event at one time, what is often referred to as spatial diversity, and has multiple methods for meeting a given need, what is often referred to as functional diversity. The presence of safe failures also plays a critical role in maintaining these systems, which work by absorbing sudden shocks that may even exceed design thresholds. Environmental disturbances are certainly expected to challenge the dexterity of these systems, so the presence of safe failures almost certainly appears to be a necessity. Further, another important component of these systems is bounce-back ability. In the instance where dangerous climatic events affect these urban centers, recovering or ""bouncing-back"" is of great importance. In fact, in most disaster studies, urban resilience is often defined as ""the capacity of a city to rebound from destruction."" This idea of bounce-back for urban systems is also engrained in governmental literature of the same topic. For example, the former government's first Intelligence and Security Coordinator of the United States described urban resilience as ""the capacity to absorb shocks and to bounce back into functioning shape, or at the least, sufficient resilience to prevent...system collapse."" Keeping these quotations in mind, bounce-back discourse has been and should continue to be an important part of urban climate resiliency framework. Other theorists have critiqued this idea of bounce-back, citing this as privileging the status quo, rather advocating the notion of 'bouncing forward', permitting system evolution and improvement.The next element of urban climate resiliency focuses on the social agents (also described as social actors) present in urban centers. Many of these agents depend on the urban centers for their very existence, so they share a common interest of working towards protecting and maintaining their urban surroundings. Agents in urban centers have the capacity to deliberate and rationally make decisions, which plays an important role in climate resiliency theory. One cannot overlook the role of local governments and community organizations, which will be forced to make key decisions with regards to organizing and delivering key services and plans for combating the impending effects of climate change. Perhaps most importantly, these social agents must increase their capacities with regards to the notions of ""resourcefulness and responsiveness. Responsiveness refers to the capacity of social actors and groups to organize and re-organize, as well as the ability to anticipate and plan for disruptive events. Resourcefulness refers to the capacity of social actors in urban centers to mobilize varying assets and resources in order to take action. Urban centers will be able to better fend for themselves in the heat of climatic disturbances when responsiveness and resourcefulness is collectively achieved in an effective manner. == Regional and national differences == Cities in different parts of the world face different, unique challenges and opportunities in the face of climate change. However, one linking factor is their inevitable adherence to ""Dominant global patterns of urbanization and industrialization"" which often catalyzes ""large-scale modification of the drivers for hydrologic and biogeochemical processes"". Urbanization and industrialization patterns are particularly evident for regions such as Asia, Africa, and South America, regions that are currently understood as experiencing related rapid shifts in population and economic prowess. Beginning in the 2020s, a number of cities worldwide began creating Chief Heat Officer positions to organize and manage work counteracting the urban heat island effect. === Africa === Africa is urbanizing faster than any other continent and it is estimated that by 2030, more than one billion Africans will live in cities. This rapid urbanization, coupled with the many interlinked and complex challenges as a result of climate change, pose a significant barrier to Africa's sustainable development. Much of this Urban Development is informal, with urban residents settling in informal settlements and slums often on the outskirts of cities. This phenomenon suggests that lower-income countries should be targeted in initiatives to increase infrastructural sustainability. A recent study found that in ""countries with per capita incomes of below USD 15,000 per year (at PPP-adjusted 2011 USD) carbon pricing has, on average, progressive distributional effects"" and that ""carbon pricing tends to be regressive in countries with relatively higher income,"" indicating that carbon taxing and shifting carbon prices might incentivize governments to shift to green energy as the baseline energy consumption method for developing peri-urban areas. Although urbanization is seen in a positive light, the effects of it can be negative on those being urbanized. African cities are exposed to multiple climate threats including floods, drought, water stress, sea level rise, heat waves, storms and cyclones, and the related effects of food insecurity and disease outbreaks like Cholera and Malaria from floods and droughts.Climate impacts in rural areas, such as desertification, biodiversity loss, soil erosion and declines in agricultural productivity, are also driving rural-urban migration of poor rural communities to cities. To achieve sustainable development and climate resilience in cities in Africa, and elsewhere, it is important to consider these urban-rural interlinkages. Increasing attention is being paid to the important role of peri-urban areas in urban climate resilience, particularly regarding the ecosystem services that these areas provide and which are rapidly deteriorating in Sub-Saharan Africa. Peri-urban ecosystems can provide functions such as controlling floods, reducing the urban heat island effect, purifying air and water, supporting food and water security, and managing waste. === Asia === ==== China ==== China currently has one of the fastest-growing industrial economies in the world, and the effects of this rapid urbanization have not been without climate change implications. The country is one of the largest by land area, and so the most prominent region regarding urbanization is the Yangtze River Delta, or YRD, as it is considered ""China's most developed, dynamic, densely populated and concentrated industrial area"" and is allegedly ""growing into an influential world-class metropolitan area and playing an important role in China's economic and social development"". In this way urbanization in China could be understood as intimately related to not only the functionality of their economic system, but the society therein; something that makes climate change mitigation an intersectional issue concerning more than simply infrastructure.The data show that ""[h]igh-administrative-level cities had stronger adaptation, lower vulnerability, and higher readiness than ordinary prefecture-level cities."" China's large-scale population migration to the Yangtze River Delta and agglomeration due to rapid urbanization. Blind expansion in the construction of eastern coastal cities due to population pressure is even more unfavorable for urban climate governance. Historically, data has shown that ""climate change has been shaping the Delta and its socio-economic development"" and that such socio-economic development in the region ""has shaped its geography and built environment, which, however, are not adaptable to future climate change"". Thus, it has been stated that ""It is imperative to adopt policies and programs to mitigate and adapt to climate change"" in the YRD, specifically, policies that are aimed at reducing the impact of particular climate threats based on the YRD's geography. This includes the region's current infrastructure in the mitigation of flood disasters and promotion of efficient energy usage at the local level.A national-level policy analysis done on the drylands of northern China presents the notion of ""sustainable urban landscape planning (SULP)"" that specifically aims to ""avoid occupying important natural habitats and corridors, prime croplands, and floodplains"". The research indicates that adopting SULPs moving into the future can ""effectively manage the impacts of climate change on water resource capacity and reduce water stress"" not only within the northern China experimental model but for ""drylands around the world"". ==== South Asia ==== South Asia's urban population grew by 130 million between 2001 and 2011—more than the entire population of Japan—and is poised to rise by almost 250 million by 2030. But, urbanisation in South Asia is characterized by higher poverty, slums, pollution and crowding and congestion. At least 130 million South Asians—more than the entire population of Mexico—live in informal urban settlements characterized by poor construction, insecure tenure and underserviced plots. Despite being a water-rich zone, climate projection models suggest that by 2050, between 52 and 146 million people living in South Asia could face increased water scarcity due to climate change, accounting for 18% of the global population exposed to water scarcity. Urban water access is particularly critical in South Asia as it remains home to more than 40% of the world's poor (living on less than US$1.25 per day) and 35% of the world's undernourished. A study done of selected Himalayan cities in India and Nepal found that none of them have a robust system of water planning and governance to tackle the water challenges emerging from rapid urbanization and climate change. Khulna, Bangladesh is also facing many issues surrounding water insecurity as well. As sea levels begin to rise, due to climate change, salinity will move inwards, reducing the amount of safe drinking water available to the people of Khulna. There are plans being put in place to make the quality of water in cities better, but this decreases the availability to those in the informal urban areas. As of now they rely on using on as little water as possible, specifically for their crops. === North and South America === ==== Brazil ==== Areas of South America were also cited in recent studies that highlight the dangers of urbanization on both local and transnational climates, and for a country like Brazil, one of the highest populated nations in the world as well as the majority holder of the Amazon rainforest. The United Nations Development Programme highlights the Amazon rainforest as serving a ""key function in the global climate systems,"" granted its profound usefulness in capturing CO2 emissions. UN research has indicated that because of Brazil's climate being so intimately reliant on the health of the rainforest, deforestation measures are currently seen as having adverse effects on the rainforest's ""natural adaptive capacities"" towards extreme climate shifts, thus predisposing Brazil to what are expected to be increased volatility in temperature and rainfall patterns. More specifically, it is expected that if global warming continues on its current path without vast mitigation strategies being put in place, what is currently predicted to be an average 2 °C increase in temperature at the global scale could look like a 4 °C within Brazil and the surrounding Amazon region. Rapid urbanization in other countries will also result in higher need for resources. This includes resources that will cause further deforestation of the Amazon Rainforest to obtain. This will inevitably create a lot more Climate issues, as we continue to lose more trees in the Amazon rainforest.Issues of climate change in Brazil do not start and end at what has already been done with regards to urbanization; it is very much an issue rooted in socioeconomic contexts. Factor analysis and multilevel regression models sponsored by the U.S. Forest Service revealed that for all of Brazil, ""income inequality significantly predicts higher levels of a key component of vulnerability in urban Brazilian municipalities"" to flood hazards.The future of Brazil's effect of climate is likely to change since though its NDC Brazil has made the commitment to lower their Greenhouse gas emissions by 37% below their 2005 levels by 2025. This will likely serve as a challenge within the cities of Brazil since 86% of the whole countries population lives in the urban areas, and this is likely to increase to 92% by 2050. As for deforestation, since Brazil is home to the Amazon rainforest, Brazil has always had a high deforestation rate. Brazils deforestation was at a high in 2004 with having 27.77 thousand kilometers of forest being destroyed, having a low in 2012 with only 4.57 thousand kilometers of forest being destroyed, and since then it has been back on the incline with 10.85 thousand kilometers of forest being destroyed. ==== United States ==== The United States, as one of the largest industrialized nations in the world, also has issues regarding infrastructural insufficiencies linked to climate change. Take a study of Las Vegas topology as an indicator. Research that created three Land use/land cover maps, or LULC maps, of Las Vegas in 1900 (albeit hypothetical), 1992, and 2006 found that ""urbanization in Las Vegas produces a classic urban heat island (UHI) at night but a minor cooling trend during the day"". In addition to temperature changes in the city, ""increased surface roughness"" caused by the addition of skyscrapers/closely packed buildings in its own way were found ""to have a mechanical effect of slowing down the climatological wind Windfield over the urban area"". Cities in the United States that are heavily industrialized, such as Los Angeles, are responsible for a large number of greenhouse emissions due to the amount of transportation needed for millions of people living in one city. Such unnatural environmental phenomena furthers the notion that urbanization has a role in determining local climate, although researchers acknowledge that more studies need to be conducted in the field. Cities play an important role in investing in climate innovation in the United States. Often local climate policies in cities, preempt larger policies pursued by the states or federal government. For example, following the United States withdrawal from the Paris Agreement a coalition of cities, under the banner of Mayors National Climate Action Agenda. A 2020 study of US cities found that 45 of the 100 largest cities in the U.S. had made commitments by 2017, which led to a reduction of 6% of U.S. emissions by 2020. ===== Clean Air Act ===== Since the Clean Air Act's passing in 1963 as a landmark piece of legislation aimed at controlling air quality at the national level, research has indicated that ""the mean wet deposition flux... has decreased in the U.S. over time"" since its enactment. Even then, however, the same research indicated that measurements in the amounts of chemical pollutants contaminating rain, snow, and fog ""follows an exponential probability density function at all sites"". Such a finding suggests that alleged variability in rainfall patterns is the likely driving factor for the study's seemingly promising results, as opposed to there being a clear significance stemming from the policy change. It is within this context that while beneficial, the Clean Air Act alone cannot stand as the only firm rationale for climate policies in the United States moving forward. ===== Mayors National Climate Action Agenda ===== == International policy == Several major international communities of cities and policies have been formed to include more cities in climate action. === C40 === === SDG 11: Sustainable cities and communities === === Global Covenant of Mayors for Climate and Energy === == See also == List of most-polluted cities by particulate matter concentration Climate change in New York City Climate change in Washington, D.C. Climate change in Australia by city Climate change in London Incorporation of nature within a city Urban heat island Zero-carbon city == References == == External links == UN Climate Change Course on Cities and Climate Change" Cities,Greater city movements,"A greater city movement refers to various reform efforts—both contemporary and historical—to expand the municipal boundaries of a primate central city to incorporate all, or part, of the surrounding metropolitan population. Historically, greater city movements were proposed as a solution to the problem of metropolitan planning and administration. Today, the concept has been largely discredited for political reasons Historically, examples of cities that have successfully expanded their boundaries to include the entire metropolitan population are extremely rare, and as a general principle few, if any cities worldwide have been able to maintain a continuous process of boundary adjustment to include surrounding areas of population growth.The greater city movements of the early twentieth century grew out of concern for improving urban health, efficiency and aesthetics. They also reflected the longstanding historical understanding of cities as a politically unified entity. Larger municipal governments with greater resources were seen as a means for implementing the ideas of municipal socialism, City beautiful and the garden city.Greater city movements are distinct from ""regionalism"" movements, which seek to create an additional tier of regional metropolitan government (Such as Grand Paris in 2016). == Examples == === Australia === In Australia the movement led to the creation of a greater Brisbane (1925) which is considered the only true implantation of the ""greater city"" model. More limited successes were achieved in Newcastle (1938) and Perth (1914–1917). Elsewhere, including Melbourne and Sydney, the movement was entirely unsuccessful and today, the idea of large, metropolitan local authorities coordinating development, infrastructure, financing is rarely identified as a model for urban and regional planning. Examples of successful and partially successful movements include the following: Perth: The amalgamation of several inner city municipalities occurred between 1914 and 1917, but was reversed by the state government in 1993. Efforts to encourage an amalgamation of the City of Perth and the City of Vincent failed in 2013 although the City of Perth was expanded to include the University of Western Australia and surrounding neighbourhood. Brisbane (1924): The only truly successful implementation of the greater city movement in Australia. Newcastle (1937) Wollongong (1947) === Canada === Toronto: Seven municipalities were amalgamated into the City of Toronto in 1997. === United Kingdom === Glasgow Birmingham: The city was expanded to include adjoining districts in 1891, 1909, 1911, 1928, 1931 and 1974. London: The London County Council was created in 1889. === United States === New York: The creation of the City of Greater New York in 1898. == See also == Cities portal == References ==" Cities,Incorporation of nature within a city,"Over the centuries the roles of rivers as part of the city has altered many times from the original use for the irrigating crops in nearby fields, as well as being an essential resource in establishing a permanent settlement. However, when the industrial revolution took place in the 19th century the role of the rivers in cities altered and it became a far more valuable resource as it allowed not only for the transportation of goods from town to town but also became the basis for the expansion and improvement of the trading prowess of the city. This transportation of goods was done through the construction of a canal network spreading across the country which tamed the rivers sufficiently and so therefore allowed for the movement of goods such as coal to move from place to place. Furthermore, after the advancement of the railway network which now took over most of the movement of goods throughout the country, this left the rivers and canals of Britain without a role in Britain’s transport network. This allowed areas of the canal and river networks to become polluted through chemical waste and public misuse, which caused difficulties for the animals for which the river and its surrounding wetlands and marshes were their natural habitats. Yet since the 1950s there has been a dramatic increase in the number of riverside developments which have not only brought increased money into the area but have also redeveloped and enhanced the natural environment and increased the aesthetic qualities of these areas on the whole. Further examples of these developments are Bede Island in Leicester and the London Docklands. == Leicester == === Bede Island === Bede Island [1] is a 130,000 square metre site, 1.5 miles (2.4 km) outside Leicester’s Central Business District. It is an area of brownfield land located between the River Soar to the West and the Grand Union Canal to the East. It was a run down area which has suffered from inner city decline, the site is not easily accessible by road and so was not heavily industrialised. Most of the Bede Island area used to be occupied by scrap yards which led to both noise pollution and the release of asbestos into the air. The City Challenge schemes were established in 1993 to help regeneration of the social, economic and environmental aspects of 30 city schemes. The City Challenge partnership has greatly improved the natural environment through the cleaning up of the riversides and making them more attractive, as well as recontouring the banks of the River Soar and the diversifying of wildlife habitats through the planting of shrubs and trees. === Parks === The council attempted to incorporate nature into the city through public involvement schemes. These schemes aim to encourage and educate locals to help maintain existing green spaces, such as park life. The Leicester City Council are yet again an example of an area which has successfully achieved this and have gained recognition for their efforts at the 2005 Green Flag awards. The strategies used in order to accomplish this include the following: £50 sponsorship scheme where local businesses and the public plant more trees in their nearest park, particularly during tree planting week. Asking schools in the community to bring their children along to help plant bulbs and tidy up their green spaces. Further incentives to attain and retain titles, such as the winners of the 2005 ‘Britain in Bloom’ competition. Park staff has also installed a number of posts and netting enclosures and ridge tile shelters in order to protect many different species of birds during the breeding season. Getting locals to participate in festive activities, such as planting flowers and picking their own flower arrangements or to buy a bird (love) nest box, found in the park in the name of their loved ones for Valentine's Day. Encouraging people to become volunteer park wardens for their local communities. == London Docklands == The London docklands was until the 1960s the largest port in the United Kingdom employing up to 50,000 people in its peak. However, due to being devastated by bombing during the Second World War and the introduction of containerisation of shipping in the 1970s for which the London docks were ill-adapted. This decline of London as a shipping port has led to the dereliction of the docklands area and also the loss of over 200,000 jobs. However, in 1981 the London Dockland Development Corporation was established to help with the redevelopment of the docklands area through the development of new high-class riverside apartments and the conversion of waterfront warehouses into accommodation and new office blocks such as Canary Wharf. Another aspect of the LDDC’s development plan was to increase the attractiveness of the area as a whole through the planting of trees and the implementing of communal spaces to help encourage people to interact with the natural environment. In conclusion the role of rivers has altered and this is correct as they have changed from being used for agriculture to being a way to transport goods through the canal networks. However this role has now changed again to a more commercial one as a way of making new houses more appealing through including a riverside view. This shows that in urban areas rivers have always been an important and valuable resource. == New York City == Nature and the environment have been incorporated into city life through the use of community garden schemes. Community gardens are plots of land that have been allocated to be used as allotments. In general, institutional response to community gardening has been piecemeal, like a handing out of green band-aids. Public land is made available by municipal governments to both neighbourhood organizations and private agencies who lease it on a temporary basis, usually for one year. Extensive public pressure has compelled some city agencies to extend leases by a few years. Community gardening not only produces Healthy food close to home but also cultivates a sense of community among neighbours. Many surveys indicate that people participate in community gardening because they enjoy the opportunity to meet and make friends. Many community gardens incorporate sociability settings — arbours, picnic tables, benches, and barbecues. The growing sense of community fostered by these modern-day commons empowers neighbourhood residents and strengthens their social, physical, and mental health. A vacant lot transformed into a community garden filled with vegetable crops and blossoming flowers or the vibrant colours of a mural painted on the wall of a dilapidated building instantly, almost magically, transform the image of a rundown urban area. New York City is home to a system of about 750 community gardens that have sprouted since the mid-1970s on vacant city-owned lots in low-to-moderate income neighbourhoods. After existing for more than 20 years, many community gardens have come to be seen by community development corporations as a key aspect of “community building.”... Despite this growing recognition of their importance, these gardens have a very tenuous hold on their land. Most have short-term license agreements with the Parks Department’s Green Thumb Program. An ACGA survey conducted in 1997 by Monroe and Santos revealed that fewer than 2% of community gardens are considered permanent by their managers. Due to this aspect of ‘Nature in the City’ being so effective, the government agencies involved have drawn up plans to further implement Community Gardens, i.e. to create more of them and help them to become permanent. Their intended actions include: Secure more land and create long-term stability for community garden through purchase of land and long-term leases or other agreements. Increase support for community gardens through partnerships with other government agencies, neighbourhood groups, and businesses, civic and gardening organizations. Integrate community gardens into existing open spaces near areas of higher density residences that do not currently have community garden space, while balancing other open space needs. Provide administrative resources and agreements that enable community gardening groups to manage the gardens to the extent practicable. == Singapore == === Parks and gardens === Singapore has over 42 parks and gardens in and around the city such as the Woodlands Park and Bukit Timah nature reserve. The Woodlands Park is designed in traditional Malay/Chinese themes. There is a river that runs through the park and under the council project; part of the river was enlarged to form a lake. There are a number of attractions including a playground and an amphitheatre. The Bukit Timah nature reserve is 12 km from city centre with an area of 1.64 square kilometres. It contains primary rainforest. There are more species of tree in this nature reserve than there are in the whole of North America. There are also other nature reserves, like the Sungei Buloh nature reserve which contains mangrove forests, swamps, ponds and prawn farms. The parks, gardens and nature reserves cover many aspects of nature and are all found in one city. === Organisations, projects, and plans === Singapore has many environmental watchdogs (known as Peckhams) and committees that look after the environment within Singapore. The Nature Society Singapore is a conservation committee that promotes public awareness of conservation and conducts biodiversity surveys to provide data for the Nature society to help with plans and projects. Singapore also has a National Parks board tree management program that encourages a sense of ownership of trees in peoples care. Roadside trees are carefully selected for their suitability for the roadside. Durability and stability are key for this. Vegetation is pruned to make it look presentable. Tree inspections are carried out that log the health of trees in a database so there is a complete history of trees in Singapore that have had treatment and when. Singapore also has a green plan 2012. This was drawn up in 2002 and is a 10-year plan to create a sustainable environment for future generations. Awards are given to organisations and individuals that have made outstanding contributions towards environmental protection and care. Training is given to the large workforce that cares for the existing gardens and for those spearheading new projects. == See also == Pocket park Doorstep Greens Millennium Green Community gardening == References ==" Cities,Metropolitan area,"A metropolitan area or metro is a region of a densely populated urban agglomeration and its surrounding territories sharing industries, commercial areas, transport network, infrastructures and housing. A metro area usually comprises multiple principal cities, jurisdictions and municipalities: neighborhoods, townships, boroughs, cities, towns, exurbs, suburbs, counties, districts, as well as even states and nations like the euro districts. As social, economic and political institutions have changed, metropolitan areas have become key economic and political regions. == Satellite cities == Metropolitan areas typically include satellite cities, towns and intervening rural areas that are socioeconomically tied to the principal cities or urban core, often measured by commuting patterns. Metropolitan areas are sometimes anchored by one central city such as the Paris metropolitan area (Paris) or Mumbai Metropolitan Region (Mumbai). In other cases metropolitan areas contain multiple centers of equal or close to equal importance especially in the United States, for example the Dallas–Fort Worth metropolitan area has 8 principal cities. The Islamabad–Rawalpindi metropolitan area (Islamabad and Rawalpindi), the Rhine-Ruhr in Germany and the Randstad in the Netherlands are other examples.In the United States, the concept of metropolitan statistical areas has gained prominence. The area of the Greater Washington metropolitan area is an example of statistically grouping independent cities and county areas from various states to form a larger city because of proximity, history and recent urban convergence. Metropolitan areas may themselves be part of a greater megalopolis. For urban centres located outside metropolitan areas that generate a similar attraction at smaller scale for a region, the concept of a regiopolis and respectively regiopolitan area or regio was introduced by German professors in 2006. In the United States, the term micropolitan statistical area is used. == Definition == A metropolitan area combines an urban agglomeration with the contiguous, built-up areas not necessarily urban in character, but closely bound to the center by employment or other commerce. These outlying zones are sometimes known as a commuter belt, and may extend well beyond the urban zone, to other political entities. For example, Islip, New York on Long Island is considered part of the New York metropolitan area. In practice, the parameters of metropolitan areas, in both official and unofficial usage, are not consistent. Sometimes they are little different from an urban area, and in other cases they cover broad regions that have little relation to a single urban settlement; comparative statistics for metropolitan area should take this into account. The term metropolitan can also refer to a county-level municipal government structure, with some shared services between a central city and its suburbs, which may or may not include the entirety of a metropolitan area. Population figures given for one metro area can vary by millions. There has been no significant change in the basic concept of metropolitan areas since its adoption in 1950, although significant changes in geographic distributions have occurred since then, and more are expected. Because of the fluidity of the term ""metropolitan statistical area"", the term used colloquially is more often ""metro service area"", ""metro area"", or ""MSA"" taken to include not only a city, but also surrounding suburban, exurban and sometimes rural areas, all which it is presumed to influence. A polycentric metropolitan area contains multiple urban agglomerations not connected by continuous development. In defining a metropolitan area, it is sufficient that a city or cities form a nucleus with which other areas have a high degree of integration. A metropolitan area is commonly known and characterized by a high concentration in service sector labor and enterprises. Macroeconomics views metropolitan areas as trade regions of economic significance. == Africa == === South Africa === The Greater Johannesburg metropolitan area is the largest metropolitan area in South Africa. Its population was over 9.6 million as of the 2011 South Africa Census, in contrast to its urban area, which consisted of approximately 7.9 million inhabitants as of 2011. Conversely, metropolitan municipalities in South Africa are defined as commonly governed areas of a metropolitan area. The largest such metropolitan municipal government entity in South Africa is the City of Johannesburg Metropolitan Municipality, which presided over nearly 5 million people as of 2016. However, the Greater Johannesburg metropolitan area houses roughly ten times the population of its core municipal city of Johannesburg, which contained 957,441 people as of the 2011 census. == Americas == === Brazil === The IBGE defines also ""Immediate Geographic Areas"" (formerly termed microregions) which capture the region ""surrounding urban centers for the supply of immediate needs of the population"". Intended for policy planning purposes, as of March 2021 census data is not tabulated on the level of these Areas, but instead at the municipality or state level. === Mexico === Metropolitan areas are known as zonas metropolitanas in Mexico. The National Population Council (CONAPO) defines them as: a set of two or more municipalities where a city with a population of at least 100,000 is located, and whose urban area, functions and activities exceed the limits of the municipality. municipalities with a city of more than 500,000 inhabitants, or a city of more than 200,000 inhabitants located in the northern and southern border areas and in the coastal zone. municipalities where state capitals are located, if they are not already included in a metropolitan zone.As of 2018, there are 74 zonas metropolitanas in Mexico. 75.1 million people, 62.8% of the country population, live within a metropolitan area. === United States === As of February 28, 2013, the United States Office of Management and Budget (OMB) defined 1,098 statistical areas for the metropolitan areas of the United States and Puerto Rico. These 1,098 statistical areas comprise 929 Core-Based Statistical Areas (CBSAs) and 169 Combined Statistical Areas (CSAs). The 929 Core-Based Statistical Areas are divided into 388 Metropolitan Statistical Areas (MSAs – 381 for the U.S. and seven for Puerto Rico) and 541 Micropolitan Statistical Areas (μSAs – 536 for the U.S. and five for Puerto Rico). The 169 Combined Statistical Areas (166 for the U.S. and three for Puerto Rico) each comprise two or more adjacent Core Based Statistical Areas. The Office of Management and Budget defines a Metropolitan Statistical Area as one or more adjacent counties or county equivalents that have at least one urban area of at least 50,000 population, plus adjacent territory that has a high degree of economic and social integration with the core as measured by commuting ties. The OMB then defines a Combined Statistical Area as consisting of various combinations of adjacent metropolitan and micropolitan statistical areas with economic ties measured by commuting patterns. The Office of Management and Budget further defines a core-based statistical area (CBSA) to be a geographical area that consists of one or more counties (or equivalents) anchored by an urban center of at least 10,000 people plus adjacent counties that are socioeconomically tied to the urban center by commuting. == Asia and the Pacific == === Australia === The Australian Bureau of Statistics uses Greater Capital City Statistical Areas (GCCSAs), which are geographical areas designed to represent the functional extent of each of the eight state and territory capital cities. They were designed to reflect labor markets, using the 2011 Census ""travel to work"" data. Labor markets are sometimes used as proxy measures of the functional extent of a city as it contains the majority of the commuting population. GCCSAs replaced ""Statistical Divisions"" used until 2011.Other metropolitan areas in Australia include cross border cities or continuous built-up areas between two or more cities that are connected by an extensive public transport network that allows for commuting for work or services. The following are such conurbations: Albury-Wodonga Canberra-Queanbeyan Newcastle-Sydney-Wollongong Perth Metropolitan Region-City of Mandurah-Pinjarra South East Queensland Melbourne-Geelong === Bangladesh === In Bangladesh, the large population centers which have significant Financial, political and administrative Importance are considered to be as Metropolitan cities, which are governed by City Corporations. In total, there are 12 City Corporations in Bangladesh. 4 of them (Dhaka North City Corporation, Dhaka South City Corporation, Narayanganj City Corporation, Gazipur City Corporation) are part of Greater Dhaka Conurbation. === China === In Chinese, there used to be no clear distinction between megalopolis (城市群, lit. city cluster) and metropolitan area (都市圈) until National Development and Reform Commission issued Guidelines on the Cultivation and Development of Modern Metropolitan Areas (关于培育发展现代化都市圈的指导意见) on Feb 19, 2019, in which a metropolitan area was defined as ""an urbanized spatial form in a megalopolis dominated by (a) supercity(-ies) or megacity(-ies), or a large metropolis playing a leading part, and within the basic range of 1-hour commute area."" === India === In India, a metropolitan city is defined as one with a population more than 4 million. === Indonesia === In Indonesia, the government of Indonesia defines a metropolitan area as an urban agglomeration where its spatial planning is prioritised due to its highly important influence on the country. Jakarta, Surabaya, Bandung, Semarang, Medan, Makassar, Palembang are important metropolitan area in the country. Currently, there are 10 metropolitan cities in Indonesia that have been recognized by the government. === Pakistan === Pakistan has nine metropolitan areas with populations greater than a million. Seven of these are entirely in Punjab including Lahore, Faisalabad, Gujranwala, Multan, Bahawalpur, Sargodha, and Sialkot; one (Islamabad-Rawalpindi is split between Punjab and the Islamabad Capital Territory; two are located in Sindh, including Karachi, the largest metropolitan area in the country, and Hyderabad; one in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa: Peshawar; and the final in Balochistan: Quetta. === Philippines === The Philippines currently has three metropolitan areas defined by the National Economic and Development Authority (NEDA). These metropolitan areas are separated into three main geographical areas; Metro Manila (which is located in Luzon), Metro Cebu (which is located in Visayas), and Metro Davao (which is located in Mindanao). The official definition of each area does not necessarily follow the actual extent of continuous urbanization. For example, the built-up area of Metro Manila has long spilled out of its officially defined borders into the adjacent provinces of Bulacan, Rizal, Laguna, and Cavite. The number of metropolitan areas in the Philippines was reduced from 13 in 2007 to the current three based from the 2017–2022 Philippine Development Plan by NEDA. The other 10 metropolitan areas were Metro Angeles, Metro Bacolod, Metro Baguio, Metro Batangas, Metro Cagayan de Oro, Metro Dagupan, Metro Iloilo–Guimaras, Metro Butuan, Metro Naga, and Metro Olongapo. == Europe == The European Union's statistical agency, Eurostat, has created a concept named larger urban zone (LUZ). The LUZ represents an attempt at a harmonised definition of the metropolitan area, and the goal was to have an area from which a significant share of the residents commute into the city, a concept known as the ""functional urban region"". === France === France's national statistics office, INSEE, names an urban core and its surrounding area of commuter influence an aire d'attraction d'une ville (or AAV, literally meaning ""catchment area of a city""), plural: aires d'attraction des villes. The official translation of this statistical area in English (as used by INSEE) is ""functional area"". The AAV follows the same definition as the Functional Urban Area (FUA) used by Eurostat and the OECD, and the AAVs are thus strictly comparable to the FUAs.The AAV replaced in 2020 the metropolitan statistical area called aire urbaine (AU). The AU, which was defined differently than the AAV, has now been discarded by INSEE and replaced with the AAV in order to facilitate international comparisons. === Germany === In German definition, metropolitan areas are eleven most densely populated areas in the Federal Republic of Germany. They comprise the major German cities and their surrounding catchment areas and form the political, commercial and cultural centers of the country. For urban centers outside metropolitan areas, that generate a similar attraction at smaller scale for their region, the concept of the Regiopolis and respectively regiopolitan area or region was introduced by German professors in 2006. === Italy === In 2001, Italy transformed 14 provinces of some of the country's largest cities into Metropolitan Cities. Therefore, the territory of the Metropolitan City corresponds to that of a normal Italian province. === Sweden === Sweden defines a metropolitan area as a group of municipalities, based on statistics of commuting between central municipalities and surrounding municipalities and taking into account existing planning cooperation in the country's three geographic regions. They were defined around 1965. In 2005, a number of further municipalities were added to the defined areas. === Turkey === The word metropolitan describes the central municipality governing local services in a province with more than 750.000 residents in Turkey, like Istanbul and its metropolitan municipality, the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality. There are 30 officially defined ""metropolitan municipalities"" in Turkey. This classification, however, is only used for administrative purposes, and sometimes contradicts the colloquial use of the term ""metro area"". As an example, Gebze, a district in Kocaeli province and thus in the juristiction of the Kocaeli Metropolitan Municipality, is arguably within the metro area of Istanbul with many of its residents commuting to Istanbul for work and the Marmaray, a commuter rail line, extending into the district. The district however, as previosuly mentioned, is not a part of Istanbul's provincial limits, and thus not subject to the jurisdiction of its metropolitan municipality. The word metropolitan (municipality) is generally only used as an administrative distinction in Turkey. === United Kingdom === The United Kingdom government's Office for National Statistics defines ""travel to work areas"" as areas where ""at least 75% of an area's resident workforce work in the area and at least 75% of the people who work in the area also live in the area"".The European Union's ESPON group has compiled a separate list of metropolitan areas which covers the UK. == See also == == References ==" Cities,Category:Categories by city, Cities,Category:Categories by town or city, Cities,Category:Cities by continent, Cities,Category:Cities by country,"In some countries no official distinction is made between cities and towns, or even between cities, towns and villages, so the categories are combined." Cities,Category:Cities by location, Cities,Category:Cities by period, Cities,Category:Images of cities, Cities,Category:Cities by type, Cities,Category:Outlines of cities,"Each entry below is an outline, an introduction to a subject structured as a hierarchical list of the essential points. Each of these outlines focuses on a city. Along with Portal:Contents/Outlines, the outlines on Wikipedia form an all-encompassing outline of the knowledge of humankind. Pages included here should also be included in Category:Wikipedia outlines." Cities,Category:Lists of cities, Cities,Category:Bibliographies of cities, Cities,Category:City councils, Cities,Category:City districts,This category is for administrative divisions of cities. For areas or districts of cities generally see Category:Neighbourhoods. Cities,Category:City founding, Cities,Category:City lockdowns, Cities,Category:City museums,"Museums that focus on the history of the city in which they are located, normally named after the city. See also Category:Museums by city." Cities,Category:City names, Cities,Category:Cityscapes, Cities,Category:Histories of cities, Cities,Category:Maps of cities,"Apart from that article, this category is for articles about specific maps of specific cities." Cities,Category:Metropolitan areas, Cities,Category:Municipal coats of arms,"This category is for the coats of arms of cities, towns and other forms of municipalities which have been officially granted to them or officially adopted by the municipal authorities. For municipal seals, see Category:Seals of cities and towns." Cities,Category:Municipal courts, Cities,Category:Municipal international relations, Cities,Category:Neighbourhoods,Lists of neighborhoods around the world. Cities,Category:Quarters (urban subdivision), Cities,Category:Seats of local government, Cities,Category:Symbols of cities, Cities,Category:Works about cities, Landforms,Landform,"A landform is a natural or anthropogenic land feature on the solid surface of the Earth or other planetary body. Landforms together make up a given terrain, and their arrangement in the landscape is known as topography. Landforms include hills, mountains, canyons, and valleys, as well as shoreline features such as bays, peninsulas, and seas, including submerged features such as mid-ocean ridges, volcanoes, and the great ocean basins. == Physical characteristics == Landforms are categorized by characteristic physical attributes such as elevation, slope, orientation, structure stratification, rock exposure, and soil type. Gross physical features or landforms include intuitive elements such as berms, mounds, hills, ridges, cliffs, valleys, rivers, peninsulas, volcanoes, and numerous other structural and size-scaled (e.g. ponds vs. lakes, hills vs. mountains) elements including various kinds of inland and oceanic waterbodies and sub-surface features. Mountains, hills, plateaux, and plains are the four major types of landforms. Minor landforms include buttes, canyons, valleys, and basins. Tectonic plate movement under the Earth can create landforms by pushing up mountains and hills. == Hierarchy of classes == Oceans and continents exemplify the highest-order landforms. Landform elements are parts of a high-order landforms that can be further identified and systematically given a cohesive definition such as hill-tops, shoulders, saddles, foreslopes and backslopes. Some generic landform elements including: pits, peaks, channels, ridges, passes, pools and plains. Terrain (or relief) is the third or vertical dimension of land surface. Topography is the study of terrain, although the word is often used as a synonym for relief itself. When relief is described underwater, the term bathymetry is used. In cartography, many different techniques are used to describe relief, including contour lines and triangulated irregular networks. Elementary landforms (segments, facets, relief units) are the smallest homogeneous divisions of the land surface, at the given scale/resolution. These are areas with relatively homogeneous morphometric properties, bounded by lines of discontinuity. A plateau or a hill can be observed at various scales, ranging from a few hundred meters to hundreds of kilometers. Hence, the spatial distribution of landforms is often scale-dependent, as is the case for soils and geological strata. A number of factors, ranging from plate tectonics to erosion and deposition (also due to human activity), can generate and affect landforms. Biological factors can also influence landforms— for example, note the role of vegetation in the development of dune systems and salt marshes, and the work of corals and algae in the formation of coral reefs. Landforms do not include several man-made features, such as canals, ports and many harbors; and geographic features, such as deserts, forests, and grasslands. Many of the terms are not restricted to refer to features of the planet Earth, and can be used to describe surface features of other planets and similar objects in the Universe. Examples are mountains, hills, polar caps, and valleys, which are found on all of the terrestrial planets. The scientific study of landforms is known as geomorphology. In onomastic terminology, toponyms (geographical proper names) of individual landform objects (mountains, hills, valleys, etc.) are called oronyms. == Recent developments == Landforms may be extracted from a digital elevation model (DEM) using some automated techniques where the data has been gathered by modern satellites and stereoscopic aerial surveillance cameras. Until recently, compiling the data found in such data sets required time consuming and expensive techniques involving many man-hours. The most detailed DEMs available are measured directly using LIDAR techniques. == See also == == References == == Sources == Room, Adrian (1996). An Alphabetical Guide to the Language of Name Studies. Lanham and London: The Scarecrow Press. ISBN 9780810831698. == Further reading == Hargitai Hetal. (2015) Classification and Characterization of Planetary Landforms. In: Hargitai H (ed) Encyclopedia of Planetary Landforms. Springer. DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-3134-3 https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/bbm%3A978-1-4614-3134-3%2F1.pdf Page D (2015) The Geology of Planetary Landforms. In: Hargitai H (ed) Encyclopedia of Planetary Landforms. Springer. == External links == Open-Geomorphometry Project" Landforms,Glossary of landforms,"Landforms are categorized by characteristic physical attributes such as their creating process, shape, elevation, slope, orientation, rock exposure, and soil type. == Landforms by process == Landforms organized by the processes that create them. === Aeolian landforms === Aeolian landform – Landforms produced by action of the winds are formed by the wind and include: Dry lake – Basin or depression that formerly contained a standing surface water body Sandhill – Type of ecological community or xeric wildfire-maintained ecosystem Ventifact – Rock that has been eroded by wind-driven sand or ice crystals Yardang – Streamlined aeolian landform === Coastal and oceanic landforms === Coastal and oceanic landforms include: === Cryogenic landforms === === Erosion landforms === Landforms produced by erosion and weathering usually occur in coastal or fluvial environments, and many also appear under those headings. === Fluvial landforms === Fluvial – Processes associated with rivers and streamsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets landforms include: === Impact landforms === Landforms created by extraterrestrial impacts – Collision of two astronomical objects with measurable effects – include: === Lacustrine landforms === Lacustrine – associated with lakes – landforms include: === Mountain and glacial landforms === Mountain and glacial landform – Landform created by the action of glaciers – include: === Slope landforms === Slope landforms include: === Tectonic landforms === Landforms created by tectonic activity include: === Volcanic landforms === Volcanic landforms include: === Weathering landforms === Weathering landforms include: == Landforms by shape == === Positive landforms === === Depressions === === Flat landforms === == Landforms, alphabetic == == Further reading == Hargitai H., Kereszturi Á. (eds): Encyclopedia of Planetary Landforms. Springer. https://link.springer.com/referencework/10.1007/978-1-4614-3134-3 == See also == Geomorphology – Scientific study of landforms Types of bodies of water Ocean – Body of salt water covering the majority of Earth Sea – Large body of salt water" Landforms,Alcove (landform),"Alcoves is the geographical and geological term for a steep-sided hollow in the side of an exposed rock face or cliff of a homogeneous rock type, that was water eroded. They are created through weathering, erosion, dry granular flow, and stress. Another factor in the formation of alcoves is winds between mid to late summer that steepen at the edge which leads to the failure and shaping of sand deposition in certain areas. == Locations on Earth == === North Pole === Although alcoves are both found in the northern and southern hemisphere, more newly developed alcoves are in the northern hemisphere region. Around the North Pole, dune alcoves, dune furrows, and scarp avalanches can form. The mechanism dune furrows are formed are through cryo jets and many form at alluvial fans. Furrows are channels and although mostly small they can vary in size and everytime they form in the spring season. Furrows do not have a long lifetime as they are often blown away by strong summer winds. === South Pole === In comparison, the South Pole differs in having higher elevation which can cause changes in alcove formation. These differences include the South Pole having older alcoves due to its denser deposition craters which are approximately 2 to 3 m thick which include particles of ice and minerals, and craters that contains carbon dioxide ice. Both South Pole and North Pole alcoves are formed through stress cementing the sandstone particles together. So after erosion, at the area where the most rock has been excavated by weathering the pressure builds up and the sand particles become very stable and hold the arch above. == Locations on Other Planetary Bodies == === Mars === Annually in the North Pole region, alcove formation is most active during autumn and winter seasons and also form specific alcove-apron regions during springtime sublimation. This is when the alcoves start at the edge of dunes and deposit and end into an apron fan shape. During summertime on Mars, strong winds will blow away smaller less stable alcoves which starts the cycle for new alcoves to form the following autumn and winter. It is estimated that alcove formation is responsible for a range of 2 to 20% of sand movement on Mars. == References ==" Landforms,Alder carr,"An alder carr is a particular type of carr, i.e. waterlogged wooded terrain populated with alder trees. == Examples == Alder Carr, Hildersham Alderfen Broad Fawley Ford on the Beaulieu River Biebrza National Park Fen Alder Carr Harston Wood Holywells Park, Ipswich: Pond 5 is known as Alder Carr and is a biodiversity action plan habitat. Historically there was another Alder Carr in the Cobbold family estate in what is now the northern edge of the Landseer Park. Jackson's Coppice and Marsh Loynton Moss == Gallery == == References ==" Landforms,Alvar,"An alvar is a biological environment based on a limestone plain with thin or no soil and, as a result, sparse grassland vegetation. Often flooded in the spring, and affected by drought in midsummer, alvars support a distinctive group of prairie-like plants. Most alvars occur either in northern Europe or around the Great Lakes in North America. This stressed habitat supports a community of rare plants and animals, including species more commonly found on prairie grasslands. Lichen and mosses are common species. Trees and bushes are absent or severely stunted. The primary cause of alvars is the shallow exposed bedrock. Flooding and drought, as noted, add to the stress of the site and prevent many species from growing. Disturbance may also play a role. In Europe, grazing is frequent, while in North America, there is some evidence that fire may also prevent encroachment by forest. The habitat also has strong competition gradients, with better competitors occupying the deeper soil and excluding other species to less productive locations. Crevices in the limestone provide a distinctive habitat which is somewhat protected from grazing, and which may provide habitat for unusual ferns such as Pellaea atropurpurea. Bare rock flats provide areas with extremely low competition that serve as refugia for weak competitors such as the sandwort Minuartia michauxii and Micranthes virginiensis. In a representative set of four Ontario alvars, seven habitat types were described. From deep to shallow soil these were: tall grassy meadows, tall forb-rich meadows, low grassy meadows, low forb-rich meadows, dry grassland, rock margin grassland and bare rock flats.Alvars comprise a small percentage of the Earth's ecosystems by land extent. Although some 120 exist in the Great Lakes region, in total there are only about 43 sq mi (110 km2) left across the entire Great Lakes basin, and many of these have been degraded by agriculture and other human uses. More than half of all remaining alvars occur in Ontario. There are smaller areas in New York, Michigan, Ohio, Wisconsin and Quebec.In North America, alvars provide habitat for birds such as bobolinks, eastern meadowlarks, upland sandpipers, eastern towhees, brown thrashers and loggerhead shrikes whose habitat is declining elsewhere. Rare plants include Kalm's lobelia (Lobelia kalmii), Pringle's aster (Symphyotrichum pilosum var. pringlei), juniper sedge (Carex juniperorum), lakeside daisy (Hymenoxys acaulis), ram's-head lady's-slipper (Cypripedium arietinum), and dwarf lake iris (Iris lacustris). Also associated with alvars are rare butterflies and snails. The use of the word ""alvar"" to refer to this type of environment originated in Sweden. The largest alvar in Europe is located on the Swedish island of Öland. Here the thin soil mantle is only 0.5 to 2.0 centimeters thick in most places and in many extents consists of exposed limestone slabs. The landscape there has been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. There are other more local names for similar landforms, such as a pavement barren, although this term is also used for similar landforms based on sandstone. In the United Kingdom the exposed landform is called a limestone pavement and thinly covered limestone is known as calcareous grassland. == European alvar locations == Sweden Öland – Stora Alvaret – largest alvar extent in Europe Gotland Västergötland – several locations on limestone mountain Kinnekulle, smaller fragments on Falbygden, e.g. in Dala and Högstena parishes Estonia Alvars are distributed along the whole northern coast of Estonia from approx. the town of Paldiski to Sillamäe, wherever limestone comes to the surface near the seashore (see Baltic Klint), as well as on the islands of the West Estonian archipelago. Estonia used to be home to approximately one third of the world's alvars; however, the total area of alvars has decreased from 43,000 hectares in the 1930s to 12,000 hectares in 2000, and approximately 9,000 hectares in 2010. Estonian alvars are home to 267 species of vascular plants, approximately one fifth of which are protected. There are also 142 species of bryophytes and 263 species of lichens. The Estonian government has committed itself to protect at least 9,800 hectares of the country's alvars as part of the Natura 2000 network. The Loopealse subdistrict of Tallinn is named after alvar. Vardi Nature Reserve in Rapla County is an Estonian nature reserve especially designated to protect one of the more representative alvar areas of Estonia. England Cumbria and North Yorkshire – under protection in the UK Biodiversity Action Plan Ireland The Burren, a large alvar in northwest County Clare == Some North American alvar locations == The rare Charitable Research Reserve – Cambridge, Ontario Lake Erie Kelley's Island, Ohio – North Shore Alvar State Nature Preserve Marblehead, Ohio – mostly destroyed by limestone quarrying Pelee Island, Ontario – Stone Road Alvar Nature Reserve Lake Huron Maxton Plains Proposed Natural Area, Drummond Island, Michigan Belanger Bay Alvar, Manitoulin Island, Ontario Quarry Bay Nature Reserve, Manitoulin Island, Ontario Bruce Alvar Nature Reserve, Bruce Peninsula, Ontario Baptise Harbour Nature Reserve, Bruce Peninsula, Ontario Misery Bay Provincial Park, Manitoulin Island, Ontario Lake Michigan Red Banks Alvar, Red Banks, Brown County, Wisconsin Lake Ontario Carden Plain Alvar, City of Kawartha Lakes, Ontario, including Carden Alvar Provincial Park Chaumont Barrens Preserve, New York Three Mile Creek Barrens, New York Burnt Lands Alvar, Almonte, Ontario Balsam Lake Indian Point Provincial Park, Ontario Quebec Quyon Alvar d'Aylmer Manitoba Interlake == See also == Calcareous grassland – An ecosystem associated with thin basic soil Chalk heath Edaphic – Science concerned with the influence of soils on living beingsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Gypcrust – Hardened layer of soil with a high percentage of gypsum Gypsum flora of Nova Scotia – Group of plants in Nova Scotia, Canada Rendzina – Humus-rich shallow soil type Barren vegetation – Area of land where plant growth may be limited == References == == External links == Media related to Alvar at Wikimedia Commons http://www.epa.gov/ecopage/shore/alvars/" Landforms,Amba (landform),"An Amba (Amharic: ዐምባ āmbā, Tigrinya: እምባ imbā) is a characteristic landform in Ethiopia. It is a steep-sided, flat-topped mountain, often the site of villages, wells, and their surrounding farmland. Such settlements were frequently located on these amba plateaus because they were very defensible and often virtually inaccessible from the ground. The original term in Amharic indicates a mountain fortress. Amba Geshen, for example, is a historically significant amba where members of royal families were kept under guard for their safety and to prevent their participation in plots against the sitting emperor. Other noted Ambas include Amba Aradam and Amba Alagi, sites of famous battles during the first and second Italo-Ethiopian Wars. == Notable Ambas in Ethiopian History == Amba Geshen - A Historic 'Prison' or 'Detention' location for royal family members. Debre Damo - The name of both an Amba and historic Ethiopian Church. Magdala - Emperor Tewodros's capitol before his death during the British Expedition to Abyssinia. Amba Alagi - Site of 3 Battles, in both Italo-Ethiopian Wars. == More Recent Information Regarding Ambas == In 2008, a scientific mission identified on an amba near Harar, the Kundudo, one of just two feral horse populations in Africa. == See also == Hillfort Mesa == References == == Sources == Munro-Hay, Stuart, Ethiopia, the Unknown Land: A Cultural and Historical Guide, Contributor Pamala Taor, Published 2002 by I. B. Tauris, 384 pages, ISBN 1-86064-744-8" Landforms,Barachois,"A barachois is a term used in Atlantic Canada, Saint Pierre and Miquelon, Réunion and Mauritius to describe a coastal lagoon partially or totally separated from the ocean by a sand or shingle bar. Sometimes the bar is constructed of boulders, as is the case at Freshwater Bay near St. John’s, Newfoundland. Salt water may enter the barachois during high tide. The bar often is formed as a result of sediment deposited in the delta region of a river or – as is the case in Miquelon – by a tombolo. == Name == The English term comes from the French language, where the word is pronounced [ba.ʁa.ʃwa]. The term comes from a Basque word, barratxoa, meaning little bar. The popular derivation from the French barre à choir is without historical merit. In Newfoundland English, the word has become pronounced as barshwa. == Examples == Dark Harbour, Grand Manan, New Brunswick (photo) Barachois de Malbaie on the tip of the Gaspé Peninsula, fed by one of two Malbaie Rivers in Quebec and the Beattie, du Portage, and Murphy Rivers Grand Barachois, Miquelon Island Grand-Barachois, in Westmorland County, New Brunswick Barachois Pond Provincial Park in western Newfoundland Big Barasway and Little Barasway, communities on Newfoundland's Cape Shore Prince Edward Island National Park has several examples Percival Bay, off the Northumberland Strait, is also known as the Big Barachois The coves in the lagoon of Diego Garcia in the Indian Ocean Topsail Beach Provincial Park, Topsail Former settlement of Freshwater, near St John's, Newfoundland. Great Barachois, near Petit-de-Grat, Nova Scotia == References ==" Landforms,Barrier range, Landforms,Barrier ridge,"The terms barrier ridge, a term of art in the earth sciences, especially geology and sometimes barrier range (more common as a geography term) describing the existence of gross landforms describing long ridgelines which are particularly difficult to pass, especially in the context of being on foot or dependent upon other forms of animal powered transportation systems, in mountainous and sometimes hilly terrains. Barrier ridges such as the steep rising slopes or escarpments of the Allegheny Front, separating the ridge-and-valley Appalachians from the drainage divides of the uplands of the Appalachian Plateau. The ridge and valley region is filled with a succession of nearly impassible ridges from Northern Georgia, along the Appalachian chain all the way to Maine. == Notes == == References == == External links == Media related to Barrier ridge at Wikimedia Commons" Landforms,Basin and range topography,"Basin and range topography is characterized by alternating parallel mountain ranges and valleys. It is a result of crustal extension due to mantle upwelling, gravitational collapse, crustal thickening, or relaxation of confining stresses. The extension results in the thinning and deformation of the upper crust, causing it to fracture and create a series of long parallel normal faults. This results in block faulting, where the blocks of rock between the normal faults either subside, uplift, or tilt. The movement of these blocks results in the alternating valleys and mountains. As the crust thins, it also allows heat from the mantle to more easily melt rock and form magma, resulting in increased volcanic activity. == Types of faulting == === Symmetrical faulting: horst and graben === With crustal extension, a series of normal faults which occur in groups, form in close proximity and dipping in opposite directions. As the crust extends it fractures in series of fault planes, some blocks sink down due to gravity, creating long linear valleys or basins also known as grabens, while the blocks remaining up or uplifted produce mountains or ranges, also known as horsts. Fault scarps are exposed on the horst block and expose the footwall of the normal fault. This is a type of block faulting known as grabens and horsts. This basin and range topography is symmetrical having equal slopes on both sides of the valleys and mountain ranges. === Asymmetric faulting: tilted block faulting === Tilted block faulting, also known as half-graben or rotational block faulting, can also occur during extension. Large gently dipping normal faults, also known as detachment faults, act as platforms in which normal faulted blocks tilt or slide along. However, instead of the whole block subsiding only one side, the block may slip along the detachment fault, tilting toward the fault plane, again creating mountains (ranges) and valleys (basins), many tilted slightly in one direction at their tops due to the motion of their bottoms along the main detachment fault. This basin and range topography has one steep side and the other is more gradual. == Examples == === Basin and Range Province === The Basin and Range Province is the most well known example of basin and range topography. Clarence Dutton compared the many narrow parallel mountain ranges that distinguish the unique topography of the Basin and Range to an ""army of caterpillars crawling northward.""The physiography of the province is the result of tectonic extension that began around 17 million years ago in the early Miocene epoch. Opinions vary regarding the total extension of the region; however, the median estimate is about 100% total lateral extension. The tectonic mechanisms responsible for lithospheric extension in the Basin and Range province are controversial, and several competing hypotheses attempt to explain them. === Aegean Sea Plate === The Aegean Sea Plate consists of thinned continental crust. The northern part of the plate is currently a region of crustal extension caused by slab rollback on the Hellenic Subduction Zone to the south, causing extensive normal faulting and the formation of horsts and grabens on the seafloor. Many of the islands are the result of peaks reaching above sea level. == Mapping extension == One of the most studied basin and range topographies is the Basin and Range Province in the western United States, located between the Sierra Nevada and the Rocky Mountains. The extension of the province was believed to have begun in the late Cenozoic Era, roughly 20 Ma. Between 1992 and 1998 scientists conducted GPS surveys to map the deformation of the Basin and Range province. In the study, Thatcher et al. discovered that most deformation was happening in the west, adjacent to the Sierra Nevada block, while less deformation was happening in the east. This coincides with the northwestward movement of the Sierra Nevada microplate.Though the Aegean Sea Plate is more difficult to study because it is underwater, efforts have been made to conduct GPS surveys of the seafloor and surrounding area. Some studies show regions of extension within the plate, while others suggest a four-microplate model to represent the motion. The plate's deformation is thought to be a result of crustal collapse (beginning c. 14 Ma) combined with slab rollback on the Hellenic Subduction Zone. == See also == Bolson Endorheic basin == References == == External links == Southern California Earthquake Data Center Glossary" Landforms,Bench (geology),"In geomorphology, geography and geology, a bench or benchland is a long, relatively narrow strip of relatively level or gently inclined land that is bounded by distinctly steeper slopes above and below it. Benches can be of different origins and created by very different geomorphic processes. First, the differential erosion of rocks or sediments of varying hardness and resistance to erosion can create benches. Earth scientists called such benches ""structural benches."" Second, other benches are narrow fluvial terraces created by the abandonment of a floodplain by a river or stream and entrenchment of the river valley into it. Finally, a bench is also the name of a narrow flat area often seen at the base of a sea cliff that was created by waves or other physical or chemical erosion near the shoreline. These benches are typically referred to as either ""coastal benches,"" ""wave-cut benches,"" or ""wave-cut platforms.""In mining, a bench is a narrow, strip of land cut into the side of an open-pit mine. These step-like zones are created along the walls of an open-pit mine for access and mining. == See also == Raised beach, also known as Marine terrace – Emergent coastal landform Piedmonttreppen Strandflat – Type of landform found in high-latitude areas Terrace (geology) – A step-like landform == References == == External links ==" Landforms,Bocage,"Bocage (UK: , US: BOH-kahzh) is a terrain of mixed woodland and pasture characteristic of parts of northern France, southern England, Ireland, the Netherlands and northern Germany, in regions where pastoral farming is the dominant land use. Bocage may also refer to a small forest, a decorative element of leaves, or a type of rubble-work, comparable with the English use of ""rustic"" in relation to garden ornamentation. In the decorative arts, especially porcelain, it refers to a leafy screen spreading above and behind figures. Though found on continental figures, it is something of an English speciality, beginning in the mid-18th century, especially in Chelsea porcelain, and later spreading to more downmarket Staffordshire pottery figures. In English, bocage refers to a terrain of mixed woodland and pasture, with fields and winding country lanes sunken between narrow low ridges and banks surmounted by tall thick hedgerows that break the wind but also limit visibility. It is the sort of landscape found in many parts of southern England, for example the Devon hedge and Cornish hedge. However the term is more often found in technical than general usage in England. In France the term is in more general use, especially in Normandy, with a similar meaning. Bocage landscape in France is largely confined to Normandy, Brittany, and parts of the Loire valley. == Etymology == Bocage is a Norman word that comes from the Old Norman boscage (Anglo-Norman boscage, Old French boschage), from the Old French root bosc (""wood"") > Modern French bois (""wood"") cf. Medieval Latin boscus (first mentioned in 704 AD). The Norman place names retain it as Bosc-, -bosc, Bosc-, pronounced traditionally [bɔk] or [bo]. The suffix -age means ""a general thing"". The boscage form was used in English for ""growing trees or shrubs; a thicket, grove; woody undergrowth"" and to refer to decorative design imitating branches and foliage or leafy decoration such as is found on eighteenth-century porcelain; since early twentieth century this usually called ""bocage"". Similar words occur in Scandinavian (cf. Swedish buskage; Danish buskads) and other Germanic languages (cf. Dutch bos, boshaag); the original root is thought to be the Proto-Germanic *bŏsk-. The boscage form seems to have developed its meaning under the influence of eighteenth-century romanticism. The 1934 Nouveau Petit Larousse defined bocage as ""a bosquet, a little wood, an agreeably shady wood"" and a bosquet as ""a little wood, a clump of trees"". By 2006, the Petit Larousse definition had become ""(Norman word) Region where the fields and meadows are enclosed by earth banks carrying hedges or rows of trees and where the habitation is generally dispersed in farms and hamlets."" == Historic role == === England === In Southeast England, in spite of a sedimentary soil which would not fit this landscape, a bocage resulted from the movement of the enclosure of the open fields. During the 17th century, England developed an ambitious sea policy. One of the effects of this was the importation of Russian wheat, which was cheaper than English wheat at that time. The enclosures common in the bocage countryside favoured sheep husbandry and limited English cereal grain production, and as a consequence of this policy, the rural exodus was amplified, accelerating the Industrial Revolution. The surplus of agricultural workers migrated to the cities to work in factories. === Normandy === In Normandy, the bocage acquired a particular significance in the Chouannerie during the French Revolution.The bocage was also significant during the Battle of Normandy in World War II, as it made progress against the German defenders difficult. Plots of land were divided by ancient rows of dirt alongside irrigation ditches; thick vegetation on these dirt mounds could create walls up to sixteen feet high. A typical square mile on the battlefield might contain hundreds of irregular hedged enclosures. In response, ""Rhino tanks"" fitted with bocage-cutting modifications were developed. American personnel usually referred to bocage as hedgerows. The German army also used sunken lanes to implement strong points and defences to stop the American troops on the Cotentin Peninsula and around the town of Saint-Lô. === Ireland === Almost all of lowland Ireland is characterised by bocage landscape, a consequence of pastoral farming which requires enclosure for the management of herds. Approximately 5% of Ireland's land area is devoted to hedges, field walls and shelterbelts. In the more fertile areas these usually consist of earthen banks, which are planted with or colonised by trees and shrubs; this vegetation can give the impression of a wooded landscape, even where there is little or no woodland. This pattern of hedgerows was largely established in the late 18th and 19th centuries, a period when Ireland was virtually devoid of natural woodland. Modern intensive agriculture has tended to increase field size by removing hedgerows, a trend which for years was promoted by the Common Agricultural Policy of the European Union and recently has been countered by the European Union's agricultural policies favouring the conservation of wildlife habitats. == References == == Sources == Oxford English Dictionary Nouveau Petit Larousse Illustré (1934) Petit Larousse Illustré 2007 (2006) == External links == Media related to Boscages at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of bocage at Wiktionary" Landforms,Bog,"A bog or bogland is a wetland that accumulates peat as a deposit of dead plant materials – often mosses, typically sphagnum moss. It is one of the four main types of wetlands. Other names for bogs include mire, mosses, quagmire, and muskeg; alkaline mires are called fens. A baygall is another type of bog found in the forest of the Gulf Coast states in the United States. They are often covered in heath or heather shrubs rooted in the sphagnum moss and peat. The gradual accumulation of decayed plant material in a bog functions as a carbon sink.Bogs occur where the water at the ground surface is acidic and low in nutrients. A bog usually is found at a freshwater soft spongy ground that is made up of decayed plant matter which is known as peat. They are generally found in cooler northern climates and are formed in poorly draining lake basins. In contrast to fens, they derive most of their water from precipitation rather than mineral-rich ground or surface water. Water flowing out of bogs has a characteristic brown colour, which comes from dissolved peat tannins. In general, the low fertility and cool climate result in relatively slow plant growth, but decay is even slower due to low oxygen levels in saturated bog soils. Hence, peat accumulates. Large areas of the landscape can be covered many meters deep in peat.Bogs have distinctive assemblages of animal, fungal, and plant species, and are of high importance for biodiversity, particularly in landscapes that are otherwise settled and farmed. == Distribution and extent == Bogs are widely distributed in cold, temperate climes, mostly in boreal ecosystems in the Northern Hemisphere. The world's largest wetland is the peat bogs of the Western Siberian Lowlands in Russia, which cover more than a million square kilometres. Large peat bogs also occur in North America, particularly the Hudson Bay Lowland and the Mackenzie River Basin. They are less common in the Southern Hemisphere, with the largest being the Magellanic moorland, comprising some 44,000 square kilometres (17,000 sq mi) in southern South America. Sphagnum bogs were widespread in northern Europe but have often been cleared and drained for agriculture. A paper led by Graeme T. Swindles in 2019 showed that peatlands across Europe have undergone rapid drying in recent centuries owing to human impacts including drainage, peat cutting and burning. A 2014 expedition leaving from Itanga village, Republic of the Congo, discovered a peat bog ""as big as England"" which stretches into neighboring Democratic Republic of Congo. == Definition == Like all wetlands, it is difficult to rigidly define bogs for a number of reasons, including variations between bogs, the in-between nature of wetlands as an intermediate between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, and varying definitions between wetland classification systems. However, there are characteristics common to all bogs that provide a broad definition: Peat is present, usually thicker than 30 cm. The wetland receives most of its water and nutrients from precipitation (ombrotrophic) rather than surface or groundwater (minerotrophic). The wetland is nutrient-poor (oligotrophic). The wetland is strongly acidic (bogs near coastal areas may be less acidic due to sea spray).Because all bogs have peat, they are a type of peatland. As a peat-producing ecosystem, they are also classified as mires, along with fens. Bogs differ from fens in that fens receive water and nutrients from mineral-rich surface or groundwater, while bogs receive water and nutrients from precipitation. Because fens are supplied with mineral-rich water, they tend to be slightly acidic to slightly basic, while bogs are always acidic because precipitation is mineral-poor. == Ecology and protection == There are many highly specialized animals, fungi, and plants associated with bog habitat. Most are capable of tolerating the combination of low nutrient levels and waterlogging.: chapter 3  Sphagnum is generally abundant, along with ericaceous shrubs. The shrubs are often evergreen, which may assist in conservation of nutrients. In drier locations, evergreen trees can occur, in which case the bog blends into the surrounding expanses of boreal evergreen forest. Sedges are one of the more common herbaceous species. Carnivorous plants such as sundews (Drosera) and pitcher plants (for example Sarracenia purpurea) have adapted to the low-nutrient conditions by using invertebrates as a nutrient source. Orchids have adapted to these conditions through the use of mycorrhizal fungi to extract nutrients.: 88  Some shrubs such as Myrica gale (bog myrtle) have root nodules in which nitrogen fixation occurs, thereby providing another supplemental source of nitrogen. Bogs are recognized as a significant/specific habitat type by a number of governmental and conservation agencies. They can provide habitat for mammals, such as caribou, moose, and beavers, as well as for species of nesting shorebirds, such as Siberian cranes and yellowlegs. Bogs contain species of vulnerable reptilians such as the bog turtle. Bogs even have distinctive insects; English bogs give a home to a yellow fly called the hairy canary fly (Phaonia jaroschewskii), and bogs in North America are habitat for a butterfly called the bog copper (Lycaena epixanthe). In Ireland, the viviparous lizard, the only known reptile in the country, dwells in bogland.The United Kingdom in its Biodiversity Action Plan establishes bog habitats as a priority for conservation. Russia has a large reserve system in the West Siberian Lowland. The highest protected status occurs in Zapovedniks (IUCN category IV); Gydansky and Yugansky are two prominent examples.Bogs are fragile ecosystems, and have been deteriorating quickly, as archaeologists and scientists have been recently finding. Bone material found in bogs has had accelerated deterioration from first analyses in the 1940s. This has been found to be from fluctuations in ground water and increase in acidity in lower areas of bogs that is affecting the rich organic material. Many of these areas have been permeated to the lowest levels with oxygen, which dries and cracks layers. There have been some temporary solutions to try and fix these issues, such as adding soil to the tops of threatened areas, yet they do not work in the long-term. Extreme weather like dry summers are likely the cause, as they lower precipitation and the groundwater table. It is speculated that these issues will only increase with a rise in global temperature and climate change. Since bogs take thousands of years to form and create the rich peat that is used as a resource, once they are gone they are extremely hard to recover. Arctic and sub-Arctic circles where many bogs are warming at 0.6 °C per decade, an amount twice as large as the global average. Because bogs and other peatlands are carbon sinks, they are releasing large amounts of greenhouse gases as they warm up. These changes have resulted in a severe decline of biodiversity and species populations of peatlands throughout Northern Europe. == Types == Bog habitats may develop in various situations, depending on the climate and topography (see also hydrosere succession). === By location and water source === Bogs may be classified on their topography, proximity to water, method of recharge, and nutrient accumulation . ==== Valley bog ==== These develop in gently sloping valleys or hollows. A layer of peat fills the deepest part of the valley, and a stream may run through the surface of the bog. Valley bogs may develop in relatively dry and warm climates, but because they rely on ground or surface water, they only occur on acidic substrates. ==== Raised bog ==== These develop from a lake or flat marshy area, over either non-acidic or acidic substrates. Over centuries there is a progression from open lake, to a marsh, to a fen (or, on acidic substrates, valley bog), to a carr, as silt or peat accumulates within the lake. Eventually, peat builds up to a level where the land surface is too flat for ground or surface water to reach the center of the wetland. This part, therefore, becomes wholly rain-fed (ombrotrophic), and the resulting acidic conditions allow the development of bog (even if the substrate is non-acidic). The bog continues to form peat, and over time a shallow dome of bog peat develops into a raised bog. The dome is typically a few meters high in the center and is often surrounded by strips of fen or other wetland vegetation at the edges or along streamsides where groundwater can percolate into the wetland. The various types of raised bog may be divided into: Coastal bog Plateau bog Upland bog Kermi bog String bog Palsa bog Polygonal bog ==== Blanket bog ==== In cool climates with consistently high rainfall (on more than c. 235 days a year), the ground surface may remain waterlogged for much of the time, providing conditions for the development of bog vegetation. In these circumstances, bog develops as a layer ""blanketing"" much of the land, including hilltops and slopes. Although a blanket bog is more common on acidic substrates, under some conditions it may also develop on neutral or even alkaline ones, if abundant acidic rainwater predominates over the groundwater. A blanket bog can occur in drier or warmer climates, because under those conditions hilltops and sloping ground dry out too often for peat to form – in intermediate climates a blanket bog may be limited to areas which are shaded from direct sunshine. In periglacial climates a patterned form of blanket bog may occur, known as a string bog. In Europe, these mostly very thin peat layers without significant surface structures are distributed over the hills and valleys of Ireland, Scotland, England, and Norway. In North America, blanket bogs occur predominantly in Canada east of Hudson Bay. These bogs are often still under the influence of mineral soil water (groundwater). Blanket bogs do not occur north of the 65th latitude in the northern hemisphere. ==== Quaking bog ==== A quaking bog, schwingmoor, or swingmoor is a form of floating bog occurring in wetter parts of valley bogs and raised bogs and sometimes around the edges of acidic lakes. The bog vegetation, mostly sphagnum moss anchored by sedges (such as Carex lasiocarpa), forms a floating mat approximately half a meter thick on the surface of water or above very wet peat. White spruce (Picea pungens) may grow in this bog regime. Walking on the surface causes it to move – larger movements may cause visible ripples on the surface, or they may even make trees sway. The bog mat may eventually spread across the water surface to cover bays or even entire small lakes. Bogs at the edges of lakes may become detached and form floating islands. ==== Cataract bog ==== A cataract bog is a rare ecological community formed where a permanent stream flows over a granite outcropping. The sheeting of water keeps the edges of the rock wet without eroding the soil, but in this precarious location, no tree or large shrub can maintain a roothold. The result is a narrow, permanently wet habitat. == Uses == === Industrial uses === After drying, peat is used as a fuel, and it has been used that way for centuries. More than 20% of home heat in Ireland comes from peat, and it is also used for fuel in Finland, Scotland, Germany, and Russia. Russia is the leading exporter of peat for fuel, at more than 90 million metric tons per year. Ireland's Bord na Móna (""peat board"") was one of the first companies to mechanically harvest peat, which is being phased out.The other major use of dried peat is as a soil amendment (sold as moss peat or sphagnum peat) to increase the soil's capacity to retain moisture and enrich the soil. It is also used as a mulch. Some distilleries, notably in the Islay whisky-producing region, use the smoke from peat fires to dry the barley used in making Scotch whisky.Once the peat has been extracted it can be difficult to restore the wetland, since peat accumulation is a slow process. More than 90% of the bogs in England have been damaged or destroyed. In 2011 plans for the elimination of peat in gardening products were announced by the UK government. === Other uses === The peat in bogs is an important place for the storage of carbon. If the peat decays, carbon dioxide would be released to the atmosphere, contributing to global warming. Undisturbed, bogs function as a carbon sink. As one example, the peatlands of the former Soviet Union were calculated to be removing 52 Tg of carbon per year from the atmosphere.: 41  Therefore, the rewetting of drained peatlands may be one of the most cost-effective ways to mitigate climate change.Peat bogs are also important in storing fresh water, particularly in the headwaters of large rivers. Even the enormous Yangtze River arises in the Ruoergai peatland near its headwaters in Tibet.: fig. 13.8 Blueberries, cranberries, cloudberries, huckleberries, and lingonberries are harvested from the wild in bogs. Bog oak, wood that has been partially preserved by bogs, has been used in the manufacture of furniture.Sphagnum bogs are also used for outdoor recreation, with activities including ecotourism and hunting. For example, many popular canoe routes in northern Canada include areas of peatland. Some other activities, such as all-terrain vehicle use, are especially damaging to bogs. == Archaeology == The anaerobic environment and presence of tannic acids within bogs can result in the remarkable preservation of organic material. Finds of such material have been made in Slovenia, Denmark, Germany, Ireland, Russia, and the United Kingdom. Some bogs have preserved bog-wood such as ancient oak logs useful in dendrochronology, and they have yielded extremely well-preserved bog bodies, with hair, organs, and skin intact, buried there thousands of years ago after apparent Germanic and Celtic human sacrifice. Excellent examples of such human specimens include the Haraldskær Woman and Tollund Man in Denmark, and Lindow man found at Lindow Common in England. The Tollund Man was so well preserved that when the body was discovered in 1950, the discoverers thought it was a recent murder victim and researchers were even able to tell the last meal that the Tollund Man ate before he died: porridge and fish. This process happens because of the low oxygen levels of bogs in combination with the high acidity. These anaerobic conditions lead to some of the best preserved mummies and offer a lot of archeological insight on society as far as 8,000 years back. Céide Fields in County Mayo in Ireland, a 5,000-year-old neolithic farming landscape has been found preserved under a blanket bog, complete with field walls and hut sites. One ancient artifact found in various bogs is bog butter, large masses of fat, usually in wooden containers. These are thought to have been food stores, of both butter and tallow. == Image gallery == == See also == == References == == Bibliography == Aiton, William (1811). General View of The Agriculture of the County of Ayr; observations on the means of its improvement; drawn up for the consideration of the Board of Agriculture, and Internal Improvements, with Beautiful Engravings. Glasgow. == External links == Ballynahone Bog Archived 19 October 2021 at the Wayback Machine Black Spruce Bog Describes a forested bog type of North America Bog bodies Germany's Endangered Bogs - slideshow by Der Spiegel 'Preserve peat bogs' for climate BBC 28 March 2007 ""Bog"" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911. ""Bog"" . The American Cyclopædia. 1879." Landforms,Bolson,"A bolson is a desert valley or depression, usually draining into a playa or salt pan, and entirely surrounded by recently uplifted hills or mountains. Bolsons are sites of active deposition of sediments (aggradation). They are a type of endorheic basin characteristic of basin and range topography. The term was an Americanism originating in the 1830s and 1840s during the explorations of the far west of North America, particularly of what became the Southwestern United States and northern Mexico. It was derived from the Spanish bolsón (large purse).Examples of this type of formation would be the Hueco Bolson in the western Trans-Pecos of Texas, and the Mesilla Bolson in southern New Mexico and the northeastern part of Chihuahua, Mexico. Bolsons are the locations of large aquifers of waters, accumulated over millennia in their deep layers of sediments, now many are being used to supply water to the populations in those areas. These are called bolson aquifers. == See also == Bolsón (disambiguation) == References ==" Landforms,Burn (landform),"In local usage, a burn is a kind of watercourse. The term applies to a large stream or a small river. The word is used in Scotland and England (especially North East England) and in parts of Ulster, Australia and New Zealand. == Etymology == The cognate of burn in standard English is ""bourn"", ""bourne"", ""borne"", ""born"", which is retained in placenames like Bournemouth, King's Somborne, Holborn, Melbourne. A cognate in German is Born (contemp. Brunnen), meaning ""well"", ""spring"" or ""source"", which is retained in placenames like Paderborn in Germany. Both the English and German words derive from the same Proto-Germanic root.Scots Gaelic has the word bùrn, also cognate, but which means ""fresh water""; the actual Gaelic for a ""burn"" is allt (sometimes anglicised as ""ault"" or ""auld"" in placenames.) == Examples == == References == == External links == Scottish Words and Place-Names:Place-Name Glossary" Landforms,Carr (landform),"A carr is a type of waterlogged wooded terrain that, typically, represents a succession stage between the original reedy marsh and the likely eventual formation of forest in a sub-maritime climate. Carrs are wetlands that are dominated by shrubs rather than trees. The carr is one stage in a hydrosere: the progression of vegetation beginning from a terrain submerged by fresh water along a river or lake margin. In sub-maritime regions, it begins with reed-marsh. As the reeds decay, the soil surface eventually rises above the water, creating fens that allow vegetation such as sedge to grow. As this progression continues, riparian trees and bushes appear and a carr landscape is created – in effect a wooded fen in a waterlogged terrain. At this stage, overall, unlike the overwhelming acidity of decaying reeds, the pH is not too acidic and the soil is not too deficient in minerals, making a habitat for endemic and other wildlife. Characteristic water-tolerant trees include alder and willow. == Etymology == The word carr derives from the Old Norse kjarr, meaning ""brushwood"" in the word kjarr-mýrr, meaning ""marsh overgrown with brushwood."" Other descendants of kjarr include Icelandic kjarr ""brushwood""; Norwegian kjarr, kjerr ""brushwood""; Danish kær ""swamp"", Swedish kärr, same meaning. == References ==" Landforms,Carse,"In Scottish geography, a Carse (the modern form of older Scots kerse; Scottish Gaelic càrrsa or còrrsa) is an area of fertile, low-lying (typically alluvial) land occupying certain Scottish river valleys, such as that of the River Forth. == Carse of Forth == The Carse of Forth contrasts with the Ochil Hills to the north, from which it is separated by the Ochil Fault. The carse is generally so flat that, except in the case of alluvial fans, such as that on which the small town of Alva is situated, it has only reached a height of about 9 metres above sea level at the Ochil Fault, typically two or more miles from the river. In the case of the River Forth, the carse extends some considerable distance above and below Stirling, where due to constraints such as the Abbey Craig to the north and the castle rock, on which the town is based, to the south, it is very narrow. The carse typically offers good agricultural land, however underlying the topsoil and alluvium is glacial boulder clay. In other places, especially in the west, the carse was overlain by peat bogs such as Flanders Moss, much of which has been cleared to improve agriculture. == Other carses == Carse of Gowrie, Perthshire, near Blairgowrie Carse of Lecropt near Bridge of Allan, Stirling Carse of Stirling Carse of Ae Carse of Falkirk Carse of Blair Drummond, Stirling Friar's Carse, Dumfries and Galloway Carsphairn The Carse (Inverness) Kinneil Kerse (West Lothian) Carse of Raddery (Ross and Cromarty) Carse Knowe (West Lothian) Kerse (Ayrshire) East Kerse Mains (West Lothian) Carsethorn (Kirkcudbright), Dumfries and Galloway Carse Grey estate near Forfar, plus nearby Carseburn and Carsebank (Angus) == References ==" Landforms,Cataract bog,"A cataract bog is a rare ecological community formed where a permanent stream flows over a granite outcropping. The sheeting of water keeps the edges of the rock wet without eroding the soil; in this precarious location no tree or large shrub can maintain a roothold. The result is a narrow, permanently wet, sunny habitat. While a cataract bog is host to plants typical of a bog, it is technically a fen. Bogs get water from the atmosphere, while fens get their water from groundwater seepage.Cataract bogs inhabit a narrow, linear zone next to the stream and are partly shaded by trees and shrubs in the adjacent plant communities. Algae growing on the rocks can make the surface slippery and dangerous for those exploring a cataract bog. == Typical species == The rushing water carves out small depressions where soil accumulates, forming micro-islands that play host to plants that thrive with low levels of nutrients and shallow root structures. Typical species include Sphagnum moss; carnivorous plants such as round-leaf sundew (Drosera rotundifolia), pitcher plants (Sarracenia purpurea and S. jonesii), and horned bladderwort (Utricularia cornuta); several orchid species such as common grass pink (Calopogon tuberosus), small green wood-orchid (Platanthera clavellata), rose pogonia (Pogonia ophioglossoides), and nodding ladies'-tresses (Spiranthes cernua). Other plants found in cataract bogs are limeseep grass-of-Parnassus (Parnassia grandifolia), Indian paint brush (Castilleja coccinea), stiff cowbane (Oxypolis rigidior), Appalachian bluet (Houstonia serpyllifolia) and northern sundrops (Oenothera tetragona).The plant communities are fragile because of their tenuous attachment to thin soil above the rock substrate. During prolonged drought, the stream may dry up and the edges of the micro-islands curl up. Heavy rainfall can then wash away the micro-islands, so a cataract bog is in a continual state of change and renewal. == Location == Cataract bogs are found only in the southern Appalachian Mountains of the United States, at elevations of between 1,200 and 2,400 feet (370 and 730 m). They are restricted to the Blue Ridge Escarpment region of South Carolina and a small area of North Carolina, a region with exceptionally high rainfall. == References ==" Landforms,Chevron (land form),"A chevron is a wedge-shaped sediment deposit observed on coastlines and continental interiors around the world. The term chevron was originally used independently by Maxwell and Haynes and Hearty and others for large, V-shaped, sub-linear to parabolic landforms in southwestern Egypt and on islands in the eastern, windward Bahamas. == General == The Egyptian “chevrons” are active, wind-generated dunes, but the “chevrons” in the Bahamas are inactive and have been variously interpreted. The most common interpretation of large, chevron-shaped bed forms is that they are a form of parabolic dune, and that most examples are generated by wind action.Many chevrons can be found in Australia, but others are concentrated around the coastlines of the world. For instance there are chevrons in Hither Hills State Park on Long Island and in Madagascar (such as the Fenambosy Chevron), as well as in interior sites of the United States such as the Palouse region of eastern Washington State, the Great Sand Dunes National Park and Preserve, and White Sands National Park. == Formation == According to Hansen et al. 2015, powerful storms and changes in sea level rise can explain chevrons. An example of the formation of chevrons can be seen in the Bahamas, where the lightly indurated ooid sand ridges appear to have been created by the impact of strong waves over a long period of time. Subsequently, the internal structure of the chevrons showed that they were ""rapidly emplaced by water rather than wind"". The notion that chevrons are caused by powerful storm surges rather than wind can also be attributed to tsunami deposits, with examples of complex chevron formations being found several kilometres inland, at high elevations and on shorelines without beaches. The Holocene Impact Research Group hypothesizes that the formations could be caused by tsunamis from meteorite impacts or submarine slides which lift sediment up and carry it hundreds of miles until depositing it on coastlines. Part of the evidence they cite for this hypothesis is that the sediments contain tiny marine fossils; however, such fossils can be moved by the wind, just like sand. In 2017, Abbott et al. reported that the Madagascar chevrons contain considerable quantities of early Holocene carbonate samples that resemble marine foraminifera shells, including those that are partly dolomitized and others that are infilled with mud. These findings show that the chevrons' marine carbonate tests were eroded from the continental shelf, rather than from current beaches.The impact idea is controversial not only because chevrons are similar to wind-blown landforms found far from the ocean, but also because it is unlikely that there have been enough large impacts and landslides to explain the observed chevrons. Moreover, some computer models and sediment-transport analysis do not support this theory. For example, the orientation of chevrons along the southern coast of Madagascar do not line up with what these models of mega-tsunamis have simulated. Additional evidence against the mega-tsunami hypothesis is that the force of the water would not produce such regular bed forms. == See also == Chevron (geology) == Notes == == References == Blakeslee, Sandra (November 14, 2006), ""Ancient Crash, Epic Wave"", The New York Times Chevron image from New York Times" Landforms,Chute (gravity),"A chute is a vertical or inclined plane, channel, or passage through which objects are moved by means of gravity. == Landform == A chute, also known as a race, flume, cat, or river canyon, is a steep-sided passage through which water flows rapidly. Akin to these, man-made chutes, such as the timber slide and log flume, were used in the logging industry to facilitate the downstream transportation of timber along rivers. These are no longer in common use. Man-made chutes may also be a feature of spillways on some dams. Some types of water supply and irrigation systems are gravity fed, hence chutes. These include aqueducts, puquios, and acequias. == Building chute == Chutes are in common use in tall buildings to allow the rapid transport of items from the upper floors to a central location on one of the lower floors or basement. Chutes may be round, square or rectangular at the top and/or the bottom. Laundry chutes in hotels are placed on each floor to allow the expedient transfer and collection of dirty laundry to the hotel's laundry facility without having to use elevators or stairs. These chutes are generally aluminized steel and welded together to avoid any extruding parts that may rip or damage the materials.Home laundry chutes are placed on each floor of multistory homes allow the collection of all household members' dirty laundry to one location, conveniently next to the laundry facilities, without the constant transport of laundry bins from story-to-story or room-to-room or up and down stairs. Home laundry chutes may be less common than previously due to building codes or concern regarding fireblocking, the prevention of fire from spreading from floor-to-floor, as well as child safety. However, construction including cabinets, doors, lids, and locks may make both risks significantly less than with simple stairwells.Refuse chute or Garbage chutes are common in high-rise apartment buildings and are used to collect all the building's garbage in one place. Often the bottom end of the chute is placed directly above a large, open waste container. This makes garbage collection faster and more efficient. Mail chutes are used in some buildings to collect the occupants' mail. A notable example is the Asia Insurance Building. Escape chutes are used and proposed for use in evacuation of mining equipment and high-rise buildings. Construction chutes are used to remove rubble and similar demolition materials safely from taller buildings. These temporary structures typically consist of a chain of cylindrical or conical plastic tubes, each fitted into the top of the one below and tied together, usually with chains. Together they form a long flexible tube, which is hung down the side of the building. The lower end of this tube is placed over a skip or other receptacle, and waste materials are dropped into the top. Heavy duty steel chutes may also be used when the debris being deposited is heavy duty and in cases of particularly high buildings.An elevator is not a chute as it does not move by gravity. == Chutes in transportation == Goust, a hamlet in southwestern France, is notable for its mountainside chute that is used to transport coffins.Chutes are also found in: Hopper cars Hopper barges == References ==" Landforms,Col,"In geomorphology, a col is the lowest point on a mountain ridge between two peaks. It may also be called a gap. Particularly rugged and forbidding cols in the terrain are usually referred to as notches. They are generally unsuitable as mountain passes, but are occasionally crossed by mule tracks or climbers' routes. The term col tends to be associated more with mountain rather than hill ranges. It is derived from the French col (""collar, neck"") from Latin collum, ""neck"".The height of a summit above its highest col (called the key col) is effectively a measure of a mountain's topographic prominence. Cols lie on the line of the watershed between two mountains, often on a prominent ridge or arête. For example, the highest col in Austria, the Obere Glocknerscharte (""Upper Glockner Col"", 3,766 m (AA)), lies between the Kleinglockner (3,783 m above sea level (AA)) and Grossglockner (3,798 m above sea level (AA)) mountains, giving the Kleinglockner a minimum prominence of 17 metres.The majority of cols are unnamed and are either never transited or only crossed in the course of negotiating a ridge line. Many double summits are separated by prominent cols. The distinction with other names for breaks in mountain ridges such as saddle, wind gap or notch is not sharply defined and may vary from place to place. == See also == Arête – Narrow ridge of rock which separates two valleys Saddle (landform) == References == == External links == Illustrated Glossary of Alpine Mountain Landforms: Col. Retrieved 16 August 2015." Landforms,Couloir,"A couloir (French: [ku.lwaʁ], ""passage"" or ""corridor"") is a narrow gully with a steep gradient in a mountainous terrain. == Geology == A couloir may be a seam, scar, or fissure, or vertical crevasse in an otherwise solid mountain mass. Though often hemmed in by sheer cliff walls, couloirs may also be less well-defined, and often simply a line of broken talus or scree ascending the mountainside and bordered by trees or other natural features. Couloirs are especially significant in winter months when they may be filled in with snow or ice, and become much more noticeable than in warmer months when most of the snow and ice may recede. These physical features make the use of couloirs popular for both mountaineering and extreme skiing. == References ==" Landforms,Cyclopean stairs,"Cyclopean stairs form as a result of glacial erosion. The term refers to the longitudinal profile of a glaciated valley that has several consecutive hanging valleys. == Formation == There are a few different ways cyclopean stairs can form. One way they form is through plucking. Different bedrock types may be more susceptible to plucking. If a highly jointed layer of bedrock is on the surface, large portions of it will be picked up by the glacier and deposited later as a glacial erratic. The valley formed in this fashion may have a steep wall at its head caused by a change in the bedrock type. The stronger bedrock will remain in the form of a riser at the end of a hanging valley. Cyclopean stairs can also form at points where tributary glaciers feed into larger central glaciers. The tributary glacier causes the central glacier to thicken and downcut more rapidly. This may cause a very sudden drop in the valley floor at the points where the glaciers converged. They may also form at the head of a glacier. In an area where the snowline is rising, the cirque in which the glacier forms my recede. A new cirque may form above the previous cirque and carve out a new step. As the snowline continues to rise, new cirques would continue to form the steps of the cyclopean stairs. == References == Surface Processes and Landforms, Don J. Easterbrook. Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 1999." Landforms,Dale (landform),"A dale is an open valley. Dale is a synonym of the word valley. The name is used when describing the physical geography of an area. It is used most frequently in the Lowlands of Scotland and in the North of England; the term ""fell"" commonly refers to the mountains or hills that flank the dale. == Etymology == The word dale comes from the Old English word dæl, from which the word ""dell"" is also derived. It is also related to Old Norse word dalr (and the modern Icelandic word dalur), which may perhaps have influenced its survival in northern England. The Germanic origin is assumed to be *dala-. Dal- in various combinations is common in placenames in Norway. Modern English valley and French vallée are presumably not related to dale. A distant relative of dale is currency unit dollar, stemming from German thaler or daler, short for joachimsthaler coins manufactured in the town of Joachimsthal in Bohemia.The word is perhaps related to Welsh dol (meadow, pasture, valley), Russian dol (valley, reverse side) and Serbian/Croatian/Bulgarian/Russian dolina (basin, doline is a geological term for certain surface depressions in karst areas). There is semantic equivalency to many words and phrases, suggesting a common Indo-European affinity. Vale and thalweg are also related. == Examples == The following are several examples of major dales that have the name dale. The river name is usually appended with ""-dale"". There are also many smaller dales; this is not an exhaustive list (see dale (place name element) for more). Airedale (Yorkshire) Annandale (Dumfries & Galloway) Calderdale (Yorkshire) Clydesdale (Lanarkshire) Coquetdale (Northumberland) Eskdale (Cumbria) Eskdale (Dumfries & Galloway) Eskdale (Yorkshire) Lauderdale (Scottish Borders) Lonsdale (or Lunesdale, valley of the Lune, Lancashire-Cumbria) Nithsdale (Dumfries & Galloway) Rochdale (Greater Manchester) Teesdale (Durham) Tweeddale (Scottish Borders) Tynedale (Northumberland) Weardale (Durham) Wensleydale (or Yoredale, valley of the Ure, Yorkshire)The name Wuppertal (North Rhine-Westphalia) is similar in form. == References ==" Landforms,Dambo,"A dambo is a class of complex shallow wetlands in central, southern and eastern Africa, particularly in Zambia, Malawi and Zimbabwe. They are generally found in higher rainfall flat plateau areas and have river-like branching forms which in themselves are not very large but combined add up to a large area. Dambos have been estimated to comprise 12.5% of the area of Zambia. Similar African words include mbuga (commonly used in East Africa), matoro (Mashonaland), vlei (South Africa), fadama (Nigeria), and bolis (Sierra Leone); the French bas-fond and German Spültal have also been suggested as referring to similar grassy wetlands. == Characteristics == Dambos are characterised by grasses, rushes and sedges, contrasting with surrounding woodland such as miombo woodland. They may be substantially dry at the end of the dry season, revealing grey soils or black clays, but unlike a flooded grassland, they retain wet lines of drainage through the dry season. They are inundated (waterlogged) in the wet season but not generally above the height of the vegetation, and any open water surface is usually confined to streams and small ponds or lagoons (called pans) at the lowest point generally near the centre. The name dambo is most frequently used for wetlands on flat plateaus which form the headwaters of streams. The definition for scientific purposes has been proposed as “seasonally waterlogged, predominantly grass covered, depressions bordering headwater drainage lines”. == Types == The problem with the preceding definition is that the word may also be used for wetlands bordering rivers far from the headwaters, for example the dambo of the Mbereshi River where it enters the swamps of the Luapula River in Zambia, 09°43′30″S 28°46′00″E. A 1998 report of the Food and Agriculture Organization distinguishes between ‘hydromorphic/phreatic’ dambos (associated with headwaters) and ‘fluvial’ dambos (associated with rivers), and also referred to five geomorphological types in Zambia’s Luapula Province: upland, valley, hanging, sand dune and pan dambos. == Hydrology == Dambos are fed by rainfall which drains out slowly to feed streams and are therefore a vital part of the water cycle. As well as being complex ecosystems, they also play a role in the biodiversity of the region.There is a popular idea that dambos act like sponges to soak up the wet season rain which they release slowly into rivers during the dry season thus ensuring a year-round flow, but this is opposed by some research which suggests that in the middle to late dry season the water is actually released from aquifers. Springs are seen in some dambos. Thus it may take a long time—perhaps several years—for water from a heavy rainy season to percolate through hills and emerge in a dambo, creating lagoons there or a flow in downstream rivers which cannot be explained by the previous year's rainfall. Dambos may be involved, for instance, in explaining puzzling variations in water level or flow in Lake Mweru Wantipa and Lake Chila in Mbala. == Use == Traditionally, dambos have been exploited: as a dry-season water source for rushes used as thatching and fencing material for clay used for building, brick-making and earthenware for hunting (especially birds and small antelope) for growing vegetables and other food crops, which can be vital in drought years since dambo soils usually retain enough moisture to produce a harvest when the rains fail for soaking bitter cassava in dug ponds for fishing (generally using fish traps) in those dambos with streamsMore recently, they have been used for fish ponds and growing upland rice. Efforts to develop dambos agriculturally have been hampered by a lack of research on the hydrology and soils of dambos, which have proved to be variable and complex. == Example == A dambo can be seen at 11°28′S 28°54′E (30 km south of Mansa, Zambia) in a forest reserve. Unlike in the neighbouring areas which have been cleared for farming and charcoal-burning, the dambo contrasts well with the undisturbed miombo woodland canopy. Headwater dambos have a branching structure like rivers. Most of the dambos have roughly the same width and form the same sort of pattern. An example of a pan dambo can be seen at 16°22.003′S 24°18.580′E (102 km north-west of Mulobezi, Zambia). The water in the pan has dried out, and the grass has been burnt off giving the dark appearance at the centre of the dambo. To the east and west of the pan dambo a series of dambos can be seen along two river courses. == References ==" Landforms,De Geer Land Bridge,"The De Geer Land Bridge was a land bridge that connected Fennoscandia to northern Greenland. The land bridge provided a northern route from Europe to North America from the Late Cretaceous to the Early Paleocene, although this timeframe has been disputed.The De Geer Land Bridge provided a path from Scandinavia across the Barents Sea to Svalbard, northern Greenland, and northern Canada. This may have been possible due to the Barents Sea residing on the shallow continental shelf. == Relation to other land bridges == The De Geer Land Bridge was the initial route from Europe and North America. Long after the De Geer Land Bridge disappeared, the Thule Land Bridge appeared and offered a more southern route from Europe to North America.Beringia, a land bridge from Northeast Asia to Alaska, was another route to North America that existed at the same time as the De Geer Land Bridge. == References ==" Landforms,Fairy circle (arid grass formation),"Fairy circles are circular patches of land barren of plants, varying between 2 and 12 metres (7 and 39 ft) in diameter, often encircled by a ring of stimulated growth of grass. They occur in the arid grasslands of the Namib desert in western parts of Southern Africa, and in a part of the Pilbara in Western Australia. Studies have posited various hypotheses about their origins, but none have conclusively proven how they are formed. Theories include the activities of various types of termites, or the consequence of vegetation patterns that arise naturally from competition between grasses. In the languages of the Aboriginal Australian peoples who inhabit the Pilbara, they are known as linyji (Manyjilyjarra language) or mingkirri (Warlpiri language). == Location == Until 2014, the phenomenon was only known to occur in the arid grasslands of the Namib desert in western parts of Southern Africa, being particularly common in Namibia. In that year, ecologists were alerted to similar rings of vegetation outside Africa, in a part of the Pilbara in Western Australia.In Africa, the circles occur in a band lying about 160 kilometres (100 mi) inland, and extending southward from Angola for some 2,400 kilometres (1,500 mi) down to the Northwestern Cape province of South Africa. It is largely a remote and inhospitable region, much of it over a hundred kilometres from the nearest village. The circles have been recognised and informally remarked on for many years, first being mentioned in technical literature in the 1920s and intermittently thereafter with the intensity of study increasing during the final quarter of the 20th century.In 2014, fairy circles were first discovered outside Africa, 15 km (9.3 mi) outside of the town Newman, in the Pilbara region of Western Australia. Australian environmental engineer Bronwyn Bell, alongside Stephan Getzin from the Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research, released a paper in 2016, providing new insight into possible cause of the fairy circle formations.Examples can be found at 24.95°S 15.93°E / -24.95; 15.93 (Namibia) and 23.45°S 119.85°E / -23.45; 119.85 (Western Australia) == Description == Fairy circles typically occur in essentially monospecific grassy vegetation, where conditions are particularly arid. Associated grasses commonly are species in the genus Stipagrostis. Studies show that these circles pass through a life cycle of some 30 to 60 years. They become noticeable at a diameter of about 2 metres (6 ft 7 in), achieving a peak diameter of perhaps 12 metres (39 ft), after which they mature and ""die"" as they undergo invasion, mainly by grasses.In the languages of the Martu and Warlpiri peoples of Western Australia, fairy circles are known as ""linyji"" in the Manyjilyjarra language and ""mingkirri"" in the Warlpiri language. == Theories of formation == Like heuweltjies in South Africa and Mima mounds in the U.S., the cause of fairy circles has long been a puzzle and the investigation has proved challenging. Fairy circles in Namibia may be created in a different way from those in Australia, because they formed on sand rather than clay.In 2004, University of Pretoria botanist Gretel van Rooyen rejected proposals of termite activity, radioactive soil, and of plant toxins. In 2008, Angelique Joubert proposed that residual plant toxins remaining in the soil after the death of Euphorbia damarana plants might be the cause of the barren interiors of the circles.In 2012, Eugene Moll suggested the termite species Baucaliotermes hainsei and Psammotermes allocerus as the creator of these circles. All rings have been found to contain termite casts, and radar investigations suggest that a moist layer of soil is situated beneath the fairy circles.In 2013, this theory was supported by Norbert Juergens. Juergens found evidence that the sand termite, Psammotermes allocerus, generates a local ecosystem that profits from and promotes the creation of the fairy circle. The sand termite was found in 80-100% of the circles, in 100% of newly formed circles, and was the only insect to live across the range of the phenomenon. Sand termites create the fairy circle by consuming vegetation and burrowing in the soil to create the ring. The barren circle allows water to percolate down through sandy soil and accumulate underground, allowing the soil to remain moist even under the driest conditions. Grass growth around the circle is promoted by the accumulated soil water, and in turn the termites feed on the grasses, slowly increasing the diameter of the circle. This behaviour on the part of Psammotermes allocerus amounts to creation of a local ecosystem in a manner analogous to behaviour of the common beaver.Walter R. Tschinkel, a biologist at Florida State University, who also researched the fairy circles, remarked that Juergens, ""has made the common scientific error of confusing correlation (even very strong correlation) with causation"". Previously, Tschinkel had searched for harvester termites without success. Juergens responded that sand termites differ from harvester termites and live deep beneath the circle; they do not create mounds or nests above ground, and they leave no tracks in the sand. In such respects the sand termite is unusually inconspicuous in its activities. Unresolved questions remain about the soil from the centre of the circle inhibiting plant growth and the interactions of other species in the fairy circle as they relate to the local ecosystem. The received wisdom from about a century ago remarked on the ""heuweltjies"" being anomalously rich in plant nutrients, raising the question of how many effectively different types or circumstances of circles or heuweltjies there might be.Later in 2013, Michael Cramer and Nichole Barger suggested that the circles were the consequence of vegetation patterns that arose naturally from competition between grasses. They examined the conditions under which fairy circles arise and found that fairy circles are negatively correlated with precipitation and soil nutrition. This observation is consistent with resource competition being a cause of the crop circles. Grassy landscapes with a mixture of grasses can result in barren spots as a consequence of under-ground competition between different types of grasses. The patches are maintained because they form a reservoir of nutrients for the taller grasses at the periphery and possibly because of the activity of termites, as in the theory above. Using rainfall, biomass and temperature seasonality, they can predict with high accuracy the presence or absence of fairy circles in a region. According to Walter Tschinkel, this theory accounts for all the characteristics of fairy circles, including the presence of tall grass species. Other recent work has considered interacting combinations of both animal- and vegetation-induced patterning effects as a potential unifying theoretical explanation for the fairy circle phenomenon.A 2015 theory about the Australian fairy circles suggested that the distinct vegetation patterns are a population-level consequence of competition for scarce water, as the plants ""organise"" themselves to maximise access to scarce resources. The circular barren patches capture water which then flows to the outer edges of the ring. More water available increases biomass and roots which leads to the soil becoming looser. The less dense soil allows more water to penetrate and feed the vegetation, creating a feedback loop supporting the plants at the edge of the circle. Field observations by Sujith Ravi, Lixin Wang and colleagues using soil moisture, soil particle size, and soil water infiltration measurements in Namibia in 2015 and 2016 support this.In 2021 an explanation using hydrological feedbacks and the Turing mechanism was proposed as the cause of the patterns in Australia.In February 2023, weak seeps of hydrogen through faults, fractures, and diffused through rocks, were identified as a possible cause of the depressions. One researcher suggested that ""hydrogen-loving microbes"" may consume all other nutrients in the soil.An Australian cross-cultural study published in April 2023, involving local Martu peoples and using their traditional knowledge of the phenomenon, are pavement nests occupied by Drepanotermes (Australian harvester termites). The research showed that the circles may have been created in the Pleistocene (over 12,000 years ago), and that termites lived in them and were continuing to build them. Aboriginal peoples have lived on the Australian continent for up to 65,000 years and have deep knowledge passed down through their oral traditions. === Myths === In the oral myths of the Himba people of the Kunene Region of northern Namibia, these barren patches are said to have been caused by the gods, spirits and/or natural divinities. The region's bushmen have traditionally ascribed spiritual and magical powers to them. Of specific beliefs, the Himba people note that their original ancestor, Mukuru, was responsible for the creation of the fairy circles, or that they were the footprints of gods.Another myth put forth, promoted by some tour guides in Namibia, is that the circles are formed by a dragon in the earth and that its poisonous breath kills the vegetation. == Use == The Himba people use the fairy circles in their agriculture. Because fairy circles support grasses in otherwise barren land, they provide grazing. Sometimes they erect temporary wooden fences around the circles to corral young cattle for overnight protection against predators. == See also == Media related to Fairy circles at Wikimedia Commons Fairy ring Forest ring Hodotermitidae Creosote bush rings List of unsolved problems in biology Patterns in nature Tiger bush == References == == Further reading == Alvarez, Amanda (27 June 2012). ""Scientist uses satellites to examine circles in African desert"". Journal Sentinel." Landforms,Fell,"A fell (from Old Norse fell, fjall, ""mountain"") is a high and barren landscape feature, such as a mountain or moor-covered hill. The term is most often employed in Fennoscandia, Iceland, the Isle of Man, parts of northern England, and Scotland. == Etymology == The English word ""fell"" comes from Old Norse fell and fjall (both forms existed). It is cognate with Danish fjeld, Faroese fjall and fjøll, Icelandic fjall and fell, Norwegian fjell with dialects fjøll, fjødd, fjedd, fjedl, fjill, fil(l), and fel, and Swedish fjäll, all referring to mountains rising above the alpine tree line. == British Isles == In northern England, especially in the Lake District and in the Pennine Dales, the word ""fell"" originally referred to an area of uncultivated high ground used as common grazing usually on common land and above the timberline. Today, generally, ""fell"" refers to the mountains and hills of the Lake District and the Pennine Dales. Names that originally referred to grazing areas have been applied to these hilltops. This is the case with Seathwaite Fell, for example, which would be the common grazing land used by the farmers of Seathwaite. The fellgate marks the road from a settlement onto the fell (see photograph for example), as is the case with the Seathwaite Fell. In other cases the reverse is true; for instance, the name of Wetherlam, in the Coniston Fells, though understood to refer to the mountain as a whole, strictly speaking refers to the summit; the slopes have names such as Tilberthwaite High Fell, Low Fell and Above Beck Fells. The word ""fell"" is also used in the names of various breeds of livestock, bred for life on the uplands, such as Rough Fell sheep, Fell terriers and Fell ponies. It is also found in many place names across the north of England, often attached to the name of a community; thus the township of Cartmel Fell. In northern England, there is a Lord of the Fells – this ancient aristocratic title being associated with the Lords of Bowland. Groups of cairns are a common feature on many fells, often marking the summit – there are fine examples on Wild Boar Fell in Mallerstang Dale, Cumbria, and on Nine Standards Rigg just outside Kirkby Stephen, Cumbria. As the most mountainous region of England, the Lake District is the area most closely associated with the sport of fell running, which takes its name from the fells of the district. ""Fellwalking"" is also the term used locally for the activity known in the rest of Great Britain as hillwalking. The word ""fell"" also enjoys limited use in Scotland; with, for example, the Campsie Fells in central Scotland, to the north-east of Glasgow. One of the most famous examples of the use of the word ""fell"" in Scotland is Goat Fell, the highest point on the Isle of Arran. Criffel and the nearby Long Fell in Galloway may be seen from the northern Lake District of England. Peel Fell in the Kielder Forest is on the border between the Scottish Borders to the north and the English county of Northumberland to the south. == Fennoscandia == === Norway === In Norway, fjell, in common usage, is generally interpreted as simply a summit or area of greater altitude than a hill, which leads to a great deal of local variation in what is defined as a fjell. Fjell is mostly used about areas above the forest line. Distinct summits can be referred to as et fjell (a mountain). High plateaus (vidde landscape) such as Hardangervidda are also regarded as fjell. Professor of geography at the University of Bergen, Anders Lundeberg, has summed up the problem by stating, ""There simply is no fixed and unambiguous definition of fjell."" Ivar Aasen defined fjell as a ""tall berg"", primarily referring to a berg that reaches an altitude where trees don't grow, lower berg are referred to as ""berg"", ås (hill, ridge) or hei (moor, heathland). The fixed expression til fjells refers to mountains (or uplands) as a collective rather than a specific location or specific summit (the ""s"" in til fjells is an old genitive form remaining only in fixed expressions). According to Ivar Aasen, berg refers to cliffs, bedrock and notable elevations of the surface underpinned by bedrock; berg also refers to the substance of bedrock. For all practical purposes, fjell can be translated as ""mountain"" and the Norwegian language has no other commonly used word for mountain. === Sweden === In Sweden, fjäll generally refers to any mountain or upland high enough that forest will not naturally survive at the top, in effect a mountain tundra. Fjäll is primarily used to describe mountains in the Nordic countries, but also more generally to describe mountains shaped by massive ice sheets, primarily in Arctic and subarctic regions. There are however dialectal differences in usage, with comparatively low mountains or plateaus, sometimes tree-covered, in Bohuslän and Västergötland (e.g. Safjällets nationalpark and Kynnefjäll) being referred to as ""fjäll"", similar to how the word is used in Norwegian === Finland === In Finnish, the mountains characteristic of the region of Lapland are called tunturi (plural: tunturit), i.e. ""fell"". A tunturi is a hill high enough that its top is above the tree line and has alpine tundra. In Finnish, the geographical term vuori is used for mountains recently uplifted and with jagged terrain featuring permanent glaciers, while tunturi refers to the old, highly eroded, gently shaped terrain without glaciers, as found in Finland. They are round inselbergs rising from the otherwise flat surroundings. The tree line can be at a rather low altitude, such as 600 m in Enontekiö, owing to the high latitude. The fells in Finnish Lapland form vestiges of the Karelides mountains, formed two billion years ago. The term tunturi is also generally used to refer to treeless plains at high altitudes in far north regions. The term tunturi, originally a word limited to far-Northern dialects of Finnish and Karelian, is a loan from Sami, compare Proto-Sami *tuontër, South Sami doedtere, Northern Sami duottar, Inari Sami tuodâr ""uplands, mountains, tundra"", Kildin Sami tūndâr, which means ""uplands, treeless mountain tract"" and is cognate with Finnish tanner ""hard ground"". From this Sami word, the word ""tundra"" is borrowed, as well, through the Russian language. Hills that are over 50 m high, but do not reach the tree line are referred to as vaara, while the general term for hills including hills of 50 m or less is mäki. In place names, however, tunturi, vaara and vuori are used inconsistently, e.g. Rukatunturi is technically a vaara, as it lacks alpine tundra. === Förfjäll === The term förfjäll (literally ""fore-fell"") is used in Sweden and Finland to denote mountainous zones lower and less dissected than the fell proper. However, its more pronounced relief, its often higher amount of plateaux, and its coherent valley systems distinguishes the förfjäll also from the undulating hilly terrain (bergkullsterräng) and the plains with residual hills (bergkullslätt). Generally, the förfjäll do not surpass 1000 m ASL. As a geomorphic unit, the förfjäll extends across Sweden as a 650 km-long and 40 km to 80 km-broad belt from Dalarna in the south to Norrbotten in the north. == Scandinavian and English terms == bekkr - 'stream' » beck dalr - 'valley' » dale fors - 'waterfall' » force/foss fjallr - 'mountain' (usually a large, flat mountain) » fell gil - 'ravine' » gill/ghyll haugr - 'hill' » howe pic - 'peak' » pike sætr - 'shieling' » side/seat tjorn - 'small lake' » tarn þveit - 'clearing' » thwaite ness - 'headland' » ness == See also == Fell farming Fell Terrier List of fells in the Lake District List of Wainwrights (the 214 fells described in A. Wainwright's Pictorial Guide to the Lakeland Fells) The Outlying Fells of Lakeland List of Birketts (the 541 fells in Bill Birketts Complete Lakeland Fells) Middlesex Fells, a rocky highland just north of Boston, Massachusetts Snaefell, Isle of Man Nunatak == Notes == == References ==" Landforms,Fellfield,"A fellfield or fell field comprises the environment of a slope, usually alpine or tundra, where the dynamics of frost (freeze and thaw cycles) and of wind give rise to characteristic plant forms in scree interstices. == Soil dynamics == The freeze-thaw cycles tend to push plants out of the soil. In addition, the high porosity of the soil makes a fellfield a difficult place for plants to grow. Fellfields often have typical patterns of rocks: lines of rocks that have been pushed out of the soil, and slid into a low region. == Botany == In botany the term ""fellfield"" describes an ecoregion, ecosystem, habitat, or plant community. The term frequently used is alpine fellfield. Fellfield is usually applied to an alpine tundra region of high altitude mountains, or high latitude islands, and the alpine plants there. === Flora === Fellfields are typically populated by cushion plants: perennials that grow close to the ground. Cushion plants are well-adapted to the dryness and short growing season of a fellfield. Cushion plants often have hairy foliage and long taproots, to gather and retain moisture. Examples of cushion plants include the lupines and buckwheats. ==== Fellfield species ==== Alpine flora list Azorella selago Oenothera xylocarpa Calyptridium umbellatumSome geologists find it is controversial to share the term for biology and geomorphology applications. == See also == Feldmark == References ==" Landforms,Fen,"A fen is a type of peat-accumulating wetland fed by mineral-rich ground or surface water. It is one of the main types of wetlands along with marshes, swamps, and bogs. Bogs and fens, both peat-forming ecosystems, are also known as mires. The unique water chemistry of fens is a result of the ground or surface water input. Typically, this input results in higher mineral concentrations and a more basic pH than found in bogs. As peat accumulates in a fen, groundwater input can be reduced or cut off, making the fen ombrotrophic rather than minerotrophic. In this way, fens can become more acidic and transition to bogs over time.Fens can be found around the world, but the vast majority are located at the mid to high latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere. They are dominated by sedges and mosses, particularly graminoids that may be rarely found elsewhere, such as the sedge species Carex exilis. Fens are highly biodiverse ecosystems and often serve as habitats for endangered or rare species, with species composition changing with water chemistry. They also play important roles in the cycling of nutrients such as carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus due to the lack of oxygen (anaerobic conditions) in waterlogged organic fen soils.Fens have historically been converted to agricultural land. However, fens face a number of other threats, including peat cutting, pollution, invasive species, and nearby disturbances that lower the water table in the fen, such as quarrying. Interrupting the flow of mineral-rich water into a fen changes the water chemistry, which can alter species richness and dry out the peat. Drier peat is more easily decomposed and can even burn. == Distribution and extent == Fens are distributed around the world, but are most frequently found at the mid-high latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere. They are found throughout the temperate zone and boreal regions, but are also present in tundra and in specific environmental conditions in other regions around the world. In the United States, fens are most common in the Midwest and Northeast, but can be found across the country. In Canada, fens are most frequent in the lowlands near Hudson Bay and James Bay, but can also be found across the country. Fens are also spread across the northern latitudes of Eurasia, including Britain and Ireland, as well as Japan, but east-central Europe is especially rich in fens. Further south, fens are much rarer, but do exist under specific conditions. In Africa, fens have been found in the Okavango Delta in Botswana and the highland slopes in Lesotho. Fens can also be found at the colder latitudes of the Southern Hemisphere. They are found in New Zealand and southwest Argentina, but the extent is much less than that of the northern latitudes. Locally, fens are most often found at the intersection of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, such as the headwaters of streams and rivers.It is estimated that there are approximately 1.1 million square kilometers of fens worldwide, but quantifying the extent of fens is difficult. Because wetland definitions vary regionally, not all countries define fens the same way. In addition, wetland data is not always available or of high quality. Fens are also difficult to rigidly delineate and measure, as they are located between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. == Definition == Rigidly defining types of wetlands, including fens, is difficult for a number of reasons. First, wetlands are diverse and varied ecosystems that are not easily categorized according to inflexible definitions. They are often described as a transition between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems with characteristics of both. This makes it difficult to delineate the exact extent of a wetland. Second, terms used to describe wetland types vary greatly by region. The term bayou, for example, describes a type of wetland, but its use is generally limited to the southern United States. Third, different languages use different terms to describe types of wetlands. For instance, in Russian, there is no equivalent word for the term swamp as it is typically used in North America. The result is a large number of wetland classification systems that each define wetlands and wetland types in their own way. However, many classification systems include four broad categories that most wetlands fall into: marsh, swamp, bog, and fen. While classification systems differ on the exact criteria that define a fen, there are common characteristics that describe fens generally and imprecisely. A general definition provided by the textbook Wetlands describes a fen as ""a peat-accumulating wetland that receives some drainage from surrounding mineral soil and usually supports marsh like vegetation.""Three examples are presented below to illustrate more specific definitions for the term fen. === Canadian Wetland Classification System definition === In the Canadian Wetland Classification System, fens are defined by six characteristics: Peat is present. The surface of the wetland is level with the water table. Water flows on the surface and through the subsurface of the wetland. The water table fluctuates. It may be at the surface of the wetland or a few centimeters above or below it. The wetland receives a significant amount of its water from mineral-rich groundwater or surface water. Decomposed sedges or brown moss peat are present. The vegetation is predominantly graminoids and shrubs. === Wetland Ecology: Principles and Conservation (Keddy) definition === In the textbook Wetland Ecology: Principles and Conservation, Paul A. Keddy offers a somewhat simpler definition of a fen as ""a wetland that is usually dominated by sedges and grasses rooted in shallow peat, often with considerable groundwater movement, and with pH greater than 6."" This definition differentiates fens from swamps and marshes by the presence of peat. === The Biology of Peatlands (Rydin) definition === In The Biology of Peatlands fens are defined by the following criteria: The wetland is not flooded by lake or stream water. Woody vegetation 2 meters or taller is absent or canopy cover is less than 25%. The wetland is minerotrophic (it receives its nutrients from mineral-rich groundwater).A further distinction is made between open and wooded fens, where open fens have canopy cover less than 10% and wooded fens have 10–25% canopy cover. If tall shrubs or trees dominate, the wetland is instead classified as a wooded bog or swamp forest, depending on other criteria. == Biogeochemical features == === Hydrological conditions === Hydrologyal conditions, as seen in other wetlands, are a major determinant of fen biota and biogeochemistry. Fen soils are constantly inundated because the water table is at or near the surface. The result is anaerobic (oxygen-free) soils due to the slow rate at which oxygen diffuses into waterlogged soil. Anaerobic soils are ecologically unique because earth's atmosphere is oxygenated, while most terrestrial ecosystems and surface waters are aerobic. The anaerobic conditions found in wetland soils result in reduced, rather than oxidized, soil chemistry.A hallmark of fens is that a significant portion of their water supply is derived from groundwater (minerotrophy). Because hydrology is the dominant factor in wetlands, the chemistry of the groundwater has an enormous effect on the characteristics of the fen it supplies. Groundwater chemistry, in turn, is largely determined by the geology of the rocks that the groundwater flows through. Thus, the characteristics of a fen, especially its pH, are directly influenced by the type of rocks its groundwater supply contacts. pH is a major factor in determining fen species composition and richness, with more basic fens called ""rich"" and more acidic fens called ""poor."" Rich fens tend to be highly biodiverse and harbor a number of rare or endangered species, and biodiversity tends to decrease as the richness of fen decreases.Fens tend to be found above rocks that are rich in calcium, such as limestone. When groundwater flows past calcareous (calcium-rich) rocks like limestone (calcium carbonate), a small amount dissolves and is carried to the fen supplied by the groundwater. When calcium carbonate dissolves, it produces bicarbonate and a calcium cation according to the following equilibrium: CaCO 3 + H 2 CO 3 ↽ − − ⇀ Ca 2 + + 2 HCO 3 − {\displaystyle {\ce {CaCO3 + H2CO3 <=> Ca^2+ + 2HCO3^-}}} where carbonic acid (H2CO3) is produced by the dissolution of carbon dioxide in water. In fens, the bicarbonate anion produced in this equilibrium acts as a pH buffer, which keeps the pH of the fen relatively stable. Fens supplied by groundwater that doesn't flow through minerals and act as a buffer when dissolved tend to be more acidic. The same effect is observed when groundwater flows through minerals with low solubility, such as sand.In extreme rich fens, calcium carbonate can precipitate out of solution to form marl deposits. Calcium carbonate precipitates out of solution when the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the solution falls. The decrease in carbon dioxide partial pressure is caused by uptake by plants for photosynthesis or direct loss to the atmosphere. This reduces the availability of carbonic acid in solution, shifting the above equilibrium back towards the formation of calcium carbonate. The result is the precipitation of calcium carbonate and the formation of marl. === Nutrient cycling === Fen, being a distinct type of wetland, shares many biogeochemical characteristics with other wetlands. Like all wetlands, they play an important role in nutrient cycling because they are located at the interface of aerobic (oxic) and anaerobic (anoxic) environments. Most wetlands have a thin top layer of oxygenated soil in contact with the atmosphere or oxygenated surface waters. Nutrients and minerals may cycle between this oxidized top layer and the reduced layer below, undergoing oxidation and reduction reactions by the microbial communities adapted to each layer. Many important reactions take place in the reduced layer, including denitrification, manganese reduction, iron reduction, sulfate reduction, and methanogenesis. Because wetlands are hotspots for nutrient transformations and often serve as nutrient sinks, they may be constructed to treat nutrient-rich waters created by human activities.Fens are also hotspots for primary production, as the continuous input of groundwater stimulates production. Bogs, which lack this input of groundwater, have much lower primary production. ==== Carbon ==== Carbon from all types of wetlands, including fens, arrives mostly as organic carbon from either adjacent upland ecosystems or by photosynthesis in the wetland itself. Once in the wetland, organic carbon generally has three main fates: oxidation to CO2 by aerobic respiration, burial as organic matter in peat, or decomposition to methane. In peatlands, including fens, primary production by plants is greater than decomposition, which results in the accumulation of organic matter as peat. Resident mosses usually carry out decomposition within the fen, and temperate fens are often driven by plant roots' decomposition. These peat stores sequester an enormous amount of carbon. Nevertheless, it is difficult to determine whether fens net take up or emit greenhouse gases. This is because fens emit methane, which is a more potent greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide. Methanogenic archaea that reside in the anaerobic layers of peat combine carbon dioxide and hydrogen gas to form methane and water. This methane can then escape into the atmosphere and exert its warming effects. Peatlands dominated by brown mosses and sedges such as fens have been found to emit a greater amount of methane than Sphagnum-dominated peatlands such as bogs. ==== Nitrogen ==== Fens play an important role in the global nitrogen cycle due to the anaerobic conditions found in their soils, which facilitate the oxidation or reduction of one form of nitrogen to another. Most nitrogen arrives in wetlands as nitrate from runoff, in organic matter from other areas, or by nitrogen fixation in the wetland. There are three main forms of nitrogen found in wetlands: nitrogen in organic matter, oxidized nitrogen (nitrate or nitrite), and ammonium.Nitrogen is abundant in peat. When the organic matter in peat is decomposed in the absence of oxygen, ammonium is produced via ammonification. In the oxidized surface layer of the wetland, this ammonium is oxidized to nitrite and nitrate by nitrification. The production of ammonium in the reduced layer and its consumption in the top oxidized layer drives upward diffusion of ammonium. Likewise, nitrate production in the oxidized layer and nitrate consumption in the reduced layer by denitrification drives downward diffusion of nitrate. Denitrification in the reduced layer produces nitrogen gas and some nitrous oxide, which then exit the wetland to the atmosphere. Nitrous oxide is a potent greenhouse gas whose production is limited by nitrate and nitrite concentrations in fens.Nitrogen, along with phosphorus, controls how fertile a wetland is. ==== Phosphorus ==== Almost all of the phosphorus that arrives in a wetland does so through sediments or plant litter from other ecosystems. Along with nitrogen, phosphorus limits wetland fertility. Under basic conditions like those found in extremely rich fens, calcium will bind to phosphate anions to make calcium phosphates, which are unavailable for uptake by plants. Mosses also play a considerable role in aiding plants in phosphorus uptake by decreasing soil phosphorus stress and stimulating phosphatase activity in organisms found below the moss cover. Helophytes have been shown to bolster phosphorus cycling within fens, especially in fen reestablishment, due to their ability to act as a phosphorus sink, which prevents residual phosphorus in the fen from being transferred away from the it. Under normal conditions, phosphorus is held within soil as dissolved inorganic phosphorus, or phosphate, which leaves trace amounts of phosphorus in the rest of the ecosystem.Iron is important in phosphorus cycling within fens. Iron can bind to high levels of inorganic phosphate within the fen, leading to a toxic environment and inhibition of plant growth. In iron-rich fens, the area can become vulnerable to acidification, excess nitrogen and potassium, and low water levels. Peat soils play a role in preventing the bonding of irons to phosphate by providing high levels of organic anions for iron to bind to instead of inorganic anions such as phosphate. === Bog-rich fen gradient === Bogs and fens can be thought of as two ecosystems on a gradient from poor to rich, with bogs at the poor end, extremely rich fens at the rich end, and poor fens in between. In this context, ""rich"" and ""poor"" refer to the species richness, or how biodiverse a fen or bog is. The richness of these species is strongly influenced by pH and concentrations of calcium and bicarbonate. These factors assist in identifying where along the gradient a particular fen falls. In general, rich fens are minerotrophic, or dependent on mineral-rich groundwater, while bogs are ombrotrophic, or dependent on precipitation for water and nutrients. Poor fens fall between these two. ==== Rich fens ==== Rich fens are strongly minerotrophic; that is, a large proportion of their water comes from mineral-rich ground or surface water. Fens that are more distant from surface waters such as rivers and lakes, however, have been shown to be more rich than fens that are connected. This water is dominated by calcium and bicarbonate, resulting in a slightly acidic to slightly basic pH, which is characteristic of rich fens. These conditions promote high biodiversity. Within rich fens, there is a large amount of variability. The richest fens are the extreme rich (marl) fens, where marl deposits are often build up. These are often pH 7 or greater. Rich and intermediate rich fens are generally neutral to slightly acidic, with a pH of approximately 7 to 5. Rich fens are not always very productive; at high calcium concentrations, calcium ions bind to phosphate anions, reducing the availability of phosphorus and decreasing primary production. Rich bogs with limited primary production can stabilize with the accumulation of mosses and mycorrhiza, which promote phosphorus cycling and can support the growth of new vegetation and bacteria. Brown mosses (family Amblystegiaceae) and sedges (genus Carex) are the dominant vegetation. However, an accumulation of mosses such as Sphagnum can lead to the acidification of the rich fen, potentially converting it into a poor fen. Compared to poor fens, rich fens have higher concentrations of bicarbonate, base cations (Na+, Ca2+, K+, Mg2+), and sulfate. ==== Poor fens ==== Poor fens are in many ways an intermediate between rich fens and bogs. Hydrologically, they are more alike to rich fens than to bogs, but in terms of vegetation composition and chemistry, they are more similar to bogs than rich fens. They are much more acidic than their rich counterparts, with a pH of approximately 5.5 to 4. Peat in poor fens tends to be thicker than that of rich fens, which cuts off vegetation access to the mineral-rich soil underneath. In addition, the thicker peat reduces the influence of mineral-rich groundwater that buffers the pH. This makes the fen more ombrotrophic, or dependent on nutrient-poor precipitation for its water and nutrients. Poor fens may also form in areas where the groundwater supplying the fen flows through sediments that don't dissolve well or have low buffering capacity when dissolved. Species richness tends to be lower than that of rich fens but higher than that of bogs. Poor fens, like bogs, are dominated by Sphagnum mosses, which acidify the fen and decrease nutrient availability. == Threats == One of the many threats that fens face is conversion to agricultural lands. Where climates are suitable, fens have been drained for agricultural use alongside crop production, grazing, and hay making. Draining a fen directly is particularly damaging because it lowers the water table. A lower water table can increase aeration and dry out peat, allowing for aerobic decomposition or burning of the organic matter in peat. Draining a fen indirectly by decreasing its water supply can be just as damaging. Disrupting groundwater flow into the fen with nearby human activities such as quarrying or residential development changes how much water and nutrients enter the fen. This can make the fen more ombrotrophic (dependent on precipitation), which results in acidification and a change in water chemistry. This has a direct impact on the habitat of these species and many signature fen species disappear.Fens are also threatened by invasive species, fragmentation, peat cutting, and pollution. Non-native invasive species, such as the common buckthorn in North America, can invade fens and outcompete rare fen species, reducing biodiversity. Habitat fragmentation threatens fen species, especially rare or endangered species that are unable to move to nearby fens due to fragmentation. Peat cutting, while much more common in bogs, does happen in fens. Peat cut from fens has many uses, including burning as a fuel. Pollutants can alter the chemistry of fens and facilitate invasion by invasive species. Common pollutants of fens include road salts, nutrients from septic tanks, and runoff of agricultural fertilizers and pesticides. == Use of term in literature == Shakespeare used the term ""fen-sucked"" to describe the fog (literally: rising from marshes) in King Lear, when Lear says ""Infect her beauty, You fen-sucked fogs drawn by the powerful sun, To fall and blister."" == Images == == See also == === Specific fens === == References == === Citations === === General bibliography === == External links == Media related to Fens at Wikimedia Commons" Landforms,List of fen plants,"The following is a list of plant species to be found in a north European fen habitat with some attempt to distinguish between reed bed relicts and the carr pioneers. However, nature does not come in neat compartments so that for example, the odd stalk of common reed will be found in carr. == In pools == Beaked sedge; Carex rostrata Whorl grass; Catabrosa aquatica Needle spike-rush; Eleocharis acicularis Northern spike-rush; Eleocharis austriaca Sweet grasses; Glyceria species. Common reed; Phragmites australis Swamp meadow grass; Poa palustris == In typical fen == Flat sedge; Blysmus compressus Great fen sedge; Cladium mariscus Lesser tufted sedge; Carex acuta Lesser pond sedge; Carex acutiformis Davall's sedge; Carex davalliana Dioecious sedge; Carex dioica Brown sedge; Carex disticha Tufted sedge; Carex elata Slender sedge; Carex lasiocarpa Flea sedge; Carex pulicaris Greater pond sedge; Carex riparia Common spike-rush; Eleocharis palustris Few-flowered spike-rush; Eleocharis quinqueflora Slender spike-rush; Eleocharis uniglumis Broad-leaved cotton sedge; Eriophorum latifolium Reed sweet-grass; Glyceria maxima Yellow flag iris; Iris pseudacorus Brown bog [sic] rush; Schoenus ferrugineus == In fen carr == Narrow small-reed; Calamagrostis stricta Purple small-reed; Calamagrostis canescens Tussock sedge; Carex paniculata Cyperus sedge; Carex pseudocyperus Wood club rush; Scirpus sylvaticus == References == Rose, F. Grasses, Sedges, Rushes and Ferns of the British Isles and north-western Europe (1989) ISBN 0-670-80688-9" Landforms,Flark,"A flark is a depression or hollow within a bog. Flarks typically occur as a series of parallel depressions, separated by intervening ridges known as strings.Early theories suggested that flarks were formed by frost heaving, but flarks have since been found in areas where frost heaving does not occur. Flarks are now thought to form when the peat that forms the base of the bog becomes so thick that it slides downslope due to its own weight. Irregularities in the underlying terrain halt the slide of the peat, causing flarks to form downslope from the obstruction as the downslope peat tears away from the portion of the peat mass held back by the underlying obstruction. Another theory suggests that flarks are formed by areas within the bog which experience accelerated rates of decay, causing depressions in the bog. == References ==" Landforms,Flat (landform),"A flat is a relatively level surface of land within a region of greater relief, such as hills or mountains, usually used in the plural. The term is often used to name places with such features, for example, Yucca Flat or Henninger Flats. Flat is also used to describe other level geographic areas as mud flats or salt flats. == See also == Glade – Open area within a woodland Dry lake – Basin or depression that formerly contained a standing surface water body == References ==" Landforms,Fluting (geology),"In the earth sciences, the terms fluting and flute have very different meanings in its subdisciplines of geomorphology, glaciology, sedimentology, and speleology. == Geomorphology == In geomorphology, a flute is a narrow, shallow channel that runs nearly vertically down the face of a rock surface. It is formed by the weathering and erosion of the rock surface. Correspondingly, fluting is the erosional process by which a well-jointed coarse-grained rock, such as granite or gneiss, surface develops a set of flutes. The includes the formation of small-scale ridges and depressions by wave action. == Glaciology == For the main article about glacial flutes, please see Flute (glacial). In glaciology, flutes are narrow, elongated, straight, parallel ridges generally consisting of till, but sometimes composed of sand or silt/clay. Flutes typically reach a height of only a few meters or less, but some may reach heights of 10 meters (33 ft), and up to 100 meters (330 ft) in length. Flutes are oriented parallel to the direction of ice movement. They are formed when boulders become lodged on the glacial till floor by basal melting and can no longer be moved by the passing glacial ice and the resulting deformation of the till bed.A fluted moraine, also called a fluted moraine surface, is a glacial moraine whose surface exhibits parallel ridges, glacial flutes. They are typically tens of centimeters to a few meters in width and height, and tens of meters in length. The long axes of the flutes are parallel to the flow direction of the glacier. Fluted moraines mainly developed in till surfaces on land, but some have been found in shallow glacimarine settings.Finally, in glaciology, fluting is used in older publications for smooth, deep, gutterlike channels or furrows cut by glaciers into the stoss side of a rocky hill obstructing its advance. Fluting is larger than glacial grooves and do not extend around the hill to its lee side. == Sedimentology == For the main article about the sedimentary structures known as flutes and flute casts, please see Sole markings. In sedimentology, a flute is a primary sedimentary structure consisting of a discontinuous scoop-shaped, spatulate, or lingulate depression or groove. Flutes typically range from 5–50 cm (2.0–19.7 in), in width, from 1–20 cm (0.39–7.87 in) and in depth, and from a few centimeters up to rarely 10 in (25 cm) in depth. They exhibit a steep or abrupt upcurrent end where their depth usually is the greatest. A flute’s long axis is typically parallel to the current. They are typically created by the scouring action of a turbulent, sediment-laden current of water flowing over a muddy bottom. The process by which a flute is formed by the cutting or scouring action of a current of water is often called fluting. After their formation, these types of flutes are often preserved by being filled by sandy or silty sediment to form flute casts, which are infrequently also called fluting. == Speleology == In speleology, flutes are grooves in the walls of a cave that are formed by the dissolution of carbonate rocks of cave walls by descending water. They are typically found in the walls of vertical cave shafts. == References ==" Landforms,Gap (landform),"A gap is a geological formation that is a low point or opening between hills or mountains or in a ridge or mountain range. It may be called a col, notch, pass, saddle, water gap, or wind gap. Geomorphologically, a gap is most often carved by water erosion from a freshet, stream or a river. Gaps created by freshets are often, if not normally, devoid of water through much of the year, their streams being dependent upon the meltwaters of a snow pack. Gaps sourced by small springs will generally have a small stream excepting perhaps during the most arid parts of the year. Water gaps of necessity often cut entirely through a barrier range and riverine gaps may create canyons such as the riverine gaps of the Danube River, Lehigh River Gorge, the Colorado River's Grand Canyon and the Genesee River. Such cuttings may expose millennia of strata in the local rock column writing the geologic record. == References ==" Landforms,Glen,"A glen is a valley, typically one that is long and bounded by gently sloped concave sides, unlike a ravine, which is deep and bounded by steep slopes. Whittow defines it as a ""Scottish term for a deep valley in the Highlands"" that is ""narrower than a strath"". The word is Goidelic in origin: gleann in Irish and Scottish Gaelic, glion in Manx. The designation ""glen"" also occurs often in place names. == Etymology == The word is Goidelic in origin: gleann in Irish and Scottish Gaelic, glion in Manx. In Manx, glan is also to be found meaning glen. It is cognate with Welsh glyn.Examples in Northern England, such as Glenridding, Westmorland, or Glendue, near Haltwhistle, Northumberland, are thought to derive from the aforementioned Cumbric cognate, or another Brythonic equivalent. This likely underlies some examples in Southern Scotland.As the name of a river, it is thought to derive from the Irish word glan meaning clean, or the Welsh word gleindid meaning purity. An example is the Glens of Antrim in Northern Ireland where nine glens radiate out from the Antrim plateau to the sea along the coast between Ballycastle and Larne. == Places == The designation ""glen"" also occurs often in place names such as Great Glen and Glenrothes in Scotland; Glendalough, Glenswilly, Glen of Aherlow, Glen of Imaal and the Glens of Antrim in Ireland; Glenn Norman in Canada; Glendale, Glen Ellen and Klamath Glen in California, Glenview in Illinois, and Glenrock in Wyoming; Glenview, Glen Waverley, Glen Eira, Glengowrie, Glen Huntly and Glen Forrest in Australia; and Glendowie, Glen Eden and Glen Innes in New Zealand.In the Finger Lakes region of New York State, the southern ends of Seneca Lake and Cayuga Lake in particular are etched with glens, although in this region the term ""glen"" refers most frequently to a narrow gorge, as opposed to a wider valley or strath. The steep hills surrounding these lakes are filled with loose shale from glacial moraines. This material has eroded over the past 10,000 years to produce rocky glens (e.g., Watkins Glen, Fillmore Glen State Park and Treman State Parks) and waterfalls (e.g., Taughannock Falls) as rainwater has flowed down toward the lakes below. == See also == High valley – Valley in the upper third of a mountain range Strath – Large valley == References ==" Landforms,Grotto,"A grotto is a natural or artificial cave used by humans in both modern times and antiquity, and historically or prehistorically. Naturally occurring grottoes are often small caves near water that are usually flooded or often flooded at high tide. Sometimes, artificial grottoes are used as garden features. The Grotta Azzurra at Capri and the grotto at Tiberius' Villa Jovis in the Bay of Naples are examples of popular natural seashore grottoes. Whether in tidal water or high up in hills, grottoes are generally made up of limestone geology, where the acidity of standing water has dissolved the carbonates in the rock matrix as it passes through what were originally small fissures. == Etymology == The word grotto comes from Italian grotta, Vulgar Latin grupta, and Latin crypta (""a crypt""). It is also related by a historical accident to the word grotesque. In the late 15th century, Romans accidentally unearthed Nero's Domus Aurea on the Palatine Hill, a series of rooms, decorated with designs of garlands, slender architectural framework, foliage, and animals. The rooms had sunk underground over time. The Romans who discovered this historical monument found it very strange, partly because it was uncovered from an ""underworld"" source. This led the Romans of that era to give it the name grottesca, from which came the French grotesque. == Antiquity == Grottoes were very popular in Greek and Roman culture. Spring-fed grottoes were a feature of Apollo's oracles at Delphi, Corinth, and Clarus. The Hellenistic city of Rhodes was designed with rock-cut artificial grottoes incorporated into the city, made to look natural. At the great Roman sanctuary of Praeneste south of Rome, the oldest portion of the primitive sanctuary was situated on the second lowest terrace, in a grotto in the natural rock where a spring developed into a well. According to tradition, Praeneste's sacred spring had a native nymph, who was honored in a grotto-like watery nymphaeum. == Cellars in Ticino == In Ticino, the Italian-speaking part of Switzerland, grottoes were places where wine and food were stored and preserved. They were built by exploiting the morphology of rocks and boulders, to create rooms with a cool climate suitable for food, particularly milk and cheese, as well as potatoes, sausages, and wine storage.The importance of these cellars is demonstrated in their number; for example, there are 40 grotti in Maggia, no fewer in Moghegno, and about 70 in Cevio behind Case Franzoni. Some grotti have been opened to the public, as in Avegno, but most have lost their original character as they became rustic restaurants which serve basic local food and drink. A true grotto is dug out under a rock or between two boulders, where subterranean air currents keep the room cool. Often a grotto had a second floor with another one or two rooms for the fermentation cask and tools of the vintage. In front of the grotto were a table and benches of stone, where the farmers could rest and refresh themselves.: 18  == Garden grottoes == The popularity of artificial grottoes introduced the Mannerist style to Italian and French gardens of the mid-16th century. Two famous grottoes in the Boboli Gardens of Palazzo Pitti were begun by Vasari and completed by Ammanati and Buontalenti between 1583 and 1593. One of these grottoes originally housed the Prisoners of Michelangelo. Before the Boboli grotto, a garden was laid out by Niccolò Tribolo at the Medici Villa Castello, near Florence. At Pratolino, in spite of the dryness of the site, there was a Grotto of Cupid (surviving), with water tricks for the unsuspecting visitor. The Fonte di Fata Morgana (""Fata Morgana's Spring"") at Grassina, not far from Florence, is a small garden building, built in 1573–74 as a garden feature in the extensive grounds of the Villa ""Riposo"" (rest) of Bernardo Vecchietti. It is decorated with sculptures in the Giambolognan manner. The outsides of garden grottoes are often designed to look like an enormous rock, a rustic porch, or a rocky overhang. Inside, they are decorated as a temple or with fountains, stalactites, and imitation gems and shells (sometimes made in ceramic); herms and mermaids, mythological subjects suited to the space; and naiads, or river gods whose urns spilled water into pools. Damp grottoes were cool places to retreat from the Italian sun, but they also became fashionable in the cool drizzle of the Île-de-France. In the Kuskovo Estate, there is the Grotto Pavilion, built between 1755-61. Grottoes could also serve as baths; an example of this is at the Palazzo del Te, in the 'Casino della Grotta', where a small suite of intimate rooms is laid out around a grotto and loggetta (covered balcony). Courtiers once bathed in the small cascade that splashed over the pebbles and shells encrusted in the floor and walls. Grottoes have also served as chapels, or at Villa Farnese at Caprarola, a little theater designed in the grotto manner. They were often combined with cascading fountains in Renaissance gardens. The grotto designed by Bernard Palissy for Catherine de' Medici's château in Paris, the Tuileries, was renowned. There are also grottoes in the gardens designed by André Le Nôtre for Versailles. In England, an early garden grotto was built at Wilton House in the 1630s, probably by Isaac de Caus. Grottoes were suitable for less formal gardens too. Pope's Grotto, created by Alexander Pope, is almost all that survives of one of the first landscape gardens in England, at Twickenham. Pope was inspired after seeing grottoes in Italy during a visit there. Efforts are underway to restore his grotto. There are grottoes in the landscape gardens of Painshill Park, Stowe, Clandon Park, and Stourhead. Scott's Grotto is a series of interconnected chambers, extending 67 ft (20 metres) into the chalk hillside on the outskirts of Ware, Hertfordshire. Built during the late 18th century, the chambers and tunnels are lined with shells, flints, and pieces of colored glass. The Romantic generation of tourists might not actually visit Fingal's Cave, on the remote isle of Staffa in the Scottish Hebrides, but they have often heard of it, perhaps through Felix Mendelssohn's ""Hebrides Overture"", better known as ""Fingal's Cave"", which was inspired by his visit. In the 19th century, when miniature Matterhorns and rock gardens became fashionable, a grotto was often found, such as at Ascott House. In Bavaria, Ludwig's Linderhof contains an abstraction of the grotto under Venusberg, which is figured in Wagner's Tannhäuser. Although grottoes have largely fallen from fashion since the British Picturesque movement, architects and artists occasionally try to redefine the grotto in contemporary design works. Such examples include Frederick Kiesler's Grotto of Meditation for New Harmony (1964), ARM'st post-modern Storey Hall (1995), Aranda/Lasch's Grotto Concept, (2005), Callum Moreton's Grotto pavilion (2010), and Antonino Cardillo's Grottoes series (2013–2016). == Religious grottoes == Today, artificial grottoes are purchased and built for ornamental and devotional purposes. They are often used as shrines in which to place statues of saints, particularly the Virgin Mary, in outdoor gardens. Many Roman Catholics visit a grotto where Bernadette Soubirous saw apparitions of Our Lady of Lourdes. Numerous garden shrines are modeled after these apparitions. They can commonly be found displayed in gardens and churches, among other places (see Lourdes grotto). The largest grotto is believed to be the Grotto of the Redemption in West Bend, Iowa. == Gallery == == See also == Cave Architecture of cathedrals and great churches Blue Grotto, former underground wine storage vaults in the anchorages under the Brooklyn Bridge, on the Manhattan side Caves of Hercules Grotto-heavens, Chinese religious usage associated with Daoist religion Karst Shell grotto Tunnels in popular culture == Notes == == Further reading == Jackson, Hazelle (2001). Shell Houses and Grottoes. England: Shire Books). Traces the development of the grotto in Italy during the Renaissance and its popularity in the UK from the eighteenth century to the present. Includes gazetteer of UK grottoes. Jones, B. (1953). Follies and Grottoes. London. Miller, Naomi (1982). Heavenly Caves: Reflections on the Garden Grotto. New York: Braziller. Traces the development of the grotto from Antiquity to modern times." Landforms,Gypsum cave,"A gypsum cave is a natural karstic formation in gypsum. Gypsum karst is very rare. It depends on deposits of gypsum or anhydrite, often also called alabaster. Chemically it is calcium sulfate, CaSO4. Gypsum caves can be found in several places on earth, including: Optymistychna Cave in Ukraine, considered the longest gypsum cave at 232 km Orda Cave underneath the Western Ural Mountains, with 5.1km length, including 4.8km underwater Cuevas de Sorbas in Almeria, SpainCaves noted for large scale gypsum speleothems include: Cave of the Crystals in Chihuahua, Mexico Lechuguilla Cave in New Mexico, US == References == == Related pages == Gypsum Karst == External links == World's longest gypsum caves compiled" Landforms,Heath,"A heath () is a shrubland habitat found mainly on free-draining infertile, acidic soils and characterised by open, low-growing woody vegetation. Moorland is generally related to high-ground heaths with—especially in Great Britain—a cooler and damper climate. Heaths are widespread worldwide but are fast disappearing and considered a rare habitat in Europe. They form extensive and highly diverse communities across Australia in humid and sub-humid areas where fire regimes with recurring burning are required for the maintenance of the heathlands. Even more diverse though less widespread heath communities occur in Southern Africa. Extensive heath communities can also be found in the Texas chaparral, New Caledonia, central Chile, and along the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. In addition to these extensive heath areas, the vegetation type is also found in scattered locations across all continents, except Antarctica. == Characteristics == Heathland is favoured where climatic conditions are typically hard and dry, particularly in summer, and soils acidic, of low fertility, and often sandy and very free-draining; a mire may occur where drainage is poor, but usually is only small in extent. Heaths are dominated by low shrubs, 20 centimetres (8 in) to 2 metres (7 feet) tall. Heath vegetation can be extremely plant-species rich, and heathlands of Australia are home to some 3,700 endemic or typical species in addition to numerous less restricted species. The fynbos heathlands of South Africa are second only to tropical rainforests in plant biodiversity with over 7,000 species. In marked contrast, the tiny pockets of heathland in Europe are extremely depauperate with a flora consisting primarily of heather (Calluna vulgaris), heath (Erica species) and gorse (Ulex species). The bird fauna of heathlands are usually cosmopolitan species of the region. In the depauperate heathlands of Europe, bird species tend to be more characteristic of the community, and include Montagu's harrier and the tree pipit. In Australia the heathland avian fauna is dominated by nectar-feeding birds such as honey-eaters and lorikeets, although numerous other birds from emus to eagles are also common in Australian heathlands. The birds of the South African fynbos include sunbirds, warblers and siskins. Heathlands are also an excellent habitat for insects including ants, moths, butterflies and wasps; many species are restricted entirely to it. One such example of an organism restricted to heathland is the silver-studded blue butterfly, Plebejus argus. == Anthropogenic heaths == Anthropogenic heath habitats are a cultural landscape that can be found worldwide in locations as diverse as northern and western Europe, the Americas, Australia, New Zealand, Madagascar and New Guinea. These heaths were originally made or expanded by centuries of human clearance of the natural forest and woodland vegetation, by grazing and burning. In some cases this clearance went so far that parts of the heathland have given way to open spots of pure sand and sand dunes, with a local climate that, even in Europe, can rise to temperatures of 50 °C (122 °F) in summer, drying the sand spot bordering the heathland and further raising its vulnerability for wildfires. Referring to heathland in England, Oliver Rackham says, ""Heaths are clearly the product of human activities and need to be managed as heathland; if neglected they turn into woodland"".The conservation value of these man-made heaths has become much more appreciated due to their historical cultural value as habitats; consequently, most heathlands are protected. However they are also threatened by tree incursion because of the discontinuation of traditional management techniques, such as grazing and burning, that mediated the landscapes. Some are also threatened by urban sprawl. Anthropogenic heathlands are maintained artificially by a combination of grazing and periodic burning (known as swailing), or (rarely) mowing; if not so maintained, they are rapidly recolonised by forest or woodland. The recolonising tree species will depend on what is available as the local seed source, and thus it may not reflect the natural vegetation before the heathland became established. == In literature == The heath features prominently in: King Lear, by William Shakespeare Wuthering Heights, by Emily Brontë The Return of the Native, by Thomas Hardy Ethan Frome, by Edith Wharton == Gallery == == See also == Bolster heath Chalk heath Garrigue Maquis shrubland Matorral Scrubland == References == == External links == The Countryside Agency information on types of open land Origin of the word 'heath'" Landforms,Highland,"Highlands or uplands are areas of high elevation such as a mountainous region, elevated mountainous plateau or high hills. Generally, upland refers to a range of hills, typically from 300 m (980 ft) up to 500–600 m (1,600–2,000 ft), while highland is usually reserved for ranges of low mountains. However, the two terms are sometimes interchangeable. == Highlands internationally == Probably the best-known area officially or unofficially referred to as highlands in the Anglosphere is the Scottish Highlands in northern Scotland, the mountainous region north and west of the Highland Boundary Fault. The Highland council area is a local government area in the Scottish Highlands and Britain's largest local government area. Other highland or upland areas reaching 400-500 m or higher in the United Kingdom include the Southern Uplands in Scotland, the Pennines, North York Moors, Dartmoor and Exmoor in England, and the Cambrian Mountains in Wales. Many countries and regions also have areas referred to as highlands. These include parts of Afghanistan, Tibet, Ethiopia, Canada, Kenya, Eritrea, Yemen, Ghana, Nigeria, Papua New Guinea, Syria, Turkey and Cantabria.Synonymous terms used in other countries include high country, used in New Zealand, New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and Southern Queensland in Australia, and parts of the United States (notably Western North Carolina), highveld, used in South Africa and Roof of the World, used for Tibet. The central Afghan highlands are in the center of Afghanistan, mostly located between 2,000 and 3,000 m above sea level. They have a very cold winter, and a short and cool summer. These highlands have mountain pastures during summer (sardsīr), watered by many small streams and rivers. There are also pastures available during winter in the neighboring warm lowlands (garmsīr), which makes the region ideal for seasonal transhumance. The highlands in Australia are often above the elevation of 500 m. These areas often receive snowfall in winter. Most of the highlands lead up to large alpine or sub-alpine mountainous regions such as the Australian Alps, Snowy Mountains, Great Dividing Range, Northern Tablelands and Blue Mountains. The most mountainous region of Tasmania is the Central Highlands area, which covers most of the central-western parts of the state. Many of these areas are highly elevated alpine regions. The Ozarks cover nearly 120,000 square kilometres (46,000 sq mi), making it the most extensive highland region between the Appalachians and Rockies. This region contains some of the oldest rocks in North America. The spine of the mountains stretches across the island of New Guinea, forming the densely populated highlands of Papua New Guinea, and the Highland Papua, Indonesia. The Central Highlands of Sri Lanka are rain forests, where the elevation reaches 2,500 m (8,200 ft) above sea level. The Sri Lanka montane rain forests represent the montane and submontane moist forests above 1,000 m (3,300 ft) in the central highlands and in the Knuckles mountain range. Half of Sri Lanka's endemic flowering plants and 51 percent of the endemic vertebrates are restricted to this ecoregion. The highlands of Iceland cover about 40% of the country and are mostly inhospitable to humans. They are generally considered to be any land above 500 m. The mountainous natural region of the Thai highlands is found in Northern Thailand. The Cameron Highlands is a highland area and hill station in Northern Malaysia. Shillong in India in the state of Meghalaya is a hill station that is surrounded by highlands. Officers of the British Raj referred to Shillong as ""The Scotland of the East"". == Other planets == Highland continents—or terrae—are areas of topographically unstable terrain, with high peaks and valleys. They resemble highlands on Earth, but the term is applied to much larger areas on other planets. They can be found on Mercury, Venus, Mars, and the Moon. == See also == Highlander (disambiguation) Plateau == References ==" Landforms,Hill chain,"A hill chain, sometimes also hill ridge, is an elongated line of hills that usually includes a succession of more or less prominent hilltops, domed summits or kuppen, hill ridges and saddles and which, together with its associated lateral ridges and branches, may form a complex topographic structure. It may occur within a hill range, within an area of low rolling hill country or on a plain. It may link two or more otherwise distinct hill ranges. The transition from a hill chain to a mountain chain is blurred and depends on regional definitions of a hill or mountain. For example, in the UK and Ireland a mountain must officially be 600 m (2,000 ft) or higher, whereas in North America mountains are often (unofficially) taken as being 1,000 ft (300 m) high or more.The chain-like arrangement of hills in a chain is a consequence of their collective formation by mountain building forces or ice age earth movements. Hill chains generally have a uniform geological age, but may comprise several types of rock or sediment. Hill chains normally form a watershed. They are crossed by roads that often use a natural saddle in the terrain. == Examples == the Argonne hill chain, in France. the Fläming south of Berlin in Germany. the Malvern Hills in central England. the ridge between the Taunus and Vogelsberg, which lies south of Giessen and forms the watershed between the Lahn valley and the Wetterau in Germany. == See also == Mountain chain == References == == Literature == Stebbing, W.P.D. (1940). ""Some early references to geology from the sixteenth century onwards"". Proceedings of the Geologists' Association. 51 (2): 49–63. Bünz, Enno (2008). Ostsiedlung und Landesausbau in Sachsen. Leipzig: Leipziger Universitätsverlag. Leggiere, Michael V. (2007). The Fall of Napoleon. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. == External links ==" Landforms,Hillock,"A hillock or knoll is a small hill, usually separated from a larger group of hills such as a range. Hillocks are similar in their distribution and size to small mesas or buttes. This particular formation occurs often in Great Britain and China. A similar type of landform in the Scandinavian countries goes by the name ”kulle” or ”bakke” (depending on the country) and is contrary to the above phenomena formed when glaciers polish down hard, crystalline bedrock of gneiss or granites, leaving a rounded rocky hillock with sparse vegetation.One of the most famous knolls is the one near John F. Kennedy's point of assassination, the grassy knoll, in Dealey Plaza of downtown Dallas, Texas. It is the source of many prominent conspiracy theories regarding the circumstances of his assassination. A ""blind knoll"" is either hidden or not readily apparent to those driving vehicles. There are road signs that warn of this, advising drivers to slow down. == Gallery == == See also == Crug (disambiguation) Mound – Artificial heaped pile of earth, gravel, sand, rocks, or debris Mountain – Large natural elevation of the Earth's surface Hügelland – Landscape consisting of low, rolling hills == Notes ==" Landforms,Huerta,"A huerta (Spanish: [ˈweɾta]) or horta (Catalan: [ˈɔɾta], Portuguese: [ˈɔɾtɐ]), from Latin hortus, ""garden"", is an irrigated area, or a field within such an area, common in Spain and Portugal, where a variety of vegetables and fruit trees are cultivated for family consumption and sale. Typically, individual huertas belong to different people; they are located around rivers or other water sources because of the amount of water required, which is usually provided through small canals (acequias). They are a kind of market garden. == Alternate definitions == Elinor Ostrom has defined huertas as ""well-demarked irrigation areas surrounding or near towns"" (emphasis added). == See also == Acequia Irrigation district Horta of Valencia == References == == Bibliography == Glick, Thomas F. 1970. Irrigation and Society in Medieval Valencia. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Maass, Arthur, and Raymond Lloyd Anderson. 1978. ...and the Desert Shall Rejoice: Conflict, Growth and Justice in Arid Environments. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 9780262131346 Ostrom, Elinor (2015 [1990]). ""Huerta Irrigation Institutions."" Pp.69-82 in Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107569782" Landforms,Hügelkultur,"Hügelkultur (German pronunciation: [ˈhyːɡl̩kʊlˌtuːɐ̯]), literally mound bed or mound culture is a horticultural technique where a mound constructed from decaying wood debris and other compostable biomass plant materials is later (or immediately) planted as a raised bed. Adopted by permaculture advocates, it is suggested the technique helps to improve soil fertility, water retention, and soil warming, thus benefitting plants grown on or near such mounds. == History == Hügelkultur is a German word meaning mound culture or hill culture. Though the technique is alleged to have been practiced in German and Eastern European societies for hundreds of years, the term was first published in a 1962 German gardening booklet by Herrman Andrä. Inspired by the diversity of plants growing in a pile of woody debris in his grandmother's garden, Andrä promoted ""mound culture"" as opposed to ""flatland culture"". This was also posited as an easy way to utilise woody debris without burning, which was illegal. Andrä appears to have been influenced by Rudolf Steiner's biodynamic agriculture. Steiner explained his biodynamic philosophy as developed through meditation and clairvoyance, rejecting scientific inquiry on the grounds that his methods were “true and correct unto themselves.” Andrä quotes a 1924 lecture on biodynamics by Steiner, which describes mixing of soil with composting or decaying material in earthen hillocks. Joined by author Hans Beba, another German gardener, ""Hill Culture - the horticultural method of the future"" was revised and republished several times in the 1970s and 1980s.The technique was later adopted and developed by Sepp Holzer, an Austrian permaculture advocate. More recent permaculture advocates such as Paul Wheaton strongly promote Hügelkultur beds as a perfect permaculture design. == Use == === Construction === In its basic form, mounds are constructed by piling logs, branches, plant waste, compost and additional soil directly on the ground. The pile has the form of a pyramid. The sides of the two slopes both have a grade of between 65 and 80 degrees. The beds are usually about 3 by 6 feet (0.91 by 1.83 m) in area and about 3 feet (0.91 m) high. However, this height reduces as decomposition progresses.When positioned on sloped terrain, the beds need to be placed on contour, or put at an angle to the hillside (rather than having them parallel to it). This makes sure the beds do not receive unequal amounts of water. In most cases, it is useful to have the beds positioned against the prevailing wind direction. The raised bed can form light-duty swales, circles and mazes. Mounds may also be made from alternating layers of wood, sod, compost, straw, and soil. Although their construction is straightforward, planning is necessary to prevent steep slopes that would result in erosion.In his book Desert or Paradise: Restoring Endangered Landscapes Using Water Management, Including Lake and Pond Construction, Holzer describes a method of constructing Hügelkultur which incorporates rubbish such as cardboard, clothes and kitchen waste. He recommends building mounds that are 1 meter (3.3 ft) wide and any length. Mounds are built in a 0.7 meters (2.3 ft) trench in sandy soil, and without a trench if the ground is wet. === Planting === The mound is left to rest for several months before planting, although some advise immediate planting.Anything can be grown on the raised beds, but if the bed will decompose/release its nutrients quickly (so long as it is not made of bulky materials like tree trunks), more demanding crops such as pumpkins, zucchini, cucumbers, cabbages, tomatoes, sweet corn, celery, or potatoes are grown in the first year, after which the bed is used for less demanding crops like beans, peas, and strawberries. === Lifespan === The original German publications described the mounds as having a lifespan of 5–6 years, after which they had to be rebuilt from scratch. == Evidence == As of 2017 there are no peer-reviewed scientific studies available regarding the efficacy of the technique. A few university student projects investigate Hügelkultur but have not been published in scientific journals.One small scale and short term student project investigated the Hügelkultur method as a potential use for yard trimmings waste, and also if lima beans, kale and okra planted on a Hügelkultur mound showed any signs of nutrient deficiency compared to a non-raised control bed. It was found that over 11 tons of yard trimmings were used in the mound, and no evidence of macronutrient deficiency could be detected in the crops in the short term. Indeed, despite concerns that incorporation of large quantities of high carbon woody matter would lead to nitrogen immobilization and hence nitrogen deficiency in the crop, a higher level of nitrogen was found in the raised bed. However, the micronutrient iron was lower relative to the control bed. The author speculated that no nitrogen deficiency occurred since the roots of the plants did not penetrate past the superficial layers of the mound into the deeper wood-containing region.A student thesis investigated the water holding capacity of Hügelkultur beds and whether the technique could be useful to prevent karst rocky desertification in China. Over 3 months of measurements, water concentration in hügel mounds remained high. Samples from hügel sites contained almost twice as much water as those from flat control plots. It was suggested that 1 ha (2+1⁄2 acres) of hügels has 3-10 times more water than a flat plot affected by karst rocky desertification. == Theory == Many publications and websites advocate the technique based on personal experience of the authors. Some have criticised the technique as lacking genuine scientific principles, and running counter to the ecological principles of soil building with litterfall.Hügelkultur is said to replicate the natural process of decomposition that occurs on forest floors, however in natural ecosystems wood would be present at the soil surface. Trees that fall in a forest often become nurse logs decaying and providing ecological facilitation to seedlings. As the wood decays, its porosity increases, allowing it to store water like a sponge. The water is slowly released back into the environment, benefiting nearby plants.These beds are also considered beneficial because of the airpockets created by the settling caused by the wood's decomposition. This gives the benefits of tilling, without the destruction of soil microorganisms that come with tilling (""every time you till the soil, you lose 30% of the organic material (microbial soil life is killed, and plants feast on their bodies)""). And, the organic material of the rotting wood also houses beneficial soil microorganisms.Hügelkultur beds are said to be ideal for areas where the underlying soil is of poor quality or compacted. They tend to be easier to maintain due to their relative height above the ground.The decomposition speed of organic material depends on the carbon to nitrogen ratio of the material, among other factors. Wood breaks down relatively slowly because it has one of the highest carbon to nitrogen ratios of all organic matter that is used in composting. If the wood is not processed into smaller pieces with larger surface area to speed up chemical reactions, breakdown is even slower. The decomposition process may, in the short term, take more nitrogen from the soil through microbial activity (nitrogen immobilization), if not enough nitrogen is available. Thus, in the short term, the fertility of the soil may be decreased before, eventually, perhaps after one to two years, the nitrogen level is increased past the original level. Traditionally, therefore, it is said to be advantageous to balance ""browns"" (e.g. woodchippings) with ""greens"" (e.g. grass clippings) for efficient composting, and to allow compost to become well-rotted before applying it to a bed, to prevent competition between soil bacteria and plants for nitrogen, which reduces yield. == Criticisms and controversy == === Hügelkultur mounds as solid earthworks === Although Hügelkultur beds can safely retain water in light-duty applications (for example, conserving the moisture of rain that falls on the bed), creating heavy-duty rainwater retention areas behind Hügelkultur beds on contour, to catch surface runoff from surrounding areas, can be dangerous. Some designers conflate the Hügelkultur bed's appearance with that of solid earthworks, but Hügelkultur beds cannot predictably control large amounts of stormwater in the way that solid earthworks can. Whereas embankment dams or the hillsides of swales can be relied on to hold back many thousands of gallons of water for weeks to allow it to seep into the ground, and berms can slow runoff, Hügelkultur beds are different in two ways: earthworks have no buoyant core (whereas Hügelkultur mounds contain logs), and the soil that they are made of is compacted. If fresh or dried timber is used in the bed, it may become buoyant in the water-saturated substrate, bursting from the soil covering and releasing all the sitting water through a breach. This can be an issue for years, until the wood is sufficiently rotten and infused with water. Another consideration is that Hügelkultur beds will degrade, shrinking over time into much lower mounds of soft, rich soil. This means that the retention area will have less depth as time goes on, but it also means that the uncompacted soil will remain a threat to breaching even if the logs become saturated. Some permaculturists have taken mild positions against the ""hügel swales"" still being promoted by other permaculturists, citing the danger and cross-purposes of Hügelkultur beds and swales. Swales are for long-term installations where perennials - like fruit trees - are grown. Hügelkultur is used for shorter term, more annual crops, as the soil settling that occurs with hugel decomposition is bad for the root system of fruit trees.There is a recorded instance of a breach occurring in a new project. Upon the first rainstorm, the retention areas behind the Hügelkultur beds filled with water and broke through. The released water carried the freshly-buried logs and dirt downhill, smashing a hole in a building being used as a church and filling the space with mud. No injuries were reported. === Overfertilization, contamination of soil and water habitats === Over-fertilized plants are said to have less flavor, and too much nitrogen can be consumed by eating certain plants which have been over-fertilised (e.g., spinach). Advocates state that overfertilization is a risk in the first year if woodchips are used, which will break down too fast. Instead raised beds made with whole logs release nutrients slowly over a period of years. It has been suggested that excessive use of decomposing organic matter in Hügelkultur could leach out and contaminate and disrupt soil and water habitats. == See also == Hotbed Hot container composting Vertical farming == References == == External links == Media related to Category:Hügelkultur at Wikimedia Commons Practical step by step guide to implement hügelkultur raised beds hugelkultur: the ultimate raised garden beds 7 Things to Know About Hugelkultur Gardening Hugelkultur: Composting Whole Trees With Ease" Landforms,Hügelland,"Hügelland is a type of landscape consisting of low rolling hills whose topography or surface structure lies between that of a lowland region (plains or river terraces) and that of a more rugged hill range or low mountain range. The term is German and has no exact equivalent in English, but is often translated as ""hill country"", ""hilly terrain"", ""upland(s)"" or ""gently undulating"" or ""rolling country"", or ""rolling countryside"". It is derived from Hügel, a low hill or hillock and appears frequently as a proper name for this type of terrain. The term Hügelland is not unambiguously defined, even in German. For example, on the plains of North Germany, Poland or Hungary it may be applied to terrain with a height variation of just 50 metres, whilst in the Alpine Foreland or in the Voralpen it might refer to terrain with a height difference of at least 100–200 metres. On the other hand, some scholars prefer to define Hügelland by its height above sea level; for example, applying it to terrain between 200 and 500 metres above sea level. == Structure == Structurally and geomorphologically, a Hügelland landscape has a significant proportion of less well-defined components. For example: It is topographically not as clearly defined a mountain or hill range, which is why it usually exhibits variable erosion (the aspects of its slopes facing all points of the compass) and why it rarely has series of parallel watercourses such as those typically created in hilly or mountainous terrain. Settlements may be located either in the valleys or on the heights (which offered sunny sites in winter, sheltered leeward locations and, formerly, better defensive positions); Arable usage is equally diverse - depending on soil type, local climate and groundwater. The formation of the terrain often has geological causes that differ from those of hills and mountains:Hills and mountains are caused by folding along tectonic weaknesses or fault lines, which are then followed by rivers. This results in a parallel pattern, which can be made even more regular through erosion. Hügelland rarely exhibits these properties. When the gently rolling hills of a Hügelland are suitable for agriculture, their small-scale nature is further reinforced, which may result in a colourful succession of mixed forest and open areas with pastures, meadows, arable crops and orchards, divided by hedgerows along the tracks, lanes and embankments. Mixed woodland, hedges, ponds and scattered settlements occur, giving the appearance of a mosaic from the air. == Regions named Hügelland == The regions listed below have Hügelland as part of their proper name. Several also have alternative English-language names. Austria: Mattersburger Hügelland, Burgenland Oststeirisches Hügelland, Styria Germany: Aachener Hügelland, North Rhine-Westphalia Alzeyer Hügelland, Rhineland-Palatinate Angelner Hügelland, Schleswig-Holstein Mittelsächsisches Hügelland, Saxony Nordthüringer Hügelland, Thuringia Ostbraunschweigisches Hügelland, Lower Saxony Schleswig-Holsteinisches Hügelland, Schleswig-Holstein Spalter Hügelland, Bavaria Unterbayerisches Hügelland, Bavaria Switzerland Freiburger Hügelland == Other examples == Austria: Upper Austria: Innviertel, Hausruckviertel Lower Austria: Bucklige Welt, parts of Mostviertel; Weinviertel, Wienerwaldsee South Burgenland SE-Carinthia Germany Baden-Württemberg: Jagst-Ries, Kraichgau Bavaria: Haßlacherbergkette in North-Upper Franconia, Middle Franconia, Upper Swabia Brandenburg/Saxony-Anhalt: Fläming Rhineland-Palatinate: Rhenish Hesse Lower Saxony: Lüneburg Heath Mecklenburg-Vorpommern: Baltic Uplands, Feldberg Lake District, Mecklenburg Switzerland North Rhine-Westphalia: Baumberge and Beckum Hills, Münsterland Saxony: Lower Lusatia, North Saxony Schleswig-Holstein: Holstein Switzerland, Hütten Hills Italy: The Langhe in the Piemont, between Turin and the Ligurian Alps Poland: Pomeranian Lakeland, Prussian-, Baltic Uplands Lower Silesia, Lodz region Switzerland Parts of the Jura Swiss Plateau, Napf Hungary, Romania, Serbia Göcsej, Raabtal, Balaton-South; Buda Hills, Zemplín Slavonia, Batschka, Banat, Siebenbürgen, Dobruja == Similar concepts == An example of Hügelland outside Europe is Rwanda in Africa, whose character is expressed by its French name of Pays de Mille Collines (""Land of a Thousand Hills""). In Sweden the term undulating hilly land (Swedish: bergkullterräng) is used since Sten Rudberg coined the concept in 1960. In the Swedish context this means hilly areas made up of crystalline rocks of the Baltic Shield that are often contrasted with joint valley landscapes, the Sub-Cambrian peneplain and plains with residual hills. In southern Sweden the undulating hilly lands are coterminous with the Sub-Mesozoic hilly peneplains, an ancient surface formed by weathering in warm and humid climates during the Mesozoic. == References ==" Landforms,Intertidal wetland,"An intertidal wetland is an area along a shoreline that is exposed to air at low tide and submerged at high tide. This type of wetland is defined by an intertidal zone and includes its own intertidal ecosystems. == Description == The main types of intertidal wetlands are mudflats (e.g., mangrove swamps) and salt marshes. The mangrove swamps are encountered along tropical shores and are characterized by tree vegetation, while salt marshes are mostly found in temperate zones and are mostly grass ecosystems.Intertidal wetlands are commonly encountered in most estuaries. Intertidal wetland ecosystems are amongst the most productive plant communities and often constitute a large part of the estuary areas. == See also == Tidal marsh == References ==" Landforms,Inverted river delta,"An inverted river delta is special category of river delta in which the narrow end of the delta emerges on the seafront and the wide end is located further inland, so that with respect to the seafront, the locations of both ends of the delta are inverted. == Explanation == River deltas typically form on flat, coastal floodplains: the narrow end located at the point where a river fans out and deposits sediment in a region extending outward into the body of water which the river empties. In the case of an inverted delta, the delta is located at the waterway's exit from a large, flat valley, yet still inside the valley. The sediment is dropped within the valley and the clear water then exits into a bay or the ocean, so the apex of the delta is at this exit, a configuration said to be inverted from that usually seen. Inverted deltas typically do not last long in geological terms, since they tend to fill up with sediments rather quickly and eventually become normal deltas. == Examples == === The Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta === A classic example of an inverted river delta is the Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta, which lies at the confluence of the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers in California. The water from the rivers that drain the entire, large California Central Valley exit through the Carquinez Strait, a narrow gap in the Coast Range. An inverted river delta exists behind this strait. === The Tagus River === Another example is the delta of the Tagus river in Portugal, although due to sedimentation this delta is now only very partially inverted, with the valley now mostly filled with sediment. It is still about 15 km wide and 25 km long, compared with the 2 km wide exit into the sea, and forms a large lagoon with large and very shallow sand banks which go uncovered during low tides. The delta used to be even bigger thousands of years ago." Landforms,Karst Topography, Landforms,Karst,"Karst is a topography formed from the dissolution of soluble carbonate rocks such as limestone, dolomite, and gypsum. It is characterized by features like poljes above and drainage systems with sinkholes and caves underground. It has also been documented for more weathering-resistant rocks, such as quartzite, given the right conditions. Subterranean drainage may limit surface water, with few to no rivers or lakes. In regions where the dissolved bedrock is covered (perhaps by debris) or confined by one or more superimposed non-soluble rock strata, distinctive karst features may occur only at subsurface levels and can be totally missing above ground.The study of paleokarst (buried karst in the stratigraphic column) is important in petroleum geology because as much as 50% of the world's hydrocarbon reserves are hosted in carbonate rock, and much of this is found in porous karst systems. == Etymology == The English word karst was borrowed from German Karst in the late 19th century, which entered German much earlier. According to one interpretation, the term is derived from the German name for a number of geological, geomorphological, and hydrological features found within the range of the Dinaric Alps. The range stretches from the northeastern corner of Italy above the city of Trieste, across the Balkan peninsula along the coast of the eastern Adriatic to Kosovo and North Macedonia, where the massif of the Šar Mountains begins. The karst zone is at the northwesternmost section, described in early topographical research as a plateau between Italy and Slovenia. In the local South Slavic languages, all variations of the word are derived from a Romanized Illyrian base (yielding Latin: carsus, Dalmatian: carsus), later metathesized from the reconstructed form *korsъ into forms such as Slovene: kras and Serbo-Croatian: krš, kras. Languages preserving the older, non-metathesized form include Italian: Carso, German: Karst, and Albanian: karsti; the lack of metathesis precludes borrowing from any of the South Slavic languages, specifically Slovene. The Slovene common noun kras was first attested in the 18th century, and the adjective form kraški in the 16th century. As a proper noun, the Slovene form Grast was first attested in 1177.Ultimately, the word is of Mediterranean origin. It has been suggested that the word may derive from the Proto-Indo-European root karra- 'rock'. The name may also be connected to the oronym Kar(u)sádios oros cited by Ptolemy, and perhaps also to Latin Carusardius. == Early studies == Johann Weikhard von Valvasor, a pioneer of the study of karst in Slovenia and a fellow of the Royal Society, London, introduced the word karst to European scholars in 1689 to describe the phenomenon of underground flows of rivers in his account of Lake Cerknica.Jovan Cvijić greatly advanced the knowledge of karst regions, so much that he became known as the ""father of karst geomorphology"". Primarily discussing the karstic regions of the Balkans, Cvijić's 1893 publication Das Karstphänomen describes landforms such as karren, dolines and poljes. In a 1918 publication, Cvijić proposed a cyclical model for karstic landscape development. Karst hydrology emerged as a discipline in the late 1950s and the early 1960s in France. Previously, the activities of cave explorers, called speleologists, had been dismissed as more of a sport than a science and so the underground karstic caves and their associated watercourses were, from a scientific perspective, understudied. == Development == Karst is most strongly developed in dense carbonate rock, such as limestone, that is thinly bedded and highly fractured. Karst is not typically well developed in chalk, because chalk is highly porous rather than dense, so the flow of groundwater is not concentrated along fractures. Karst is also most strongly developed where the water table is relatively low, such as in uplands with entrenched valleys, and where rainfall is moderate to heavy. This contributes to rapid downward movement of groundwater, which promotes dissolution of the bedrock, whereas standing groundwater becomes saturated with carbonate minerals and ceases to dissolve the bedrock. === Chemistry of dissolution === The carbonic acid that causes karstic features is formed as rain passes through Earth's atmosphere picking up carbon dioxide (CO2), which readily dissolves in the water. Once the rain reaches the ground, it may pass through soil that provides additional CO2 produced by soil respiration. Some of the dissolved carbon dioxide reacts with the water to form a weak carbonic acid solution, which dissolves calcium carbonate. The primary reaction sequence in limestone dissolution is the following: In very rare conditions, oxidation can play a role. Oxidation played a major role in the formation of ancient Lechuguilla Cave in the US state of New Mexico and is presently active in the Frasassi Caves of Italy. The oxidation of sulfides leading to the formation of sulfuric acid can also be one of the corrosion factors in karst formation. As oxygen (O2)-rich surface waters seep into deep anoxic karst systems, they bring oxygen, which reacts with sulfide present in the system (pyrite or hydrogen sulfide) to form sulfuric acid (H2SO4). Sulfuric acid then reacts with calcium carbonate, causing increased erosion within the limestone formation. This chain of reactions is: This reaction chain forms gypsum. == Morphology == The karstification of a landscape may result in a variety of large- or small-scale features both on the surface and beneath. On exposed surfaces, small features may include solution flutes (or rillenkarren), runnels, limestone pavement (clints and grikes), kamenitzas collectively called karren or lapiez. Medium-sized surface features may include sinkholes or cenotes (closed basins), vertical shafts, foibe (inverted funnel shaped sinkholes), disappearing streams, and reappearing springs. Large-scale features may include limestone pavements, poljes, and karst valleys. Mature karst landscapes, where more bedrock has been removed than remains, may result in karst towers, or haystack/eggbox landscapes. Beneath the surface, complex underground drainage systems (such as karst aquifers) and extensive caves and cavern systems may form.Erosion along limestone shores, notably in the tropics, produces karst topography that includes a sharp makatea surface above the normal reach of the sea, and undercuts that are mostly the result of biological activity or bioerosion at or a little above mean sea level. Some of the most dramatic of these formations can be seen in Thailand's Phangnga Bay and at Halong Bay in Vietnam. Calcium carbonate dissolved into water may precipitate out where the water discharges some of its dissolved carbon dioxide. Rivers which emerge from springs may produce tufa terraces, consisting of layers of calcite deposited over extended periods of time. In caves, a variety of features collectively called speleothems are formed by deposition of calcium carbonate and other dissolved minerals. == Hydrology == Farming in karst areas must take into account the lack of surface water. The soils may be fertile enough, and rainfall may be adequate, but rainwater quickly moves through the crevices into the ground, sometimes leaving the surface soil parched between rains. A karst fenster (karst window) occurs when an underground stream emerges onto the surface between layers of rock, cascades some distance, and then disappears back down, often into a sinkhole. Rivers in karst areas may disappear underground a number of times and spring up again in different places, usually under a different name (like Ljubljanica, the river of seven names). An example of this is the Popo Agie River in Fremont County, Wyoming. At a site simply named ""The Sinks"" in Sinks Canyon State Park, the river flows into a cave in a formation known as the Madison Limestone and then rises again 800 m (1⁄2 mi) down the canyon in a placid pool. A turlough is a unique type of seasonal lake found in Irish karst areas which are formed through the annual welling-up of water from the underground water system.Water supplies from wells in karst topography may be unsafe, as the water may have run unimpeded from a sinkhole in a cattle pasture, through a cave and to the well, bypassing the normal filtering that occurs in a porous aquifer. Karst formations are cavernous and therefore have high rates of permeability, resulting in reduced opportunity for contaminants to be filtered. Groundwater in karst areas is just as easily polluted as surface streams. Sinkholes have often been used as farmstead or community trash dumps. Overloaded or malfunctioning septic tanks in karst landscapes may dump raw sewage directly into underground channels. Geologists are concerned with these negative effects of human activity on karst hydrology which, as of 2007, supplied about 25% of the global demand for drinkable water.The karst topography also poses difficulties for human inhabitants. Sinkholes can develop gradually as surface openings enlarge, but progressive erosion is frequently unseen until the roof of a cavern suddenly collapses. Such events have swallowed homes, cattle, cars, and farm machinery. In the United States, sudden collapse of such a cavern-sinkhole swallowed part of the collection of the National Corvette Museum in Bowling Green, Kentucky in 2014. === Aquifers === == Interstratal karst == Interstratal karst is a karstic landscape which is developed beneath a cover of insoluble rocks. Typically this will involve a cover of sandstone overlying limestone strata undergoing solution. In the United Kingdom for example extensive doline fields have developed at Cefn yr Ystrad, Mynydd Llangatwg and Mynydd Llangynidr in South Wales across a cover of Twrch Sandstone which overlies concealed Carboniferous Limestone, the last-named having been declared a site of special scientific interest in respect of it. == Kegelkarst == Kegelkarst is a type of tropical karst terrain with numerous cone-like hills, formed by cockpits, mogotes, and poljes and without strong fluvial erosion processes. This terrain is found in Cuba, Jamaica, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Puerto Rico, southern China, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos and Vietnam. == Pseudokarst == Pseudokarsts are similar in form or appearance to karst features but are created by different mechanisms. Examples include lava caves and granite tors—for example, Labertouche Cave in Victoria, Australia—and paleocollapse features. Mud Caves are an example of pseudokarst. == Salt karst == Salt karst (or 'halite karst') is developed in areas where salt is undergoing solution underground. It can lead to surface depressions and collapses which present a geo-hazard. == Paleokarst == Paleokarst or palaeokarst is a development of karst observed in geological history and preserved within the rock sequence, effectively a fossil karst. There are for example palaeokarstic surfaces exposed within the Clydach Valley Subgroup of the Carboniferous Limestone sequence of South Wales which developed as sub-aerial weathering of recently formed limestones took place during periods of non-deposition within the early part of the period. Sedimentation resumed and further limestone strata were deposited on an irregular karstic surface, the cycle recurring several times in connection with fluctuating sea levels over prolonged periods. == Karst forest == Karst areas tend to have unique types of forests. The karst terrain is difficult for humans to traverse, so that their ecosystems are often relatively undisturbed. The soil tends to have a high pH, which encourages growth of unusual species of orchids, palms, mangroves, and other plants. == Karst areas == The world's largest limestone karst is Australia's Nullarbor Plain. Slovenia has the world's highest risk of sinkholes, while the western Highland Rim in the eastern United States is at the second-highest risk of karst sinkholes.In Canada, Wood Buffalo National Park, NWT contains areas of karst sinkholes.Mexico hosts important karstic regions in the Yucatán Peninsula and Chiapas.The South China Karst in the provinces of Guizhou, Guangxi, and Yunnan provinces is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. == List of terms for karst-related features == Abîme, a vertical shaft in karst that may be very deep and usually opens into a network of subterranean passages Cenote, a deep sinkhole, characteristic of Mexico, resulting from collapse of limestone bedrock that exposes groundwater underneath Doline, also sink or sinkhole, is a closed depression draining underground in karst areas. The name ""doline"" comes from dolina, meaning ""valley"", and derives from South Slavic languages. Foibe, an inverted funnel-shaped sinkhole Karst window (also known as a ""karst fenster""), a feature where a spring emerges briefly, with the water discharge then abruptly disappearing into a nearby sinkhole Karst spring, a spring emerging from karst, originating a flow of water on the surface Limestone pavement, a landform consisting of a flat, incised surface of exposed limestone that resembles an artificial pavement Losing stream, sinking river or ponornica in South Slavic languages. Polje (karst polje, karst field), a large flat specifically karstic plain. The name ""polje"" derives from South Slavic languages. Ponor, same as estavelle, sink or sinkhole in South Slavic languages, where surface flow enters an underground system Scowle, porous irregular karstic landscape in a region of England. Turlough (turlach), a type of disappearing lake characteristic of Irish karst. Uvala, a collection of multiple smaller individual sinkholes that coalesce into a compound sinkhole. The term derives from South Slavic languages (many karst-related terms derive from South Slavic languages, entering scientific vocabulary through early research in the Western Balkan Dinaric Alpine karst). == See also == == References == == Further reading == Ford, D.C., Williams, P., Karst Hydrogeology and Geomorphology, John Wiley and Sons Ltd., 2007, ISBN 978-0-470-84996-5 Jennings, J.N., Karst Geomorphology, 2nd ed., Blackwell, 1985, ISBN 0-631-14032-8 Palmer, A.N., Cave Geology, 2nd Printing, Cave Books, 2009, ISBN 978-0-939748-66-2 Sweeting, M.M., Karst Landforms, Macmillan, 1973, ISBN 0-231-03623-X van Beynen, P. (Ed.), Karst management, Springer, 2011, ISBN 978-94-007-1206-5 Vermeulen, J.J., Whitten, T., ""Biodiversity and Cultural Property in the Management of Limestone Resources in East Asia: Lessons from East Asia"", The World Bank, 1999, ISBN 978-0-821345-08-5 == External links == Speleogenesis Network, a communication platform for physical speleology and karst science research Speleogenesis and Karst Aquifers – a large glossary of Karst related terms Acta Carsologica – research papers and reviews in all the fields related to karst CDK Citizens of the Karst – Citizens of the Karst, a non profit NGO dedicated to the protection of the Puerto Rican Karst (English site available) The Virtual Cave's page on karst landforms Karst Information Portal - an open-access digital library linking scientists, managers, and explorers" Landforms,Salt cave,"A salt cave is a cave formed within rock salt by dissolution of this very soluble rock by water. As with other soluble rocks, a distinctive set of landscape features can arise from the solutional process; in this case it is known as salt karst or 'halite karst'. The three key areas of salt karst are those in Iran, Israel and Spain, together with an example in Romania. Malcham cave in Israel is the longest salt cave in the world with a measured length of over 10km. It is located at Mount Sodom. There are significant salt caves on Qeshm Island in Iran including Tri Nahacu Cave and Namakdan Cave. This cave was listed in October 2022 by the International Union of Geological Sciences in their 'First 100 IUGS Geological Heritage Sites' as being of global significance for the understanding of tectonics and ongoing geological processes. Amongst the caves developed within the several salt karsts in Spain are Cova dels Meandres de Sales which at 4.3km in length is the world's third longest. The fourth longest is Pestera 6S de la Mânzălesti, in România, at 3.1km in length. == References ==" Landforms,Koog,"A koog (plural: köge) or groden is a type of polder found on the North Sea coast of Germany that is established by the construction of dykes enclosing the land which is then drained to form marshland. This type of land reclamation is also used along rivers. In general, a koog is protected by embankments known as dykes (Deiche). == Etymology == Unlike the meaning in modern German, Ingvaeonic *kāg, Old Dutch *kōg, modern Dutch koog and West Frisian Dutch kaag all designate ""land outside the dike"". In the Netherlands, it primarily survives in place names (e.g. De Koog, Koog aan de Zaan, Kaag). From the Dithmarschen word koch (15th and 16th centuries), it went into Danish as kog. In North Frisian it is kuch. The spelling koog was used by the poet Michael Richey in 1755 and around 1700, what is now the port of Cuxhaven was still called Koogshaven. == Polders == In the Netherlands and in the adjacent regions of East Frisia the word polder (Low German: Poller) is used for land enclosed by embankments from where the water is artificially drained. The etymology of the word polder/poller is unclear but it is probably related to English pool. == Groden == The term groden (c.f. the English verb ""to grow"") used in Lower Saxony, particularly in the eastern part of East Frisia and in the Oldenburg Land, refers to new areas of land washed up by the sea. Sediments are deposited by the sea on mud flats when the tides change. After reaching a certain height, the land is dyked. Dyked land becomes innengroden. As a result of draining the fertile soil compacts and, over time, can sink until it is below sea level. The rising sea level in front of the dyke and the sinking of the old, now drained, sea areas behind the dyke leads to further dykes being built at an ever-higher level to enclose the newly dyked areas of marsh. In this way a so-called ""polder staircase"" is formed.The name groden is found for example in the borough of Wilhelmshaven in the villages of Altengroden, Neuengroden and Fedderwardergroden, the Heppenser, Voslapper and Rüstersieler Groden, and in the surrounding area are the Cäciliengroden, Petersgroden and Adelheidsgroden. All these areas, whether they emerged more recently (i.e. in the 20th century) or in older times, were formed as a result of dyke enclosure and Aufspülung, as is often the case with polders. → See also salt marsh == Drainage == Because a koog often lies below the level of the adjacent sea or river, it has to be continually drained. This is carried out with the aid of soakaways, sluices, pumping stations and water pumps.Today the pumps are powered by engines, in pre-industrial times and sometimes even into the period of intense industrialisation, they were driven by wind power (wind pumps). The groups of wind mills on the dykes of the Rhine delta - a symbol of the Netherlands - are old water pumps. == Riparian köge == As well land reclaimed from the sea, a koog may also refer to land reclaimed alongside rivers. These are usually wet areas that are now used for agriculture. This entails creating a completely new ecosystem from a river meadow or a carr. Often its name will recall its original situation, for example, the Oderbruch. On the Rhine, Elbe and Oder rivers these areas are also used for flood protection. Once the flooding has subsided, water is pumped out again and the land can be used for farming until the next flood. Until the 1950s, köge were mainly created to reclaim land for farming; since then coastal defence has been the main aim. == North German köge == On the western coast of Schleswig-Holstein and on the shores of the Lower Elbe over 230 koogs have been created over the centuries. The oldest ones are in the borough of Eiderstedt; they date to the 11th century. After the Burchardi flood of 1634, an increasing number of ""octroi"" koogs were built. Well known koogs include: County of Dithmarschen Christianskoog Delver Koog Dieksanderkoog (formerly Adolf Hitler Koog) Friedrichsgabekoog Friedrichskoog Hedwigenkoog Kaiser-Wilhelm-Koog Karolinenkoog Kronprinzenkoog Neufelderkoog Preiler Koog Speicherkoog in the Bay of Meldorf Wesselburenerkoog Westerkoog County of Nordfriesland Augustenkoog Beltringharder Koog Hauke-Haien-Koog (named after the lead character of the novella The Rider on the White Horse by Theodor Storm) Friedrich-Wilhelm-Lübke-Koog – in 1954 the last koog reclaimed for settlement in Schleswig-Holstein. Gotteskoog Tümlauer-Koog (formerly Hermann Göring Koog) Norderheverkoog (formerly Horst Wessel Koog) Bottschlotter Koog (Dagebüll) Kleiseerkoog (Galmsbüll) Herrenkoog Former island of Nordstrand Elisabeth-Sophien-Koog Alter Koog Osterkoog Trendermarschkoog Neukoog Morsumkoog Pohnshalligkoog Municipality of Reußenköge Cecilienkoog Desmerciereskoog Louisen-Reußen-Koog Reußenkoog Sönke-Nissen-Koog Sophien-Magdalenen-Koog County of Pinneberg Hetlinger Neuerkoog == Literature == Harry Kunz, Albert Panten: Die Köge Nordfrieslands. Mit Karte. Nordfriisk Instituut, Bräist/Bredstedt, 1997, ISBN 3-88007-251-5 (Nordfriisk Instituut 144). == External links == Salzderhelden == References ==" Landforms,Kuppe,"A Kuppe is the term used in German-speaking central Europe for a mountain or hill with a rounded summit that has no rock formation, such as a tor, on it. A range of such hills is called a Kuppengebirge. In geology the term also refers to corresponding stratigraphic forms. The term is similar to the English topographical and geological terms, knoll and dome. It is also analogous to the French word ballon which means a mountain with a rounded summit. In cartography in German-speaking countries, the term is used more widely to refer to all eminences (biaxially convex landforms) i.e. including those with a more pointed appearance. Kuppen are a common feature of many ranges within the German Central Uplands including the Rhön Mountains. == Derivation == Kuppe comes from the Middle High German language of the 18th century, probably deriving from the Late Latin/Common Roman word cuppa = ""beaker"", which then became commonly used in the sense of Haube (""helmet"" or ""covering"") for a summit. == Geomorphology and geology == Kuppengebirge (""kuppe hills"") is a geomorphological term. Their formation usually arises as a combination of certain types of rock and the onset of steady erosion processes. == Distribution == Kuppen are typical of the Central Uplands and the Prealps of Europe. For example, the many domed summits of the Fichtel Mountains or the Pohorje are called kuppen, but they also occur in hilly areas. In this connexion, for example, a part of the Rhön Mountains is known as the Kuppen Rhön (Kuppenrhön) and Kuppe or Koppe is often part of the name of mountains and hills, e.g. the Wasserkuppe and the Schneekoppe. Places where sedimentary beds have bulged and where rising oil or natural gas has accumulated, are also called kuppen. == References ==" Landforms,Land bridge,"In biogeography, a land bridge is an isthmus or wider land connection between otherwise separate areas, over which animals and plants are able to cross and colonize new lands. A land bridge can be created by marine regression, in which sea levels fall, exposing shallow, previously submerged sections of continental shelf; or when new land is created by plate tectonics; or occasionally when the sea floor rises due to post-glacial rebound after an ice age. == Prominent examples == Adam's Bridge (also known as Rama Setu), connecting India and Sri Lanka The Bassian Plain, which linked Australia and Tasmania The Bering Land Bridge (aka Beringia), which intermittently connected Alaska (Northern America) with Siberia (North Asia) as sea levels rose and fell under the effect of ice ages Land bridges of Japan, several land bridges which connected Japan to Russia and Korea at various times in history. De Geer Land Bridge, a route that connected Fennoscandia to northern Greenland Doggerland, a former landmass in the southern North Sea which connected the island of Great Britain to continental Europe during the last ice age The Isthmus of Panama, whose appearance three million years ago allowed the Great American Biotic Interchange between North America and South America The Thule Land Bridge, a since disappeared land bridge between the British Isles and Greenland The Sinai Peninsula, linking Africa and Eurasia Torres Strait land bridge, Sahul, between modern-day West Papua and Cape York == Land bridge theory == In the 19th century, scientists including Joseph Dalton Hooker noted puzzling geological, botanical, and zoological similarities between widely separated areas. To solve these problems, they proposed land bridges between appropriate land masses. In geology, the concept was first proposed by Jules Marcou in Lettres sur les roches du Jura et leur distribution géographique dans les deux hémisphères (""Letters on the rocks of the Jura [Mountains] and their geographic distribution in the two hemispheres""), 1857–1860.The hypothetical land bridges included: Archatlantis from the West Indies to North Africa Archhelenis from Brazil to South Africa Archiboreis in the North Atlantic Archigalenis from Central America through Hawaii to Northeast Asia Archinotis from South America to Antarctica Lemuria in the Indian OceanThe theory of continental drift provided an alternate explanation that did not require land bridges. However the continental drift theory was not widely accepted until the development of plate tectonics in the early 1960s, which more completely explained the motion of continents over geological time. == See also == Habitat fragmentation Sea level rise == References == == Further reading == Ernest Ingersoll (1920). ""Land-Bridges Across the Oceans"" . Encyclopedia Americana. == External links ==" Landforms,Ländchen (Havelland),"A Ländchen is the German name given to several Ice Age plateaux in the Havelland region, which climb to over 70 metres above the formerly marshy urstromtal levels (old glacial meltwater valleys) of the Havelland Luch and the Rhinluch. The difference between these Ländchen and the surrounding countryside is even more marked because of the different land uses to which they are put. Extensive pastures in the lowlands contrast with the arable fields and woods on the low hills. Geologically they are largely complete formations of ground moraine from the Saale and Weichselian glaciations that, in places, are covered by gently rolling end moraines. Their names are: Ländchen Bellin near Fehrbellin (52.78°N 12.79°E / 52.78; 12.79 (Ländchen Bellin)) Ländchen Friesack near Friesack (52.70°N 12.56°E / 52.70; 12.56 (Ländchen Friesack)) Ländchen Glien near Paaren im Glien north of Falkensee (52.68°N 13.05°E / 52.68; 13.05 (Ländchen Glien)) Ländchen Rhinow near Rhinow near the confluence of the Rhin and the Havel (52.72°N 12.35°E / 52.72; 12.35 (Ländchen Rhinow)) Land Schollene between Havel and the Elbe valley, west of Rathenow (52.63°N 12.16°E / 52.63; 12.16 (Land Schollene)) Ribbeck Heath, part of the Nauen Plateau (52.60°N 12.73°E / 52.60; 12.73 (Ribbeck Heath)) Zootzen north of Friesack, scarcely higher than the Luche (52.76°N 12.67°E / 52.76; 12.67 (Zootzen)) == Sources == Topographic map, 1:100,000 series, Sheets C 3538 Brandenburg an der Havel and C 3542 Berlin West, both from LGB Brandenburg" Landforms,Landmass,"A landmass, or land mass, is a large region or area of land that is in one piece and not broken up by oceans. The term is often used to refer to lands surrounded by an ocean or sea, such as a continent or a large island. In the field of geology, a landmass is a defined section of continental crust extending above sea level.Continents are often thought of as distinct landmasses and may include any islands that are part of the associated continental shelf. When multiple continents form a single contiguous land connection, the connected continents may be viewed as a single landmass. Earth's largest landmasses are (starting with largest): Afro-Eurasia (main landmass of the geoscheme region of the same name and its continental parts Africa and Eurasia - or Europe and Asia; the center of Earth's land hemisphere, comprising more than half of Earth's landmass) Americas (main landmass of the geo-region of the same name and its continental parts North and South America; comprising most of the landmass of the Western Hemisphere) Antarctica (main landmass of the geo-region and continent of the same name) Mainland Australia (main landmass of the geo-region Oceania, its sub-region Australasia, the continent Australia and the country Australia) == See also == Coastline paradox Continent Boundaries between the continents of Earth Island List of islands by area Landform Glossary of landforms Mainland Supercontinent == References ==" Landforms,Little Switzerland (landscape),"A little Switzerland or Schweiz is a landscape, often of wooded hills. This Romantic aesthetic term is not a geographic category, but was widely used in the 19th century to connote dramatic natural scenic features that would be of interest to tourists. Since it was ambiguous from the very beginning, it was flexibly used in travel writing to imply that a landscape had some features, though on a much smaller scale, that might remind a visitor of Switzerland. == Rock outcrops == The original generic term was applied to dozens of locations in Europe, the bulk of them German-speaking, as well as to other parts of the world, to direct attention to rock outcrops that stand out, usually amid steep forest. The original, 18th-century comparison was usually with the fissured crags of the Jura Mountains on the Franco-Swiss border which hardly rise higher than 1700 metres. Histories of Saxon Switzerland (Sächsische Schweiz) in Saxony, Germany, assert that the landscape description schweiz arose there at the end of the 18th century. Schweiz is the German-language name of Switzerland. The term was used both alone and with the prefix ""little"", for example in the title of an 1820 German book-length poem, Die kleine Schweiz by Jakob Reiselsberger, which praised the rocky scenery of a part of Franconia in Germany known thereafter as the Franconian Switzerland (Fränkische Schweiz). The term was already colloquial by this time in English: in 1823 a correspondent asserted in The Gentleman's Magazine that a steep area by the road outside Petersfield in southern England was a little Switzerland. The aesthetic term, to describe picturesque exposed rock and steepness rather than altitude, was also in common use in other European languages, including the French term Suisse. Rocks and wild landscapes were a favoured theme in Romantic painting. The many English places praised in 19th-century promotional literature as ""little Switzerland"" include Church Stretton, Whitfield and the coastal area around the North Devon twin towns of Lynton and Lynmouth. Chalet-style buildings were sometimes erected to emphasize little Switzerland pretensions, for example at Matlock Bath, which (unusually for England) also features a cable car. == Mountains == From the beginning, the term was often understood as a comparison to the snow-capped Alps rather than to the Jura. The following passage, describing Wales, appears in an 1831 English-language edition of Malte-Brun's Universal Geography, which had originally been written in French in 1803–07: The great number of mountains which diversify its surface have gained it the name of Little Switzerland. It will be readily understood that it is not in the loftiness of their summits this resemblance can be traced with the country of the Alps, but in their steep, rough and perpendicular sides, the depth of their narrow valleys, the small but limpid lakes which occur at every step, the great number of rivers and streams which are now precipitated in cascades, and now roll their waters slowly through the meadows, the damp fogs which rise from the surface of these waters and often hang about the summits of the highest mountains, and the snow which frequently continues upon the heights till the end of spring: all of which give to these mountains, notwithstanding their inconsiderable height ... an appearance resembling those lordly eminences mounting up to the clouds and bearing on their heads eternal snows. Describing the Atlantic island of St Helena in A New Voyage Round the World (1823–26), Otto von Kotzebue and Johann Friedrich Eschscholtz were translated into English as writing: The environs of Sandy Bay would be a perfect little Switzerland, but that the glaciers are wanting to complete the resemblance. Scattered among the enormous masses of rock which lie confusedly heaped upon each other a frightful wilderness and most smilingly picturesque landscape alternately present their contrasted images. In the United States, the raw White Mountains of New Hampshire, which were soon to be one of the definitive subjects of American Romantic painting, were termed a little Switzerland by travel writer Henry Tudor as early as 1832. == Lakelands == In the later 19th century, authors and tourism promoters would praise picture-postcard summer scenery of woods and low hills reflected in blue lakes as a little Switzerland or schweiz. Whereas the earlier use had implied a landscape of dangers, this was a term for beauty. This usage, reflected today in the official geographical terms for the Holstein Switzerland (Holsteinische Schweiz) and Mecklenburg Switzerland (Mecklenburgische Schweiz) in Germany, where there are neither mountains nor outcrops, is difficult to account for, but may refer to prestigious Swiss lakeside tourist destinations such as Zurich, Lucerne or Interlaken or to Lakes Geneva and Constance. == Official names == The term has often appeared anachronistic since travel to Switzerland became affordable. By the 21st century, it was common for observers to express puzzlement that the ""little Switzerland"" label applied at all to regions such as the Suisse Normande, or to the Holstein Switzerland where the flat hilltops are no more than 150 metres above the lake surfaces. In 1992, the Swiss Tourism Federation counted more than 190 places round the world that had at least for some period been named after Switzerland, either because of a fancied scenic resemblance, in jest or referring to a banking haven, political neutrality or habitation by Swiss emigrants. No fewer than 67 places in neighbouring Germany were said by the Federation to have adopted little Switzerland names. While the byname has fallen out of fashion in some places, it persists as the official geographical name for several administrative regions and national parks including (with dates of legal designation): Bohemian Switzerland (České Švýcarsko, nature park, Czech Republic, legislation with effect 2000) Bremen Switzerland (undulating geest north of Bremen, that reaches 30 m; c.f. the flat land on which Bremen is built.) Franconian Switzerland (tourism region, Germany, designated 1968) Hersbruck Switzerland (Hersbrucker Schweiz), low mountain region around Hersbruck, Germany Hohburg Switzerland (Hohburger Schweiz), alternative name for the Hohburg Hills near Leipzig Holstein Switzerland (nature park, Germany, formed by association 1986) Kashubian Switzerland (Szwajcaria Kaszubska, Poland) Kroppach Switzerland, rocky upland region near Kroppach in the Westerwald Marcher Switzerland (Märkische Schweiz, nature park, Germany, by decree 1990) Mecklenburg Switzerland (nature park, Germany, designated 1997) Rhenish-Hessian Switzerland (protected landscape and recreation area in Rhineland-Palatinate). Rostock Switzerland (rugged terminal moraine landscape near the Baltic coast in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern). Rüdigsdorf Switzerland (hill range and karst landscape in the southern Harz, most of which is a nature reserve) Ruppin Switzerland (a forested lakeland in Brandenburg) Saxon Switzerland (nature park, Germany, designated 1990; local government area, now in Saxon Switzerland-East Ore Mountains district)Business promotion regions using the name without legally defined boundaries include: Suisse Normande (in the border region of the departments Calvados and Orne, France) Little Switzerland (Luxembourg) (dolomite formations near Echternach, Luxembourg)Notable privately developed properties known by the name include: Little Switzerland, North Carolina (resort development on hilltop in North Carolina, US, from 1909) Little Switzerland (Wisconsin) (a ski resort from 1941 onwards)In Israel, there is an area in Mount Carmel National Park popularly referred to as Little Switzerland (שוויצריה הקטנה). This name has been adopted by the Israel Nature and Parks Authority, which explains the name as having been given “due to the evergreen forest, the spectacular wild landscapes, and the pleasant weather on most days of the year.” == Usage == In English, ""Little Switzerland"" is usually said without any definite article or additional adjective, but often with a genitive modifier if there are several little Switzerlands within one nation, e.g. North Carolina's Little Switzerland. In European languages where Switzerland proper takes a definite article, little Switzerlands do likewise. Their English names may echo the vernacular, being capitalized and modified to the English alphabet, sometimes taking an English definite article, e.g. the Saechsische Schweiz (die Sächsische Schweiz) and the Suisse Normande (la Suisse normande). English forms are also widespread, e.g. Holstein Switzerland (Dickinson, 1964), Swiss Franconia (Michelin, 1993), Franconian Switzerland (Fodor, 1962, and Bolt, 2005.) == See also == Geography of Switzerland == References ==" Landforms,Lynchet,"A lynchet or linchet is an earth terrace found on the side of a hill. Lynchets are a feature of ancient field systems of the British Isles. They are commonly found in vertical rows and more commonly referred to as ""strip lynchets"". Lynchets appear predominantly in Southern Britain and many are in areas close to Iron Age forts and other earthworks, including later Roman earthworks and earlier barrows from the Neolithic and Bronze Age periods. The size, location, spacing and number of rows of many strip lynchets indicates that many were man-made. It is most likely that lynchets were dug to maximise the use of land for agriculture, although they may have had other, ceremonial uses. The word is the diminutive form of lynch, now rarely appearing in the English language, indicating an agricultural terrace; it is cognate with the golf links. However, both ""lynchet"" and ""lynch"" may also be used to refer to a strip of green land left between two pieces of ploughed land on non-sloping ground; or to a natural slope or terrace along the face of a chalk down.The traditional theory on the formation of lynchets is that they may form naturally on the downslope of a field ploughed over a long period of time. The disturbed soil slips down the hillside to create a ""positive lynchet"" (where the new surface is higher than the original surface), while the area reduced in level becomes a ""negative lynchet"" (where the new surface is lower). In Loders, Dorset, lynchets form a terraced band structure similar to an amphitheatre overlooking the village. Lynchets also form part of the conservation area of the neighbouring village of Uploders, where they apparently form old hillside field systems in close proximity to an Iron Age fort and hill-top barrows. 19th-century maps indicate that cider orchards were planted on some lynchets in that area. == See also == Ridge and furrow Céide Fields Lazy bed Cord rig == References == == Further reading == Johnson, Walter (1908). Folk-Memory: or the continuity of British archaeology. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 263–294." Landforms,Mallín,"Mallín is a type of meadow and wetland found in southern Chile and Argentina. Mallines are distinguished from other wetlands in that the groundwater level reaches the surface at them, yet the mallín is still an area of net infiltration. Soils in mallines are rich in organic matter. In Argentina mallins have been important grazing lands for cattle, sheep and horses. In eastern Patagonia the base of basaltic plateaus are associated with mallines. == See also == Ñadi == References ==" Landforms,Massif,"A massif ( or ) is simply a principal mountain mass, for example, a compact portion of a mountain range, containing one or more summits (See for example, France's Massif Central.). In mountaineering literature, a massif is frequently used to denote the main mass of an individual mountain. As a purely scientific term in geology, however, a ""massif"" is separately and more specifically defined as a section of a planet's crust that is demarcated by faults or flexures. In the movement of the crust, a massif tends to retain its internal structure while being displaced as a whole. A massif is a smaller structural unit than a tectonic plate, and is considered the fourth-largest driving force in geomorphology.The word ""massif"" is taken from French (in which the word also means ""massive""), where it is used to refer to a large mountain mass or compact group of connected mountains forming an independent portion of a range. The Face on Mars is an example of an extraterrestrial massif. Massifs may also form underwater, as with the Atlantis Massif. == List of massifs == === Africa === Adrar des Ifoghas – Mali Aïr Massif – Niger Benna Massif – Guinea Bongo Massif – Central African Republic Ennedi Plateau – Chad Kilimanjaro Massif – border of Kenya and Tanzania Oban Massif – Nigeria Marojejy Massif – Madagascar Mulanje Massif – Malawi Virunga Massif – border shared by Uganda, Rwanda and DR Congo Waterberg Biosphere – South Africa ==== Algeria ==== Collo Massif Edough Massif Khachna Massif === Antarctica === Borg Massif Craddock Massif Cumpston Massif Vinson Massif Otway Massif === Asia === Annapurna – Nepal Bromo-Tengger-Semeru – Indonesia Chu Pong Massif – Vietnam Dhaulagiri – Nepal Gasherbrum – China-Pakistan Kangchenjunga – Nepal–India Knuckles Massif – Sri Lanka Kondyor Massif – Russia Kugitangtau Ridge – Turkmenistan Kumgangsan – North Korea Logar ultrabasite massif – Afghanistan Mount Ararat – Turkey Mount Everest massif (including Lhotse) – border of Nepal and Tibet (China) Mount Kinabalu – Malaysia Mount Tomuraushi – Japan Nanga Parbat – Pakistan ==== India ==== Bundelkhand Nun Kun Panchchuli Shillong ==== Iran ==== Dena Hazaran Kheru-Naru (Chekel) Kholeno Mount Damavand Sabalan Takht-e Suleyman Massif Zard-Kuh ==== Kazakhstan ==== Degelen Kokshetau Massif Mount Ku Myrzhyk Semizbughy === Europe === Aarmassif – Switzerland Ardennes Massif – France/Belgium/Luxembourg Åreskutan – Sweden Arlberg – Austria Bohemian Massif – Czech Republic Ceahlău Massif – Romania Gotthard Massif – Switzerland Hesperian Massif – Iberian Peninsula Jungfrau Massif – Switzerland Mangerton Mountain – Ireland Montgris – Spain Montserrat – Spain Mont Blanc massif – Italy/France/Switzerland Rhenish Massif – Germany, Belgium, Luxembourg and France Rila – Rhodope Massif – Bulgaria/Greece Troodos – Cyprus Untersberg – Germany/Austria Vitosha Massif – Bulgaria ==== France ==== Alpilles Aravis Range Armorican Massif Bauges Massif Beaufortain Massif Belledonne massif Bornes Massif Calanques Massif Cerces Massif Chablais Massif Chartreuse Massif Dévoluy Massif Massif des Écrins Jura Mountains Lauzière massif Luberon Massif Central Massif de l'Esterel Mercantour Monte Cinto massif Taillefer Massif Queyras Massif Vanoise Massif Vercors Plateau Vosges Mountains ==== Italy ==== Gran Sasso d'Italia Grappa Massif Massiccio del Matese Massiccio del Pollino Monte Ermada Sila Massif Speikboden (South Tyrol) ==== United Kingdom ==== Ben Nevis massif Cornubian Massif Long Mynd Snowdon Massif === North America === ==== Canada ==== Laurentian Massif – Quebec Le Massif de Charlevoix – Quebec Mount Logan – YukonBritish Columbia Mount Cayley – British Columbia Level Mountain Mount Edziza Mount Meager massif Mount Septimus ==== United States ==== Adirondack Massif – New York Denali – Alaska Mount Juneau – Alaska Mount Katahdin – Maine Mount Le Conte – Tennessee Mount Shuksan – Washington Mount Timpanogos – Utah Shenandoah – Virginia French Broad – North Carolina and Virginia Teton Range – Wyoming === Oceania === Big Ben – Heard Island Ahipara Gumfields – New Zealand === Caribbean === Massif de la Hotte – Haiti Valle Nuevo Massif – Dominican Republic === South America === Brasilia Massif – Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay. Neblina Massif – Venezuela–Brazil border Colombian Massif – Colombia North Patagonian Massif – Argentina Deseado Massif – Argentina === Submerged === Atlantis Massif – part of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge in the North Atlantic Ocean Tamu Massif — the largest volcano on Earth == References ==" Landforms,Moorland,"Moorland or moor is a type of habitat found in upland areas in temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands and montane grasslands and shrublands biomes, characterised by low-growing vegetation on acidic soils. Moorland, nowadays, generally means uncultivated hill land (such as Dartmoor in South West England), but also includes low-lying wetlands (such as Sedgemoor, also South West England). It is closely related to heath, although experts disagree on what precisely distinguishes these types of vegetation. Generally, moor refers to highland and high rainfall zones, whereas heath refers to lowland zones which are more likely to be the result of human activity. Moorland habitats mostly occur in tropical Africa, northern and western Europe, and neotropical South America. Most of the world's moorlands are diverse ecosystems. In the extensive moorlands of the tropics, biodiversity can be extremely high. Moorland also bears a relationship to tundra (where the subsoil is permafrost or permanently frozen soil), appearing as the tundra and the natural tree zone. The boundary between tundra and moorland constantly shifts with climatic change. == Heather moorland == Heathland and moorland are the most extensive areas of semi-natural vegetation in the British Isles. The eastern British moorlands are similar to heaths but are differentiated by having a covering of peat. On western moors, the peat layer may be several metres thick. Scottish ""muirs"" are generally heather moors, but also have extensive covering of grass, cotton-grass, mosses, bracken and under-shrubs such as crowberry, with the wetter moorland having sphagnum moss merging into bog-land.There is uncertainty about how many moors were created by human activity. Oliver Rackham writes that pollen analysis shows that some moorland, such as in the islands and extreme north of Scotland, are clearly natural, never having had trees, whereas much of the Pennine moorland area was forested in Mesolithic times. How much the deforestation was caused by climatic changes and how much by human activity is uncertain. == Ecology == A variety of distinct habitat types are found in different world regions of moorland. The wildlife and vegetation forms often lead to high endemism because of the severe soil and microclimate characteristics. An example of this is the Exmoor Pony, a rare horse breed which has adapted to the harsh conditions in England's Exmoor. In Europe, the associated fauna consists of bird species such as red grouse, hen harrier, merlin, golden plover, curlew, skylark, meadow pipit, whinchat, ring ouzel, and twite. Other species dominate in moorlands elsewhere. Reptiles are few due to the cooler conditions. In Europe, only the common viper is frequent, though in other regions moorlands are commonly home to dozens of reptile species. Amphibians such as frogs are well represented in moorlands. When moorland is overgrazed, woody vegetation is often lost, being replaced by coarse, unpalatable grasses and bracken, with a greatly reduced fauna. Some hill sheep breeds, such as Scottish Blackface and the Lonk, thrive on the austere conditions of heather moors. == Management == Burning of moorland has been practised for a number of reasons, for example, when grazing is insufficient to control growth. This is recorded in Britain in the fourteenth century. Uncontrolled burning frequently caused (and causes) problems and was forbidden by statute in 1609. With the rise of sheep and grouse management in the nineteenth century, it again became common practice. Heather is burnt at about 10 or 12 years old when it will regenerate easily. Left longer, the woodier stems will burn more aggressively and will hinder regrowth. Burning of moorland vegetation needs to be very carefully controlled, as the peat itself can catch fire, and this can be difficult if not impossible to extinguish. In addition, uncontrolled burning of heather can promote alternative bracken and rough grass growth, which ultimately produces poorer grazing. As a result, burning is now a controversial practice; Rackham calls it ""second-best land management"".Mechanical cutting of the heather has been used in Europe, but it is important for the material to be removed to avoid smothering regrowth. If heather and other vegetation are left for too long, a large volume of dry and combustible material builds up. This may result in a wildfire burning out a large area, although it has been found that heather seeds germinate better if subject to the brief heat of controlled burning.In terms of managing moorlands for wildlife, in the UK, vegetation characteristics are important for passerine abundance, whilst predator control benefits red grouse, golden plover, and curlew abundances. To benefit multiple species, many management options are required. However, management needs to be carried out in locations that are also suitable for species in terms of physical characteristics such as topography, climate and soil. == Moorland in literature == The development of a sensitivity to nature and one's physical surroundings grew with the rise of interest in landscape painting, and particularly the works of artists that favoured wide and deep prospects, and rugged scenery. To the English Romantic imagination, moorlands fitted this image perfectly, enhancing the emotional impact of the story by placing it within a heightened and evocative landscape. Moorland forms the setting of various works of late Romantic English literature, ranging from the Yorkshire moorland in Emily Brontë's Wuthering Heights and The Secret Garden by Frances Hodgson Burnett to Dartmoor in Arthur Conan Doyle's Holmesian mystery The Hound of the Baskervilles. They are also featured in Charlotte Bronte's Jane Eyre representing the heroine's desolation and loneliness after leaving Mr Rochester. Enid Blyton's Famous Five series featured the young protagonists adventuring across various moorlands where they confronted criminals or other individuals of interest. Such a setting enhanced the plot as the drama unfolded away from the functioning world where the children could solve their own problems and face greater danger. Moorland in the Forest of Bowland in Lancashire is the setting for Walter Bennett's The Pendle Witches, the true story of some of England's most infamous witch trials. In Erin Hunter's Warriors series, one of the four Clans, WindClan, lives in the moorland alone. Michael Jecks, author of Knights Templar Mysteries, sets his books in and around Dartmoor, England. Paul Kingsnorth’s Beast is also set on a western English moor, using the barren landscape and fields of heather to communicate themes of timelessness and distance from civilization. == Notable moorlands == === Africa === ==== Democratic Republic of the Congo ==== Ruwenzori-Virunga montane moorlands ==== Ethiopia ==== Ethiopian montane moorlands ==== Kenya ==== East African montane moorlands Mount Kenya ==== Rwanda ==== Ruwenzori-Virunga montane moorlands ==== Sudan ==== East African montane moorlands Ethiopian montane moorlands ==== Tanzania ==== East African montane moorlands Kilimanjaro Mount Meru ==== Uganda ==== East African montane moorlands === Europe === ==== Austria ==== Tanner Moor Längsee Moor Moorbad Gmös ==== Belgium ==== Weißer Stein (Eifel) High Fens ==== France ==== Monts d'Arrée ==== Germany ==== Großes Torfmoor Hücker Moor Oppenwehe Moor Worringer Bruch High Fens ==== The Netherlands ==== Dwingelderveld Bargerveen Fochteloërveen The Peel ==== Great Britain ==== Great Britain is home to an estimated 10–15% of the world's moors. Notable areas of upland moorland in Britain include the Lake District, the Pennines (including the Dark Peak and Forest of Bowland), Mid Wales, the Southern Uplands of Scotland, the Scottish Highlands, and a few pockets in the West Country. Bleaklow, Dark Peak Bodmin Moor, Cornwall Black Mountains, Wales Brecon Beacons, Wales Dartmoor, Devon Drumossie Moor, often called Culloden Moor, the site of the Battle of Culloden Exmoor, West Somerset & North Devon Forest of Bowland, Lancashire Hexhamshire Moors, Northumberland and County Durham North York Moors, North Yorkshire Migneint, Gwynedd Mynydd Hiraethog, Denbighshire and Conwy Penwith, Cornwall Rannoch Moor, Highlands, Scotland Rombalds Moor (including Ilkley Moor), West Yorkshire Rossendale Valley, Lancashire Saddleworth Moor, Greater Manchester Shropshire Hills, small pockets of moorland such as the Long Mynd West Pennine Moors, including Oswaldtwistle Moor, Haslingden Moor, Rivington Moor and Darwen Moor in Lancashire Yorkshire Dales National Park, North Yorkshire Ythan Estuary complex, Aberdeenshire, Scotland: largest coastal moorland in the British Isles, known for high biodiversity ==== Spain ==== Moorlands are called páramos in Spanish. They are particularly common in Northern Spain and the Meseta Central. Boedo, Palencia, Castile Páramo del Duratón, Castile Paramo de Masa, Burgos, Castile Páramo del Sil, Galicia Las Loras, Castile === South America === ==== Argentina ==== Magellanic moorland ==== Chile ==== Magellanic moorland ==== Colombia ==== Colombia is one of only three countries in the world to be home to páramo (tropical moorland) and more than 60% of the paramo regions are found on its soil. Sumapaz Páramo, Bogota Chingaza National Natural Park, Cundinamarca department Oceta Páramo, Boyacá Department Iguaque, Boyacá Department Puracé, Cauca Department Páramo de Santurbán, Santander Department == See also == Fen Siskiyou plateau and the high desert (Oregon) – two similar habitats, although more arid, found in western North America Páramo == References ==" Landforms,Mountain chain,"A mountain chain is a row of high mountain summits, a linear sequence of interconnected or related mountains, or a contiguous ridge of mountains within a larger mountain range. The term is also used for elongated fold mountains with several parallel chains (""chain mountains""). While in mountain ranges, the term mountain chain is common, in hill ranges a sequence of hills tends to be referred to a ridge or hill chain. Elongated mountain chains occur most frequently in the orogeny of fold mountains, (that are folded by lateral pressure), and nappe belts (where a sheetlike body of rock has been pushed over another rock mass). Other types of range such as horst ranges, fault block mountain or truncated uplands rarely form parallel mountain chains. However, if a truncated upland is eroded into a high table land, the incision of valleys can lead to the formations of mountain or hill chains. == Formation of parallel mountain chains == The chain-like arrangement of summits and the formation of long, jagged mountain crests – known in Spanish as sierras (""saws"") – is a consequence of their collective formation by mountain building forces. The often linear structure is linked to the direction of these thrust forces and the resulting mountain folding which in turn relates to the fault lines in the upper part of the earth's crust, that run between the individual mountain chains. In these fault zones, the rock, which has sometimes been pulverised, is easily eroded, so that large river valleys are carved out. These, so called longitudinal valleys reinforce the trend, during the early mountain building phase, towards the formation of parallel chains of mountains. The tendency, especially of fold mountains (e. g. the Cordilleras) to produce roughly parallel chains is due to their rock structure and the propulsive forces of plate tectonics. The uplifted rock masses are either magmatic plutonic rocks, easily shaped because of their higher temperature, or sediments or metamorphic rocks, which have a less robust structure, that are deposited in the synclines. As a result of orogenic movements, strata of folded rock are formed that are crumpled out of their original horizontal plane and thrust against one another. The longitudinal stretching of the folds takes place at right angles to the direction of the lateral thrusting. The overthrust folds of a nappe belt (e.g. the Central Alps) are formed in a similar way. Although the fold mountains, chain mountains and nappe belts around the world were formed at different times in the earth's history, all during their initial mountain building phases, they are nevertheless morphologically similar. Harder rock forms continuous arêtes or ridges that follow the strike of the beds and folds. The mountain chains or ridges therefore run approximately parallel to one another. They are only interrupted by short, usually narrow, transverse valleys, which often form water gaps. During the course of earth history, erosion by water, ice and wind carried away the highest points of the mountain crests and carved out individual summits or summit chains. Between them, notches were formed that, depending on altitude and rock-type, form knife-edged cols or gentler mountain passes and saddles. == Dominant rocks and mountain forms == Nappe or fold mountains, with their roughly parallel mountain chains, generally have a common geological age, but may consist of various types of rock. For example, in the Central Alps, granitic rocks, gneisses and metamorphic slate are found, while to the north and south, are the Limestone Alps. The Northern Limestone Alps are, in turn, followed by soft flysch mountains and the molasse zone. The type of rock influences the appearance of the mountain ranges very markedly, because erosion leads to very different topography depending on the hardness of the rock and its petrological structure. In addition to height and climate, other factors are the layering of the rock, its gradient and aspect, the types of waterbody and the lines of dislocation. For hard rock massifs, rugged rock faces (e.g. in the Dolomites) and mighty scree slopes are typical. By contrast, flysch or slate forms gentler mountain shapes and kuppen or domed mountaintops, because the rock is not porous, but easily shaped. == See also == Orogeny Tectonics List of highest mountains on Earth List of mountain ranges == References == == Literature == Wissen heute: Geologie. Kaiser-Verlag, Florence/Klagenfurt, 1995 Der geologische Aufbau Österreichs. Geologische Bundesanstalt, Springer-Verlag Vienna/ New York PanGeo, Erdwissenschaften in Österreich. Conference proceedings, 200 pp., Sessions on the Neogene, TRANSALP I and II. Univ. Salzburg, 2005 Fischer-Lexikon Geographie, pp. 101–129, Frankfurt, 1959 Großer Weltatlas, Enzyklopädischer Teil (mountain building, folds and faults, the rock cycle). Publ. ÖAMTC, Vienna, ~1980 André Cailleux: Der unbekannte Planet: Anatomie der Erde. Kindlers Universitätsbibliothek, Munich, 1968, Chapters 1 and 3 Gebirge, in: Lueger, Otto: Lexikon der gesamten Technik und ihrer Hilfswissenschaften, Vol. 4 Stuttgart, Leipzig, 1906, pp. 316-317." Landforms,Mud volcano,"A mud volcano or mud dome is a landform created by the eruption of mud or slurries, water and gases. Several geological processes may cause the formation of mud volcanoes. Mud volcanoes are not true igneous volcanoes as they do not produce lava and are not necessarily driven by magmatic activity. Mud volcanoes may range in size from merely 1 or 2 meters high and 1 or 2 meters wide, to 700 meters high and 10 kilometers wide. Smaller mud exudations are sometimes referred to as mud-pots. The mud produced by mud volcanoes is mostly formed as hot water, which has been heated deep below the Earth's surface, begins to mix and blend with subterranean mineral deposits, thus creating the mud slurry exudate. This material is then forced upwards through a geological fault or fissure due to local subterranean pressure imbalances. Mud volcanoes are associated with subduction zones and about 1100 have been identified on or near land. The temperature of any given active mud volcano generally remains fairly steady and is much lower than the typical temperatures found in igneous volcanoes. Mud volcano temperatures can range from near 100 °C (212 °F) to occasionally 2 °C (36 °F), some being used as popular ""mud baths"".About 86% of the gas released from these structures is methane, with much less carbon dioxide and nitrogen emitted. Ejected materials are most often a slurry of fine solids suspended in water that may contain a mixture of salts, acids and various hydrocarbons.Possible mud volcanoes have been identified on Mars. == Details == A mud volcano may be the result of a piercement structure created by a pressurized mud diapir that breaches the Earth's surface or ocean bottom. Their temperatures may be as low as the freezing point of the ejected materials, particularly when venting is associated with the creation of hydrocarbon clathrate hydrate deposits. Mud volcanoes are often associated with petroleum deposits and tectonic subduction zones and orogenic belts; hydrocarbon gases are often erupted. They are also often associated with lava volcanoes; in the case of such close proximity, mud volcanoes emit incombustible gases including helium, whereas lone mud volcanoes are more likely to emit methane. Approximately 1,100 mud volcanoes have been identified on land and in shallow water. It has been estimated that well over 10,000 may exist on continental slopes and abyssal plains. === Features === Gryphon: steep-sided cone shorter than 3 meters that extrudes mud Mud cone: high cone shorter than 10 meters that extrudes mud and rock fragments Scoria cone: cone formed by heating of mud deposits during fires Salse: water-dominated pools with gas seeps Spring: water-dominated outlets smaller than 0.5 metres Mud shield === Emissions === Most liquid and solid material is released during eruptions, but seeps occur during dormant periods. The mud is rich in halite (rock salt).First-order estimates of mud volcano emissions have been made (1 Tg = 1 million metric tonnes). 2002: L. I. Dimitrov estimated that 10.2–12.6 Tg/yr of methane is released from onshore and shallow offshore mud volcanoes. 2002: Etiope and Klusman estimated at least 1–2 and as much as 10–20 Tg/yr of methane may be emitted from onshore mud volcanoes. 2003: Etiope, in an estimate based on 120 mud volcanoes: ""The emission results to be conservatively between 5 and 9 Tg/yr, that is 3–6% of the natural methane sources officially considered in the atmospheric methane budget. The total geologic source, including MVs (this work), seepage from seafloor (Kvenvolden et al., 2001), microseepage in hydrocarbon-prone areas and geothermal sources (Etiope and Klusman, 2002), would amount to 35–45 Tg/yr."" 2003: analysis by Milkov et al. suggests that the global gas flux may be as high as 33 Tg/yr (15.9 Tg/yr during quiescent periods plus 17.1 Tg/yr during eruptions). Six teragrams per year of greenhouse gases are from onshore and shallow offshore mud volcanoes. Deep-water sources may emit 27 Tg/yr. Total may be 9% of fossil CH4 missing in the modern atmospheric CH4 budget, and 12% in the preindustrial budget. 2003: Alexei Milkov estimated approximately 30.5 Tg/yr of gases (mainly methane and CO2) may escape from mud volcanoes to the atmosphere and the ocean. 2003: Achim J. Kopf estimated 1.97×1011 to 1.23×1014 m³ of methane is released by all mud volcanoes per year, of which 4.66×107 to 3.28×1011 m³ is from surface volcanoes. That converts to 141–88,000 Tg/yr from all mud volcanoes, of which 0.033–235 Tg is from surface volcanoes. == Locations == === Europe === Dozens of mud volcanoes are located on the Taman Peninsula of Russia and the Kerch Peninsula of Crimea, Ukraine along with the south-western portion of Bulgaria near Rupite. In Italy, they are located in Emilia-Romagna (Salse di Nirano and Salse di Regnano), in the northern front of the Apennines as well as the southern part (Bolle della Malvizza), and in Sicily. On 24 August 2013, a mud volcano appeared in the center of the via Coccia di Morto roundabout in Fiumicino near Rome.Mud volcanoes are located in the Berca Mud Volcanoes near Berca in Buzău County, Romania, close to the Carpathian Mountains. They were declared a natural monument in 1924. === Asia === ==== Central Asia, The Caucasus, and The Caspian Sea ==== Many mud volcanoes exist on the shores of the Black Sea and Caspian Sea. Tectonic forces and large sedimentary deposits around the latter have created several fields of mud volcanoes, many of them emitting methane and other hydrocarbons. Features over 200 metres (656 ft) high occur in Azerbaijan, with large eruptions sometimes producing flames of similar scale. ==== Georgia ==== There are mud volcanoes in Georgia, such as the one at Akhtala. ==== Turkmenistan ==== Turkmenistan is home to numerous mud volcanoes, mainly in the Western part of the country including Cheleken Peninsula, which borders the Caspian Sea. ==== Iran and Pakistan (Makran Mountain Range) ==== Iran and Pakistan possess mud volcanoes in the Makran range of mountains in the south of the two countries. A large mud volcano is located in Balochistan, Pakistan. It is known as Baba Chandrakup (literally Father Moonwell) on the way to Hinglaj and is a Hindu pilgrim site. ==== Azerbaijan ==== Azerbaijan and its Caspian coastline are home to nearly 400 mud volcanoes, more than half the total throughout the continents. Most mud volcanoes in Azerbaijan are active; some are protected by the Azerbaijan Ministry of Ecology and Natural Resources, and the admission of people, for security reasons, is prohibited. In 2001, one mud volcano 15 kilometres (9 mi) from Baku made world headlines when it started ejecting flames 15 metres (49 ft) high.In Azerbaijan, eruptions are driven from a deep mud reservoir which is connected to the surface even during dormant periods, when seeping water shows a deep origin. Seeps have temperatures that are generally above ambient ground temperature by 2 °C (3.6 °F) – 3 °C (5.4 °F).On 4 July 2021, a mud volcano eruption on Dashli Island in the Caspian Sea, near an oil platform off the coast of Azerbaijan, caused a massive explosion and fireball, which was seen across the region, including from the capital Baku, which is 74 kilometres (46 mi) to the north. The flames towered 500 metres (1,640 ft) into the air. There were no reports of injuries or damage to any oil platforms. The last previous volcanic eruption on the island was recorded in 1945 and the preceding one in 1920. ==== India ==== Extensive mud volcanism on the Andaman accretionary prism, located at the Andaman Islands in the Indian Ocean. ==== Indonesia ==== Mud volcanism is a common phenomenon in Indonesia with dozens of structures present onshore and offshore.The Indonesian Lusi mud eruption is a hybrid mud volcano, driven by pressure from steam and gas from a nearby (igneous) volcanic system, and from natural gas. Geochemical, petrography and geophysical results reveal that it is a sediment-hosted hydrothermal system connected at depth with the neighboring Arjuno-Welirang volcanic complex.Drilling or an earthquake in the Porong subdistrict of East Java province, Indonesia, may have resulted in the Sidoarjo mud flow on 29 May 2006. The mud covered about 440 hectares, 1,087 acres (4.40 km2) (2.73 mi2), and inundated four villages, homes, roads, rice fields, and factories, displacing about 24,000 people and killing 14. The gas exploration company involved was operated by PT Lapindo Brantas and the earthquake that may have triggered the mud volcano was the 6.4 magnitude Yogyakarta earthquake of 27 May 2006. According to geologists who have been monitoring Lusi and the surrounding area, the system is beginning to show signs of catastrophic collapse. It was forecasted that the region could sag the vent and surrounding area by up to 150 metres (490 ft) in the next decade. In March 2008, the scientists observed drops of up to 3 metres (9.8 ft) in one night. Most of the subsidence in the area around the volcano is more gradual, at around 1 millimetre (0.039 in) per day. A study by a group of Indonesian geoscientists led by Bambang Istadi predicted the area affected by the mudflow over a ten-year period. More recent studies carried out in 2011 predict that the mud will flow for another 20 years, or even longer. Now named Lusi – a contraction of Lumpur Sidoarjo, where lumpur is the Indonesian word for ""mud"" – the eruption represent an active hybrid system. In the Suwoh depression in Lampung, dozens of mud cones and mud pots varying in temperature are found.In Grobogan, Bledug Kuwu mud volcano erupts at regular intervals, about every 2 or 3 minutes. ==== Iran ==== There are many mud volcanoes in Iran: in particular, in the provinces of Golestan, Hormozgan, and Sistan and Baluchestan, where Pirgel is located. ==== Mariana Forearc ==== There are 10 active mud volcanoes in the Izu–Bonin–Mariana Arc which can be found along a north to south trend, parallel to the Mariana trench. The material erupted at these mud volcanoes consists primarily of blue and green serpentinite mud which contains fresh and serpentinized peridotite material from the subduction channel. Fluid from the descending Pacific Plate is released by dehydration and alteration of rocks and sediment. This fluid interacts with mafic and ultramafic rocks in the descending Pacific Plate and overriding Philippine Plate, resulting in the formation of serpentinite mud. All of these mud volcanoes are associated with faults, indicating that the faults act as conduits for the serpentine mud to migrate from the subduction channel to the surface. These mud volcanoes are large features on the forearc, the largest of which has a diameter of ~50 kilometres (31 mi) and is over 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) high. ==== Pakistan ==== In Pakistan there are more than 130 active mud volcanoes or vents in Balochistan province; there are about 10 locations with clusters of mud volcanoes. In the west, in Gwadar District, the mud volcanoes are very small and mostly sit in the south of Jabal-e-Mehdi toward Sur Bandar. Many more are in the northeast of Ormara. The remainder are in Lasbela District and are scattered between south of Gorangatti on Koh Hinglaj to Koh Kuk in the North of Miani Hor in the Hangol Valley. In this region, the heights of mud volcanoes range between 300 and 2,600 feet (91.4 and 792.5 m). The most famous is Chandragup. The biggest crater is of V15 mud volcano found at 25°33'13.63""N. 65°44'09.66""E is about 450 feet (137.16 m) in diameter. Most mud volcanoes in this region are in out-of-reach areas having very difficult terrain. Mount Mehdi Mud Volcano near Miani Hor is also famous for large mud glacier around its caldera. Dormant mud volcanoes stand like columns of mud in many other areas. ==== Philippines ==== In the Turtle Islands, in the province of Tawi-Tawi, the southwestern edge of the Philippines bordering Malaysia, presence of mud volcanoes are evident on three of the islands – Lihiman, Great Bakkungan and Boan Islands. The northeastern part of Lihiman Island is distinguished for having a more violent kind of mud extrusions mixed with large pieces of rocks, creating a 20-m (66-ft) wide crater on that hilly part of the island. Such extrusions are reported to be accompanied by mild earthquakes and evidence of extruded materials can be found high in the surrounding trees. Submarine mud extrusions off the island have been observed by local residents. ==== Other Asian locations ==== There are a number of mud volcanoes in Xinjiang. There are mud volcanoes at the Minbu Township, Magway Region, Myanmar (Burma). There are two active mud volcanoes in southern Taiwan and several inactive ones. The Wushan Mud Volcanoes are in the Yanchao District of Kaohsiung City. There are active mud volcanoes in Wandan township of Pingtung County. There are mud volcanoes on the island of Pulau Tiga, off the western coast of the Malaysian state of Sabah on Borneo. The Meritam Volcanic Mud, locally called the 'lumpur bebuak', located about 35 kilometres (22 mi) from Limbang, Sarawak, Malaysia is a tourist attraction. A drilling accident offshore of Brunei on Borneo in 1979 caused a mud volcano which took 20 relief wells and nearly 30 years to halt. Active mud volcanoes occur in Oesilo (Oecusse District, East Timor). A mud volcano in Bibiluto (Viqueque District) erupted between 1856 and 1879. === North America === Mud volcanoes of the North American continent include: A field of small (<2 metres (6.6 ft) high) fault-controlled, cold mud volcanoes is on California's Mendocino Coast, near Glenblair and Fort Bragg, California. The fine-grained clay is occasionally harvested by local potters. Shrub and Klawasi mud volcanoes in the Copper River basin by the Wrangell Mountains, Alaska. Emissions are mostly CO2 and nitrogen; the volcanoes are associated with magmatic processes. An unnamed mud volcano 30 metres (98 ft) high and with a top about 100 metres (328 ft) wide, 24 kilometres (15 mi) off Redondo Beach, California, and 800 metres (2,620 ft) under the surface of the Pacific Ocean. A field of small (<3 metres (9.8 ft)) mud volcanoes in the Salton Sea geothermal area near the town of Niland, California. Emissions are mostly CO2. One, known as the Niland Geyser, continues to move erratically. Smooth Ridge mud volcano in 1,000 metres (3,280 ft) of water near Monterey Canyon, California. Kaglulik mud volcano, 43 metres (141 ft) under the surface of the Beaufort Sea, near the northern boundary of Alaska and Canada. Petroleum deposits are believed to exist in the area. Maquinna mud volcano, located 16–18 kilometres (9.9–11.2 mi) west of Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada. ==== Yellowstone's ""Mud Volcano"" ==== The name of Yellowstone National Park's ""Mud Volcano"" feature and the surrounding area is misleading; it consists of hot springs, mud pots and fumaroles, rather than a true mud volcano. Depending upon the precise definition of the term mud volcano, the Yellowstone formation could be considered a hydrothermal mud volcano cluster. The feature is much less active than in its first recorded description, although the area is quite dynamic. Yellowstone is an active geothermal area with a magma chamber near the surface, and active gases are chiefly steam, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide. However, there are mud volcanoes and mud geysers elsewhere in Yellowstone. One, the ""Vertically Gifted Cyclic Mud Pot"" sometimes acts as a geyser, throwing mud up to 30 feet high. The mud volcano feature in Yellowstone was previously a mound until a thermal explosion in the 1800s ripped it apart. ==== Caribbean ==== There are many mud volcanoes in Trinidad and Tobago in the Caribbean, near oil reserves in southern parts of the island of Trinidad. As of 15 August 2007, the mud volcano titled the Moruga Bouffle was said to being spitting up methane gas which shows that it is active. There are several other mud volcanoes in the tropical island which include: the Devil's Woodyard mud volcano near New Grant, Princes Town, Trinidad and Tobago the Moruga Bouffe mud volcano near Moruga the Digity mud volcano in Barrackpore the Piparo mud volcano the Chatham mud volcano underwater in the Columbus Channel; this mud volcano periodically produces a short-lived island. the Erin Bouffe mud volcano near Los Iros beach L'eau Michel mud volcano in Bunsee Trace, PenalA number of large mud volcanoes have been identified on the Barbados accretionary complex, offshore Barbados. === South America === ==== Venezuela ==== The eastern part of Venezuela contains several mud volcanoes (or mud domes), all of them having an origin related to oil deposits. The mud of 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) from Maturín, contains water, biogenic gas, hydrocarbons and an important quantity of salt. Cattle from the savanna often gather around to lick the dried mud for its salt content. ==== Colombia ==== Volcan El Totumo, which marks the division between Bolívar and Atlantico in Colombia. This volcano is approximately 50 feet (15 m) high and can accommodate 10 to 15 people in its crater; many tourists and locals visit this volcano due to the alleged medicinal benefits of the mud; it is next to a cienaga, or lake. This volcano is under legal dispute between the Bolívar and Atlántico Departamentos because of its tourist value. === Africa === === Australasia === ==== New Zealand ==== As well as the Runaruna Mud Volcano the size of the splatter cones associated with some of New Zealands many geothermal mud pools or mudpots might qualify, depending upon definition. == See also == == References == == External links == Origin of mud volcanoes Cold water mud volcanoes created by artesian pressure in Minnesota's Nemadji River basin Bulletin Of Mud Volcanology Azerbaijan Academy Of Sciences (in English) Gaia's Breath—Methane and the Future of Natural Gas Archived 2009-02-12 at the Wayback Machine – USGS, June 2003 Azeri mud volcano flares – October 29, 2001, BBC report Redondo Beach mud volcano with methane hydrate deposits Hydrocarbons Associated with Fluid Venting Process in Monterey Bay, California Hydrothermal Activity and Carbon-Dioxide Discharge at Shrub and Upper Klawasi Mud Volcanoes, Wrangell Mountains, Alaska – U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 00-4207 Mud Volcano Eruption at Baratang, Middle Andamans Article on mud volcanoes from Azerbaijan International Mud volcano floods Java, August 2006 Mud volcano work suspended, 25 Feb 2007, Al Jazeera English Possible mud volcano on Mars (BBC News) Of Mud Pots and the End of the San Andreas Fault (Seismo Blog) Mud Volcanoes at West Nile Delta Video by GEOMAR I Helmholtz-Centre for Ocean Research Kiel El Totumo volcano near Cartagena, Colombia on YouTube World's Only Moving Mud Puddle on YouTube showing the progress over time of the Niland Geyser" Landforms,Mudflat,"Mudflats or mud flats, also known as tidal flats or, in Ireland, slob or slobs, are coastal wetlands that form in intertidal areas where sediments have been deposited by tides or rivers. A global analysis published in 2019 suggested that tidal flat ecosystems are as extensive globally as mangroves, covering at least 127,921 km2 (49,391 sq mi) of the Earth's surface. They are found in sheltered areas such as bays, bayous, lagoons, and estuaries; they are also seen in freshwater lakes and salty lakes (or inland seas) alike, wherein many rivers and creeks end. Mudflats may be viewed geologically as exposed layers of bay mud, resulting from deposition of estuarine silts, clays and aquatic animal detritus. Most of the sediment within a mudflat is within the intertidal zone, and thus the flat is submerged and exposed approximately twice daily. A recent global remote sensing analysis estimated that approximately 50% of the global extent of tidal flats occurs within eight countries (Indonesia, China, Australia, United States, Canada, India, Brazil, and Myanmar) and that 44% of the world's tidal flats occur within Asia (56,051 km2 or 21,641 sq mi). A 2022 analysis of tidal wetland losses and gains estimates that global tidal flats experienced losses of 7,000 km2 (2,700 sq mi) between 1999 and 2019, which were largely offset by global gains of 6,700 km2 (2,600 sq mi) over the same time period.In the past tidal flats were considered unhealthy, economically unimportant areas and were often dredged and developed into agricultural land.On the Baltic Sea coast of Germany in places, mudflats are exposed not by tidal action, but by wind-action driving water away from the shallows into the sea. This kind of wind-affected mudflat is called Windwatt in German. == Ecology == Tidal flats, along with intertidal salt marshes and mangrove forests, are important ecosystems. They usually support a large population of wildlife, and are a key habitat that allows tens of millions of migratory shorebirds to migrate from breeding sites in the northern hemisphere to non-breeding areas in the southern hemisphere. They are often of vital importance to migratory birds, as well as certain species of crabs, mollusks and fish. In the United Kingdom mudflats have been classified as a Biodiversity Action Plan priority habitat. The maintenance of mudflats is important in preventing coastal erosion. However, mudflats worldwide are under threat from predicted sea level rises, land claims for development, dredging due to shipping purposes, and chemical pollution. In some parts of the world, such as East and South-East Asia, mudflats have been reclaimed for aquaculture, agriculture, and industrial development. For example, around the Yellow Sea region of East Asia, more than 65% of mudflats present in the early 1950s had been destroyed by the late 2000s. It is estimated that up to 16% of the world tidal flats have disappeared since the mid-1980s.Mudflat sediment deposits are focused into the intertidal zone which is composed of a barren zone and marshes. Within these areas are various ratios of sand and mud that make up the sedimentary layers. The associated growth of coastal sediment deposits can be attributed to rates of subsidence along with rates of deposition (example: silt transported via river) and changes in sea level.Barren zones extend from the lowest portion of the intertidal zone to the marsh areas. Beginning in close proximity to the tidal bars, sand dominated layers are prominent and become increasingly muddy throughout the tidal channels. Common bedding types include laminated sand, ripple bedding, and bay mud. Bioturbation also has a strong presence in barren zones. Marshes contain an abundance of herbaceous plants while the sediment layers consist of thin sand and mud layers. Mudcracks are a common as well as wavy bedding planes. Marshes are also the origins of coal/peat layers because of the abundant decaying plant life.Salt pans can be distinguished in that they contain thinly laminated layers of clayey silt. The main source of the silt comes from rivers. Dried up mud along with wind erosion forms silt dunes. When flooding, rain or tides come in, the dried sediment is then re-distributed. == Selected example areas == Arcachon Bay, France Banc d'Arguin, Mauritania Great Rann of Kutch, India Belhaven, East Lothian Scotland, United Kingdom Bridgwater Bay and Morecambe Bay, United Kingdom Cape Cod Bay, Massachusetts, United States Cook Inlet, Alaska, United States Lindisfarne Island, England, United Kingdom Minas Basin, Nova Scotia, Canada Moreton Bay, Queensland, Australia North Slob, Wexford, Ireland Padilla Bay, Washington, United States Plymouth Bay, Massachusetts, United States Port of Tacoma, Washington, United States Port Susan, Warm Beach, Washington, United States Skagit Bay, Washington Snettisham Norfolk England, United Kingdom Wadden Sea: Netherlands, Germany, Denmark West coast of Andros Island, Bahamas Yellow Sea: China, North Korea, South Korea == See also == Herringbone cross beds == References == == External links == Tidal Flats Tidal Flats Field Sites Intertidal Change Explorer" Landforms,Muskeg,"Muskeg (Ojibwe: mashkiig; Cree: maskīk; French: fondrière de mousse, lit. moss bog) is a peat-forming ecosystem found in several northern climates, most commonly in Arctic and boreal areas. Muskeg is approximately synonymous with bog or peatland, and is a standard term in Western Canada and Alaska. The term became common in these areas because it is of Cree origin; maskek (ᒪᐢᑫᐠ) meaning ""low-lying marsh"".Muskeg consists of non-living organic material in various states of decomposition (as peat), ranging from fairly intact sphagnum moss, to sedge peat, to highly decomposed humus. Pieces of wood can make up five to fifteen percent of the peat soil. The water table tends to be near the surface. The sphagnum moss forming it can hold fifteen to thirty times its own weight in water, which allows the spongy wet muskeg to also form on sloping ground. Muskeg patches are ideal habitats for beavers, pitcher plants, agaric mushrooms and a variety of other organisms. == Composition == Muskeg forms because permafrost, clay or bedrock prevents water drainage. The water from rain and snow collects, forming permanently waterlogged vegetation and stagnant pools. Muskeg is wet, acidic, and relatively infertile, which prevents large trees from growing, although stunted shore pine, cottonwood, some species of willow, and black spruce are typically found in these habitats. It needs two conditions to develop: abundant rain and cool summers. A dead plant that falls on dry soil is normally attacked by bacteria and fungi and quickly rots. If the same plant lands in water or on saturated soil, it decomposes differently. Less oxygen is available under water, so aerobic bacteria and fungi fail to colonize the submerged debris effectively. In addition, cool temperatures retard bacterial and fungal growth. This causes slow decomposition, and thus the plant debris gradually accumulates to form peat and eventually muskeg. Depending on the underlying topography of the land, muskeg can reach depths greater than 30 metres (100 ft). == Description == Although at first glance muskeg resembles a plain covered with short grasses, a closer look reveals a bizarre and almost unearthly landscape. Small stands of stunted and often dead trees, which vaguely resemble bonsai, grow where land protrudes above the water table, with small pools of water stained dark red scattered about. Its grassland appearance invites the unwary to walk on it, but even the most solid muskeg is spongy and waterlogged. Traveling through muskeg is a strange and dangerous experience for the unaccustomed. Muskeg can grow atop bodies of water, especially small ponds and streams. Because of the water beneath, the muskeg surface sometimes ripples underfoot. Thinner patches allow large animals to fall through, becoming trapped under the muskeg and drowning. Moose are at a special disadvantage in muskeg due to their long legs, minimal hoof area, and great weight. Hunters and hikers may occasionally encounter young moose in muskeg-covered ponds submerged up to their torsos or necks, having been unaware of the unstable ground. == Surface strength == Muskeg can be a significant impediment to transportation. During the 1870s, muskeg in Northern Ontario was reported to have swallowed a railroad engine whole when a track was laid on muskeg instead of clearing down to bedrock.Many other instances have been reported of heavy construction equipment vanishing into muskeg in the spring as the frozen muskeg beneath the vehicle thawed. Construction in muskeg-laden areas sometimes requires the complete removal of the soil and filling with gravel. If the muskeg is not completely cleared to bedrock, its high water content will cause buckling and distortion from winter freezing, much like permafrost. One method of working atop muskeg is to place large logs on the ground, covered with a thick layer of clay or other stable material. This is commonly called a corduroy road. To increase the effectiveness of the corduroy, prevent erosion, and allow removal of material with less disturbance to the muskeg, a geotextile fabric is sometimes placed down before the logs. However temporary winter access roads on muskeg (ice road), created by clearing the insulating snow and allowing the muskeg to freeze, are more commonly used as they are cheaper to construct and easier to decommission. Water is often sprayed on these roads to thicken the ice allowing heavy trucks and equipment to safely access remote sites in the winter. == In fiction == In Jack London's short story, ""Love of Life,"" the starving protagonist eats muskeg berries along the trail. ""A muskeg berry is a bit of seed enclosed in a bit of water. In the mouth the water melts away and the seed chews sharp and bitter. The man knew there was no nourishment in the berries, but he chewed them patiently with a hope greater than knowledge and defying experience."" Also, in Rick Riordan's young adult novel The Son of Neptune, one of the protagonists accidentally gets swallowed by muskeg soil as a trap laid by the Earth goddess Gaia. Gordon Lightfoot references muskeg in his song ""Canadian Railroad Trilogy"". In Martha Ostenso's novel Wild Geese, the land owned and beloved by the antagonist plays an important role: ""Southeast, under the ridge, bottomless and foul, lay the muskeg, the sore to Caleb's eye. In the heat of summer it gave up sickly vapours in which clouds of mosquitoes rose. Cattle and horses, breaking through the pasture fence and heading for the hay field, had disappeared beneath its spongy surface."" (p. 12) == Gallery == == Sources == C. Michael Hogan. 2008. Black Spruce: Picea mariana, GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. Nicklas Stromberg, November, 2008 ""What on Earth is Muskeg?"". Forest Facts. Tongass National Forest. 25 August 2000. Archived from the original on 14 January 2012. == References ==" Landforms,One-Line Sky,"One-line sky or single-line sky refers to the landform of a narrow passage between huge rocks, where the sky looks like a single line. It is a word often used in China and the Chinese cultural sphere.One-line sky is found in the following areas: Huangshan, Anhui Province Wuyi Mountains, Fujian Province Shoushan, Kaohsiung, Taiwan == See also == Slot canyon == References ==" Landforms,Paleocollapse,"Paleocollapse is a rock structure resembling the karst landform, but is formed essentially by the dissolution of underlying sedimentary rock. It has also been called paleo-karst collapse. This has the effect of collapsing the formerly intact rock above, forming extensive fractures, debris pipes, and open caverns. Normally, the process was started and completed in the geologic past. The mechanism of its formation is relatively simple. As in the illustration, a deeper layer of salt (or other evaporite) is dissolved, through some process. The support for the upper rock vanishes, and starts the collapse process. This is much like the subsidence associated with old coal mines. Eventually, the caving process reaches the surface, and can be associated with debris pipes, rock fractures, and open caverns. At some later date, undisturbed sediments, or glacial till may fill the collapse zone. Paleocollapse geology can be remarkably stable (unlike karst), but poses some serious challenges to engineering or environmental geology. Primarily, the collapse zone is extremely permeable. This can provide a conduit for groundwater, or contaminant transport. As well, these zones may only be marginally stable, in that they can be reactivated by human activity, or events such as earthquakes. In China, underground mines have become suddenly flooded, due to paleocollapse features. In order to fully characterize the hazard, investigations may be undertaken, using dye tracers, or exploration geophysics. Of particular importance is understanding the true stability of the region. The paleocollapse process may continue at some future date, due to deep groundwater flow changes. Or perhaps, the reason that a certain evaporite zone has dissolved, is because of underlying faults in the bedrock. == References ==" Landforms,Panhole,"A panhole is a depression or basin eroded into flat or gently sloping cohesive rock. Similar terms for this feature are gnamma or rock holes (Australia), armchair hollows, weathering pans (or pits) and solution pans (or pits).Some authors refer to panholes also as potholes, which is a term typically used for similarly shaped riverine landforms. In fluvial geomorphology, the term pothole is typically used for a smooth, bowl-shaped or cylindrical hollow, generally deeper than wide, found developed in the rocky bed of a stream. This type of feature is created by the grinding action either of a stone or stones or of coarse sediment whirled around and kept in motion by eddies or the force of the stream current in a given spot. == Description of panholes == Panholes are erosional or destructional features that are developed in a variety of climatic environments and in a wide range of rock types. These shallow basins, or closed depressions, are quite commonly well developed in surfaces of granitic rocks and sandstone. They are generally characterized by flat bottoms and sometimes by overhanging sides. The initial form may be a closed hollow created by a patch of humus. Diameters are rarely greater than 6 ft (1.8 m). Some panholes were at one time thought to be man-made because their roundness was so perfect they were argued not be natural and must have been shaped by humans.Panholes are most commonly found in desert environments such as the Colorado Plateau. A few well-known panholes are found developed in sandstone surfaces in Canyonlands National Park, Capitol Reef National Park, and Moab. Panholes are capable of collecting water when it rains, freezing over when the weather gets cold, dry out in hotter weather, and can even contain some species of bacteria, lichens, mosses, and blue-green algae. Panholes range in size from a few centimeters to many meters in diameter. The cavities can be shallow or more than 15 meters (49 ft) deep, containing hundreds of liters of water. The Australian Aboriginal term gnamma, in particular, implies a depression capable of holding water in arid areas, forming an important water resource for Aboriginal people that needed to be carefully maintained.Within the potholes is a varied eco-system that contains bacteria such as cyanobacteria, fungi, and algae which can be referred as biofilm. Potholes do not contain predators like fish or aquatic insect. The biofilm breaks down some of the siliceous minerals in the pothole for nutrients resulting in furthering the weathering the pothole. The organisms that live in the potholes have to tolerate rapid change in water temperature, pH, oxygen, carbon dioxide concentration, and ion concentration. == Origin of panholes == In the Sierra Nevada, California these features were termed weathering pits by François E. Matthes, where they are thought to indicate rock surfaces that are unglaciated or escaped more recent glaciations. In Sierra Nevada granitic rocks, these features have a characteristic shape such that they expand more rapidly in width than they grow in depth. One explanation for their conformation is because the most active environment for weathering is the zone of alternate wetting and drying along the margins of the pools that collect in the pits, the margins tend to deepen and enlarge until all points of the bottom are equally wet or dry at the same time, thus producing their characteristic shape. Potholes can expand from weathering and erosion but the main activity of how potholes expand is from biological weathering. At one time the belief was that the only agents involved with the expansion of potholes were physical weathering. == Terminology == === Australia === In Australia, the terms ""gnamma"" and ""rock hole"" (or ""rockhole"") are used. Gnamma is an anglicization of a Nyoongar language word, used by that Aboriginal people of Western Australia to describe a naturally formed rock hole as well as its retained rainwater. The term ""gnamma hole"" is also widely used, but is incorrect, being a tautology. == Locations == === Australia === Hiltaba Nature Reserve === United States === Beam Rocks, Forbes State Forest, Pennsylvania Glacier Point, Yosemite National Park, California Navajo National Monument, Arizona Shenandoah National Park, Virginia Stone Mountain, Georgia Stone Mountain (North Carolina), North Carolina == References ==" Landforms,Pediment (geology),"A pediment, also known as a concave slope or waning slope, is a very gently sloping (0.5°-7°) inclined bedrock surface. It is typically a concave surface sloping down from the base of a steeper retreating desert cliff, escarpment, or surrounding a monadnock or inselberg, but may persist after the higher terrain has eroded away.Pediments are erosional surfaces. A pediment develops when sheets of running water (sheet floods) wash over it in intense rainfall events. It may be thinly covered with fluvial gravel that has washed over it from the foot of mountains produced by cliff retreat erosion.A pediment is not to be confused with a bajada, which is a merged group of alluvial fans. Bajadas also slope gently from an escarpment, but are composed of material eroded from canyons in the escarpment and redeposited on the bajada, rather than of bedrock with a thin veneer of gravel. == Description == Pediments were originally recognized as the upper part of smoothly sloping (0.5°-7°) concave piedmont surfaces surrounding mountains in arid regions. The lower part of the piedmont is a bajada, with the distinction being that the upper pediment surface is cut into bedrock (with possibly a thin veneer of alluvium) and is thus a result of erosion, while the lower bajada is aggradational (formed by accumulation of fresh sediments). Above the pediment, the slope abruptly increases, with an angle of 15° to nearly vertical. This creates a well-defined knickpoint at the base of the higher terrain.The lower part of the pediment may be buried under younger bajada deposits. This is described as a concealed pediment. An originally level pediment that is subsequently dissected is described as a dissected pediment, though the term has also been applied to bedrock surfaces that were never level.It is not uncommon to find isolated erosional remnants on a pediment.Individual pediments formed where canyons emerge from the high ground may merge to form coalescing pediments that may remain when the higher terrain is entirely eroded away. Coalescence of pediments over a large area results in a pediplain. A pediplain is distinguished from a peneplain because a pediplain has a thin veneer of gravel and is relatively steep, while a peneplain is surfaced with deep residual soil and is extremely level, with slopes of less than 55 feet per mile (10 meters per km). It has even been suggested that there are no true peneplains, and most identified peneplains are actually pediplains. == Occurrence == Pediments are commonly found in arid to semiarid climates and are particularly well known from the western United States. However, they are also found along the forearc of the Andes in South America and in South Africa. More recently, it has been recognized that pediments are formed in temperate and humid climates and in a variety of tectonic settings, and that the character of the bedrock is not critical to their formation.Ancient pediments surfaces have been found in the geologic record as far back as the Proterozoic. == Processes responsible for carving pediments == The processes responsible for creating a pediment, and especially for creating a sharp knickpoint at the juncture of the pediment with higher terrain, have been debated for over a century. It is now recognized that pediments are found in humid as well as arid climates, in many tectonic settings, and on many varieties of bedrock. They are nonetheless not universal features of mountain fronts. This realization has prompted renewed efforts to explain their formation, including through numerical modeling.Proposed mechanisms of formation include: Sheetwash or sheet erosion, in which broad sheets of flowing water evenly remove thin layers of surface material without incising channels. Mountain-front retreating by weathering Lateral planation or erosion by a stream Rillwash or rill erosion, in which flow is concentrated in numerous closely spaced minute channels.Later researchers looked to a combination of these mechanisms to explain pedimentation. In numerical models that couple granitic bedrock weathering and episodic stream transport of sediments, pediments emerge spontaneously. Pediment formation is promoted by arid conditions that hinder vegetation, reduce soil cohesion, and contribute to channel bank instability. Localized flooding on terrain with high infiltration rates also promotes pedimentation. These conditions all reduce incision rates. The models correctly predict that pediments are more common in hydrologically open basins than in hydrologically closed basins. == History == In 1877 Grove Karl Gilbert first observed pediments in the Henry Mountains in Utah. He described the formation as ""hills of planation cut across the upturned edges of tilted beds"". Gilbert believed the origin of pediments in the Henry Mountains are due to stream planation and active erosion of deserts. This theory was advocated by Sydney Paige (1912), and Douglas Johnson (1932). Johnson identified three zones of pediments. == References ==" Landforms,Peninsula,"A peninsula (from Latin paeninsula; from paene 'almost', and insula 'island') is a landform that extends from a mainland and is surrounded by water on most, but not all of its borders. A peninsula is also sometimes defined as a piece of land bordered by water on three of its sides. Peninsulas exist on all continents. The size of a peninsula can range from tiny to very large. The largest peninsula in the world is the Arabian Peninsula. Peninsulas form due to a variety of causes. == Etymology == Peninsula derives from Latin paeninsula, which is translated as 'peninsula'. Paeninsula itself was derived from paene 'almost', and insula 'island', or together, 'almost an island'. The word entered English in the 16th century. == Definitions == A peninsula is usually defined as a piece of land surrounded on most, but not all sides, by water, but is sometimes instead defined as a piece of land bordered by water on three of its sides.A peninsula may be bordered by more than one body of water, and the body of water does not have to be an ocean or a sea. A piece of land on a very tight river bend or one between two rivers is sometimes said to form a peninsula, for example in the New Barbadoes Neck in New Jersey, United States. A peninsula may be connected to the mainland via an isthmus, for example, in the isthmus of Corinth which connects to the Peloponnese peninsula. == Formation and types == Peninsulas can be formed from continental drift, glacial erosion, glacial meltwater, glacial deposition, marine sediment, marine transgressions, volcanoes, divergent boundaries or river sedimentation. More than one factor may play into the formation of a peninsula. For example, in the case of Florida, continental drift, marine sediment, and marine transgressions were all contributing factors to its shape. === Glaciers === In the case of formation from glaciers (e.g., the Antarctic Peninsula or Cape Cod), peninsulas can be created due to glacial erosion, meltwater or deposition. If erosion formed the peninsula, softer and harder rocks were present, and since the glacier only erodes softer rock, it formed a basin. This may create peninsulas, and occurred for example in the Keweenaw Peninsula.In the case of formation from meltwater, melting glaciers deposit sediment and form moraines, which act as dams for the meltwater. This may create bodies of water that surround the land, forming peninsulas.If deposition formed the peninsula, the peninsula was composed of sedimentary rock, which was created from a large deposit of glacial drift. The hill of drift becomes a peninsula if the hill formed near water but was still connected to the mainland, for example during the formation of Cape Cod about 23,000 years ago. === Others === In the case of formation from volcanoes, when a volcano erupts magma near water, it may form a peninsula (e.g., the Alaskan Peninsula). Peninsulas formed from volcanoes are especially common when the volcano erupts near shallow water. Marine sediment may form peninsulas by the creation of limestone. A rift peninsula may form as a result of a divergent boundary in plate tectonics (e.g. the Arabian Peninsula), while a convergent boundary may also form peninsulas (e.g. Gibraltar or the Indian subcontinent). Peninsulas can also form due to sedimentation in rivers. When a river carrying sediment flows into an ocean, the sediment is deposited, forming a delta peninsula.Marine transgressions (changes in sea level) may form peninsulas, but also may affect existing peninsulas. For example, the water level may change, which causes a peninsula to become an island during high water levels. Similarly, wet weather causing higher water levels make peninsulas appear smaller, while dry weather make them appear larger. Sea level rise from global warming will permanently reduce the size of some peninsulas over time. == Uses == Peninsulas are noted for their use as shelter for humans and Neanderthals. The landform is advantageous because it gives hunting access to both land and sea animals. They can also serve as markers of nation's borders. == List of peninsulas == == See also == Barrier island Cape Headland Promontory Salient Spit Tidal island == References == === Bibliography === == External links == The dictionary definition of peninsula at Wiktionary" Landforms,Pillar (landform),"A pillar is a landform, either of rock or earth, defined by the USGS as: ""Vertical, standing, often spire-shaped, natural rock formation (chimney, monument, pinnacle, pohaku, rock tower)."" Some examples of rock pillars are Chambers Pillar, Katskhi pillar, Pompeys Pillar, and Pillar Rock. The Oxford Dictionary of Geography defines earth pillar as: ""An upstanding, free column of soil that has been sheltered from erosion by a natural cap of stone on the top. They are common where boulder-rich moraines have been subject to gully erosion, as in parts of the southern Tyrol."" A Hoodoo is another type of earth pillar. Examples of earth pillars are Awa Sand Pillars and Đavolja Varoš. == See also == Glossary of geology – List of definitions of geological terminology == References ==" Landforms,Pinge,"A Pinge ([ˈpɪŋə], plural: Pingen) or Binge (""binger"") is the name given in German-speaking Europe to a wedge-, ditch- or funnel-shaped depression in the terrain caused by mining activity. This depression or sink-hole is frequently caused by the collapse of old underground mine workings that are close to the Earth's surface. Unlike natural landforms, a Pinge is a direct result of human activity. The term has no direct equivalent in English, but may be translated as ""mining sink-hole"", ""mine slump"" or, in some cases, as ""glory hole"". == Origin of the word == In the original sense of the word, the mining terms Pinge or Binge go back to the activity known as pingen which meant something like ""prospecting"". An aufgepingter lode was one near the surface of the ground. The Pinge was therefore like a primitive, open pit mine.Subsequently, the term was transferred to the funnel-shaped depressions that formed at the surface above filled or collapsed mineshafts. In lode mining, shafts and pits followed the strike of the lode and left behind the typical lines of Pingen (Pingenzüge) associated with medieval mining that may still be seen, for example, in the Thuringian Forest, the Upper Harz Mountains, the Ore Mountains and the Eschweiler area in central Europe. Later on, the term Pinge was applied to many kinds of depression left in the terrain as a result of mining activity, including the holes left by opencast pits in surface mining or the cave-ins above underground mines. The latter occurred either as a result of the unexpected consequences of active mining (often associated with accidents or disasters) or the subsidence above abandoned mines. They were sometimes willingly and knowingly accepted, for example, when mining was carried out by a method known as block caving. A Pingenzug is a row of several Pingen in succession. == Types == A Pinge can arise in different ways. In some cases it is caused by surface excavation. In other cases it follows the extraction of mineral deposits at a shallow depth and the associated collapse of the overburden that can result in subsidence at the surface. Pingen caused by surface mining generally date to the 16th and 17th centuries and are mostly only 0.5 - 1 metre deep. Deeper Pingen, caused by collapse of the overburden, date to the 18th and 19th centuries. The Pinge, which is caused as a result of the subsidence of the surface of the terrain, is usually surrounded by a ring-shaped mound (German: Halde). A number of Pingen form trenches up to 250 metres long and 15 metres wide. === Excavation === Initially, the extraction of ore or coal took place near the surface at outcrops of the main deposits. Excavations of seam-like deposits were carried out by digging out bowl-shaped depressions, the so-called Pütts, that miners hewed out along the course of the seam with picks and shovels. Once digging reached the water table, groundwater ran into the hole. If the quantity of water was so great that it entered the pit faster than it could be drained, the holes filled up with groundwater. To make matters worse, the ingress of water and the consequent softening of the soil reduced the stability of the side walls. For this reason, the pit was simply abandoned in such cases and a new one dug some distance away. Over the years, these hollows became Pingen. In the southern Ruhr, there are numerous such Pingen caused by surface mining. Subsequent erosion and collapse has produced funnel-shaped hollows, the Pingen. Where Pingen have resulted from surface mining, small ring-shaped tips were often made by dumping the waste rock. Another origin of Pingen occurred in a method of lignite mining called Kuhlenbau or ""pit mining"". Here, the brown coal was extracted by means of small, square, open pit known as a Kuhle. As one pit was exhausted, it was filled with spoil from the next. In this way, a row of several hollows or Pingen was created. === Collapse === Pingen were also caused by the mining of a lode near the surface that was not properly supported. When a deposit is exploited through underground mining, there are pressures and strains along the hanging walls. Over time, the hanging wall slips along the tear line into the mine cavity. Pingen are mining sink-holes covering a small area. But just like the continual, large-scale subsidence caused by large-scale mining at great depths, the overburden of mines near the surface collapses at regular intervals along a tear line. This subsidence of the strata is usually accompanied by an audible mining shockwave (Bergschlag). The actual shape of the Pinge is primarily determined by the different rock formations. In addition, the shape and appearance of Pingen is influenced by their age. A Pinge which is only shallow and only gently shaped over its entire surface is usually older than a Pinge with sharp contours.How quickly an underground cavity near the surface collapses is dependent on various factors. Key criteria are the depth and the stability of the overburden. The depth of the Pinge is essentially determined by the size of the cavity created. If larger voids are created at less depth as in the mining technique known as Tummelbau (""underground pit mining""), the Pinge can be several metres deep. This sort of mining damage is particularly problematic if it occurs in a populated area. ==== Schachtpinge ==== A Schachtpinge (""shaft pinge"") is a particular type of Pinge caused by the collapsing of old surface mineshafts. Especially in the early days of mining, very many smaller mineshafts were sunk. The shafts were predominantly lined with mine timber. Only in rare cases was natural stone, brick or concrete used for this purpose. If these wells were then abandoned, the wooden lining rotted over the years, fell away and then the pit collapsed, leading to the formation of a Schachtpinge. The diameter and depth of a Schachtpinge depends on the size of the shafts, and whether the shaft had been filled in and the quality of the infill. Another cause for the emergence of a Schachtpinge was so-called Duckelbau mining. In this type of mining, the overburden in the area of the shaft usually collapsed very quickly, because ore was dug out just a few metres below the surface and, in most cases, not in solid rock. ==== Stollenpinge ==== A Stollenpinge is caused by the collapse of parts of a mining gallery (Stollen) that is usually located at levels close to the surface or in weathered rock. They are generally easily recognizable from their typical asymmetrical shape and their shape of the depression which, unlike Pingen caused by excavations, is normally greater on the uphill side as well as their rather large mounds. == Examples of well-known Pingen == The following Pingen were formed by the collapse of overburden. Altenberg (Germany) the first collapses occurred as early as 1545 as a result of the uncontrolled mining (by fire-setting) of the Altenberg tin ore mountain. Later on, ore was extracted both from the solid rock as well as the broken rock mass. As a result of continued, unchecked fire-setting of the solid rock, there was a significant amount of further excavation which was unable to withstand the pressure of the overburden. In 1578, 1583, 1587 and 1619 there were further collapses, although it is not clear whether these were caused deliberately. The largest occurred on 24 January 1620. This destroyed 36 pits and created a funnel-shaped hole on the surface that covered 2 hectares. In the following centuries, mining was continued by extracting the broken rock ""from below"" until 1991. Further fractures took place, initially uncontrolled, but later planned. As a result, the Altenberg Pinge grew 150 m deep and 450 m in diameter, covering an area of 12 ha by the time tin ore working ceased. Today the Great Pinge is not only one of the attractions of the town of Altenberg, but was also designated in May 2006 by the Academy of Geosciences at Hanover as one of the 77 most important national geotopes in Germany.Falun (Sweden) Uncontrolled copper mining at the Great Copper Mountain led in 1687 to a large-scale collapse of the mine. The resulting Pinge, known as Stora Stöten, is today 95 m deep and 350 m wide. Geyer (Germany) The Geyersche Binge (50.621108°N 12.928289°E / 50.621108; 12.928289) was caused by intensive overworking of the pits under the Geyersberg hill. In 1704, after a cavern up to 35 m high and, at its foot, 40 metres wide had been dug out, the first big cave-in occurred at the surface. This was followed by others up to 1803. The last disastrous collapse happened on 11 May 1803. It led to the cessation of underground mining. From 1851 a quarry firm mined the broken rock in the Binge. When that closed in 1935 the Binge was made a nature reserve. Today it is 50–60 metres deep and covers an area of about 200 by 250 metres.Plattenberg (Czech Republic) At Plattenberg there are 2 well-known Pingen (50.398689°N 12.778473°E / 50.398689; 12.778473), relicts of an old tin mine. The Eispinge (""Ice Pinge"", Czech: Ledová Jáma) was caused by the collapse of a gallery. The name of this natural monument is due to its ravine-like shape. All year round, heavy, cold and damp air sinks down to the floor of the crevice which is only one metre wide, but 15–20 metres deep. Light, warm air never penetrates it. As a result, cave ice and snow lie all year round in the Pinge. In 1813, snow and ice from the Eispinge were transported as far as Leipzig to be used in the care of the wounded at the Battle of Leipzig. The appearance of the neighbouring Wolfspinge (""Wolf's Pinge"", Czech: Vlčí Jáma) goes back to the collapse of the old Wolfgang Pit. It is about 200 m long, up to 45 m wide and up to 25 m deep.Seiffen (Germany) In Seiffen near the church are two neighbouring sink-holes up to 34 metres deep above the old tin mine that are called the Geyerin and Neuglücker Stockwerkspinge. They were probably formed in the 16th century as a result of fire-setting. As in Altenberg, mining carried on even after the collapse. Unlike Altenberg, however, the rubble was mined at the surface using a gantry crane (Förderbrücke). Mining operations shut down in the 19th century. Since 1934, there has been an open-air stage in the Geyerin. (50.646266°N 13.453879°E / 50.646266; 13.453879). == See also == Caldera Cenote Ponor Sinkhole == Footnotes == == References == == External links == Josef Stiny: Zur Entstehung von Kohlenmulden. (pdf; 330 kB)" Landforms,Pinnacle (geology),"A pinnacle, tower, spire, needle or natural tower (German: Felsnadel, Felsturm or Felszinne) in geology is an individual column of rock, isolated from other rocks or groups of rocks, in the shape of a vertical shaft or spire. Examples are the summits of the Aiguille du Midi in the Mont Blanc massif in France, the almost 43-metre-high Barbarine on the south side of the Pfaffenstein hill near Königstein in Germany, or the Bischofsmütze, the Drei Zinnen and the Vajolet Towers in the Dolomites, which are rich in such towers. An area of limestone formations within Nambung National Park, near the town of Cervantes, Western Australia, is known as The Pinnacles. == Gallery == == See also == Hoodoo Kigilyakh Pinnacles National Park Pyramidal peak Stack (geology) Totem pole (Monument Valley) Trango Towers == External links ==" Landforms,Polar desert,"Polar deserts are the regions of Earth that fall under an ice cap climate (EF under the Köppen classification). Despite rainfall totals low enough to normally classify as a desert, polar deserts are distinguished from true deserts (BWh or BWk under the Köppen classification) by low annual temperatures and evapotranspiration. Most polar deserts are covered in ice sheets, ice fields, or ice caps, and they are also called white deserts.Polar deserts are one of two polar biomes, the other being Arctic tundra. These biomes are located at the poles of Earth, covering much of the Antarctic in the southern hemisphere, and in the northern hemisphere extending from the Arctic into North America, Europe and Asia. Unlike the tundra that can support plant and animal life in the summer, polar deserts are largely barren environments, comprising permanent, flat layers of ice; due to the scarcity of liquid water, the same is also true of the few ice-free areas. However, there is evidence of some life in this seemingly inhospitable landscape: sediments of organic and inorganic substances in the thick ice hosting microbial organisms closely related to cyanobacteria, able to fix carbon dioxide from the melting water.Temperature changes in polar deserts frequently cross the freezing point of water. This ""freeze-thaw"" alternation forms patterned textures on the ground, as much as 5 m (16 ft) in diameter. Most of the interior of Antarctica is polar desert, despite the thick ice cover. Conversely, the McMurdo Dry Valleys of Antarctica, although they have had no ice for thousands of years due to katabatic wind but contain ephemeral streams and hypersaline lakes characteristic of extreme non-polar deserts, are not necessarily polar desert.Polar deserts are relatively common during ice ages, as ice ages tend to be dry. Climate scientists have voiced concerns about the effects of global warming to the ice poles in these polar biomes. == See also == Desert Desertification List of deserts by area List of deserts by continent Tundra == References == This article incorporates public domain material from Types of Deserts. United States Geological Survey." Landforms,Polje,"A polje, also called karst polje or karst field, is a large flat plain found in karstic geological regions of the world, with areas usually in the range of 5–400 km2 (2–154 sq mi). The name derives from the Slavic languages, where polje literally means 'field', whereas in English polje specifically refers to a karst plain or karst field. == In geology == A polje, in geological terminology, is a large, flat-floored depression within karst limestone, whose long axis develops in parallel with major structural trends and can become several miles (tens of kilometers) long. Superficial deposits tend to accumulate along the floor. Drainage may be either by surface watercourses (as an open polje) or by swallow holes (as a closed polje) or ponors. Usually, the ponors cannot transmit entire flood flows, so many poljes become wet-season lakes. The structure of some poljes is related to the geological structure, but others are purely the result of lateral dissolution and planation. The development of poljes is fostered by any blockage in the karst drainage.A polje covers the flatbottomed lands of closed basins which may extend over large areas, up to 1,000 km2. The flat floor of a polje may consist of bare limestone, of a nonsoluble formation (as with rolling topography), or of soil. A polje typically shows complex hydrogeological characteristics such as exsurgences, estavelles, swallow holes, and lost rivers. In colloquial use, the term ""polje"" designates flat-bottomed lands which are overgrown or are under cultivation. The Dinaric Karst has many poljes.They are mostly distributed in subtropical and tropical latitudes but some also appear in temperate or, rarely, boreal regions. Usually covered with thick sediments, called ""terra rossa"", they are used extensively for agricultural purposes. Some poljes of the Dinaric Alps are inundated during the rainy winters and spring seasons as masses of water called izvor or vrelo appears at the margins. The water disappears through shafts called ponor. Prominent karst poljes are Livanjsko polje (about 60 km long and 7 km wide), Glamočko Polje, Grahovsko Polje, Drvarsko Polje, Duvanjsko Polje, Kupreška Visoravan (Kupres Highlands), Popovo Polje, Dabarsko Polje, Nevesinjsko Polje and Gatačko Polje in Bosnia and Herzegovina; Logatec, Planina, and Cerknica Polje in Slovenia; Grahovsko Polje and Nikšićko Polje in Montenegro; Ličko Polje and Krbava in Lika, Croatia; Begovo Pole in North Macedonia and Odorovsko polje the only karst polje in Serbia. In Portugal, the town of Minde is located in a landscape of intensive karst. In the summer the polje is fertile fields, in winter, in case of heavy rain, a temporary lake. Compare also Lake Copais in Boeotia in Greece. == Etymology == In its original languages, the word is synonymous with interior valley. The word polje (Cyrillic: поље) itself is of Slavic origin (best known as the root for the country Poland, Polska, from the Polish word pole 'field'). English borrowed polje from Slovene or Serbo-Croatian (Cyrillic: поље, pronounced [pôʎe]). The equivalent in neighbouring Macedonian and Bulgarian is pole (поле), and in Russian it is polye (поле). As a borrowing, apart from English it can be found in a number of languages including: French, German, Greek, Italian, Spanish and Turkish (which uses polye). == Notes ==" Landforms,Polonyna (montane meadow),"Polonyna (Ukrainian: полонина, romanized: polonyna; Rusyn: полонина, romanized: polonyna; Polish: połonina; Slovak: polonina) is a specific, regionally-focused geographic term, that is used as a designation for areas of montane meadows (a landform type) in the upper subalpine or alpine zones of the Carpathian Mountains. The term polonyna was introduced to English from Slavic languages, in order to designate various mountainous regions, mainly in the Eastern Carpathians, and also in the Western Carpathians. The polonyna type areas of montane meadows are very frequent in the Outer Eastern Carpathians, particularly in the Eastern Beskids. Throughout history, they were used for pasture, and in modern times they have become a popular destination for various forms of recreational tourism.The noun polonyna (plur. polonynas) and its corresponding adjectives (anglicized as polonyne or polonynian) are also used frequently in local toponyms throughout the Carpathian region. One of two main mountain ranges of the Eastern Beskids is known as the Polonyne Beskids or Polonynian Beskids (Ukrainian: Полонинські Бескиди; Polish: Beskidy Połonińskie), and it includes several mountains that also contain the same term in their names, like: Smooth Polonyna (Polish: Połonina Równa; Ukrainian: Полонина Рівна), Polonyna Borzhava (Polish: Połonina Borżawska; Ukrainian: Полонина Боржава), Red Polonyna (Polish: Połonina Czerwona; Ukrainian: Червонa Полонина), etc. == See also == == References == == Sources == Földvary, Gábor Z. (1988). Geology of the Carpathian Region. Singapore: World Scientific Publishing Company. ISBN 9789813103825. Tasenkevich, Lydia (2009). ""Polonynas: Highlands Pastures in the Ukrainian Carpathians"". Grasslands in Europe: Of High Nature Value. Zeist: KNNV Publishing. pp. 203–208. ISBN 9789004278103. == Further reading == Андрій Л. Байцар, ""Полонини Українських Карпат"" (Adriy L. Baytsar, Polonynas of the Ukrainian Carpathians), in: Генеза, географія та екологія ґрунтів: Збірник наукових праць Міжнародної конференції (Genesis, Geography and Ecology of Soils: Collection of Scientific Papers from the International Conference). Львів, 1999. - P. 107-109. Андрій Л. Байцар, ""Полонини Українських Карпат: генезис, поширення та морфологія"" (Adriy L. Baytsar, Polonynas of the Ukrainian Carpathians: Genesis, Distribution, and Morphology), Вісник Львівського університету: Серія географічна, 29 (2003) - P. 3-6. == External links == Encyclopedia of Ukraine: Polonynian Beskyd Encyclopedia of Ukraine: Borzhava Encyclopedia of Ukraine: Krasna Encyclopedia of Ukraine: Svydivets Encyclopedia of Ukraine: Chornohora Encyclopedia of Ukraine: Skole Beskyd National Nature Park" Landforms,Pothole (landform),"In Earth science, a pothole is a smooth, bowl-shaped or cylindrical hollow, generally deeper than wide, found carved into the rocky bed of a watercourse. Other names used for riverine potholes are pot, (stream) kettle, giant's kettle, evorsion, hollow, rock mill, churn hole, eddy mill, and kolk. Although somewhat related to a pothole in origin, a plunge pool (or plunge basin or waterfall lake) is the deep depression in a stream bed at the base of a waterfall. It is created by the erosional forces of turbulence generated by water falling on rocks at a waterfall's base where the water impacts. Potholes are also sometimes referred to as swirlholes. This word was created to avoid confusion with an English term for a vertical or steeply inclined karstic shaft in limestone. However, given widespread usage of this term for a type of fluvial sculpted bedrock landform, pothole is preferred in usage to swirlhole. The term pothole is also used to refer to other types of depressions and basins that differ in origin. For example, some authors refer to panholes found in the Colorado Plateau also as potholes. Other terms used for panholes are gnamma (Australia), opferkessel (German, roughly “sacrificial basin”), armchair hollows, weathering pans (or pits) and solution pans or solution pits. In another case, the term pothole is used to refer to a shallow depression, generally less than 10-acre (4.0 ha) in area that occurs between dunes or on subdued morainic relief on a prairie, as in Minnesota and the Dakotas, and often contains an intermittent pond or marsh that serves as a nesting place for waterfowl. == Origin == The consensus of geomorphologists and sedimentologists is that fluvial potholes are created by the grinding action of either a stone or stones or coarse sediment (sand, gravel, pebbles, boulders), whirled around and kept in motion by eddies within and force of the stream current in a given spot. Being a spectacular feature of bedrock river channels, they have been and still are studied extensively and considered as a key factor in bedrock channel development and morphology and important factor in the incision of bedrock channels. == References ==" Landforms,Prairie lake,"A prairie lake is a somewhat shallow lake that will empty naturally during dry seasons, allowing a variety of terrestrial plants to flourish upon the rich nutrients in the exposed lakebed, and the lakes eventually refill with water returning to their previous aquatic state. In northern Florida, a flatwoods/prairie lake is generally a shallow basin in flatlands with high water table and often with sinkholes. These lakes frequently have a broad littoral zone; still water or flow-through; sand or peat substrate; variable water chemistry, but characteristically colored to clear, acidic to slightly alkaline, soft to moderately hard water with moderate mineral content sodium, chloride, sulfate; oligo-mesotrophic to eutrophic. These lakes are often associated with aquifers. Northern Florida has four large prairie lakes: Lake Lafayette, Lake Jackson, Lake Iamonia, and Lake Miccosukee. During the antebellum period in Florida, cotton plantation owners used these lakes to graze cattle, sheep, and other animals when dry. Prairie lakes also exist in the upper midwestern United States in Iowa, Montana, and Minnesota in Black Rush Lake, and Lake Shaokatan, a shallow prairie lake in west central Lincoln County. The geology may be different from those in Florida. == Resources == Florida Natural Areas Inventory Paisley, Clifton; From Cotton To Quail, University of Florida Press, c1968. EPA study University of Minnesota" Landforms,Pressure ridge (ice),"A pressure ridge, when consisting of ice, is a linear pile-up of sea ice fragments formed in pack ice by accumulation in the convergence between floes. Such a pressure ridge develops in an ice cover as a result of a stress regime established within the plane of the ice. Within sea ice expanses, pressure ridges originate from the interaction between floes, as they collide with each other. Currents and winds are the main driving forces, but the latter is particularly effective when they have a predominant direction. Pressure ridges are made up of angular ice blocks of various sizes that pile up on the floes. The part of the ridge that is above the water surface is known as the sail; that below it as the keel. Pressure ridges are the thickest sea ice features and account for up to 30-40% of the total sea ice area and about one-half of the total sea ice volume. Stamukhi are pressure ridges that are grounded and that result from the interaction between fast ice and the drifting pack ice. Similar to undeformed ice, pressure ridges can be first-, second-, and multiyear depending on how many melt seasons they managed to survive. Ridges can be formed from ice of different ages, but mostly consist of 20-40 cm thick blocks of thin and young ice. == Internal structure == The blocks making up pressure ridges are mostly from the thinner ice floe involved in the interaction, but it can also include pieces from the other floe if it is not too thick. In the summer, the ridge can undergo a significant amount of weathering, which turns it into a smooth hill. During this process, the ice loses its salinity (as a result of brine drainage and meltwater flushing). This is known as an aged ridge. A fully consolidated ridge is one whose base has undergone complete freezing. The term consolidated layer is used to designate freezing up of the rubble just below the water line. The existence of a consolidated layer depends on air temperature — in this layer, the water between individual blocks is frozen, with a resulting reduction in porosity and an increase in mechanical strength. A keel's depth of an ice ridge is much higher than its sail's height - typically about 3-5 times. The keel is also 2-3 times wider than the sail. Ridges are usually melting faster than level ice, both at the surface and at the bottom. Sea-ice ridges also play an important role in confining meltwater within under-ice meltwater layers, which may lead to the formation of false bottoms. == Thickness and consolidation == One of the largest pressure ridges on record had a sail extending 12 m above the water surface, and a keel depth of 45 m. The total thickness for a multiyear ridge was reported to be 40 m. On average, total thickness ranges between 5 m and 30 m, with a mean sail height that remains below 2 m. The average keel depth of Arctic ridges is 4.5 m. The sail height is usually proportional to the square root of the ridge block thickness. Ice ridges in Fram Strait usually have a trapezoidal shape with a bottom horizontal section covering around 17% of the total ridge width and with a mean draft of 7 m, while ice ridges in the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas have a concave close to triangular shape.The average consolidated layer thickness of Arctic ridges is 1.6 m. Usually, ridges are consolidating faster than level ice because of their initial macroporosity. Ridge rubble porosity (or water-filled void fraction of ridge unconsolidated part) is in the wide range of 10-40%. During winter, ice ridges are consolidating up to two times faster than level ice, with the ratio of level ice and consolidated layer thickness proportional to the square root of ridge rubble porosity. This results in 1.6-1.8 ratio of consolidated layer and level ice thickness by the end of winter season. Meanwhile, snow is usually about three times thicker above ridges than above level ice. Sometimes ridges can be found fully consolidated with the total thickness up to 8 m. Ridges may also contain from 6% to 11% of snow mass fraction, which can be potentially linked to the mechanisms of ridge consolidation. Fram Strait ridge observations suggest, that the largest part of ridge consolidation happens during the spring season when during warm air intrusions or dynamic events snow can enter ridge keels via open leads and increase the speed of ridge consolidation. These observations are supported by high snow mass fraction in refrozen leads, observed during the spring season. The ridge consolidation potentially reduces light levels and the habitable space available for organisms, which may have negative ecological impacts as ridges have been identified as ecological hotspots. == Characterization methods == The physical characterization of pressure ridges can be done using the following methods: Mechanical drilling of the ice with non-coring or coring augers (when the ice core is retrieved for analysis). Surveying, whereby a level, theodolite or a differential GPS system is used to determine sail geometry. Thermal drilling – drilling involving melting of the ice. Observation of the ice canopy by scuba divers. Upward looking sonars and multibeam sonars fixed on seabed or moounted on a remotely operated underwater vehicle. A series of thermistors (ice mass balance buoy), to monitor temperature changes. Electromagnetic induction, from the ice surface or from an aircraft. == Interest for pressure ridges == From an offshore engineering and naval perspective, there are three reasons why pressure ridges are a subject of investigation. Firstly, because the highest loads applied on offshore structures operating in cold oceans by drift ice are associated with these features. Secondly, when pressure ridges drift into shallower areas, their keel may come into contact with the seabed, thereby representing a risk for subsea pipelines (see Seabed gouging by ice) and other seabed installations. Thirdly, they have a significant impact on navigation. In the Arctic, ridged ice makes up about 40% of the overall mass of sea ice. First-year ridges with large macroporosity are important for the ice-associated sympagic communities and identified as potential ecological hotspots and proposed to serve as refugia of ice-associated organisms. == See also == Finger rafting Iceberg Ice volcano Offshore geotechnical engineering == Notes == == References ==" Landforms,Promontory,"A promontory is a raised mass of land that projects into a lowland or a body of water (in which case it is a peninsula). Most promontories either are formed from a hard ridge of rock that has resisted the erosive forces that have removed the softer rock to the sides of it, or are the high ground that remains between two river valleys where they form a confluence. A headland, or head, is a type of promontory. == Promontories in history == Located at the edge of a landmass, promontories offer a natural defense against enemies, as they are often surrounded by water and difficult to access. Many ancient and modern forts and castles have been built on promontories for this reason. One of the most famous examples of promontory forts is the Citadel of Namur in Belgium. Located at the confluence of the Meuse and Sambre rivers, the citadel has been a prime fortified location since the 10th century. The surrounding rivers act as a natural moat, making it difficult for enemies to access the fort. Another example of a promontory fort is Fort Pitt, which was built by the English during the American Revolution on the site of the former Fort Duquesne, which belonged to the French during the French and Indian War. The fort was located at the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers, providing an additional layer of defense. The surrounding area eventually became the city of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. In Ireland, many promontory forts were built by the ancient Celts for defense against invaders. These forts were often located on isolated peninsulas or headlands and were difficult to access, making them ideal for defending against enemy attacks. The ancient town of Ras Bar Balla in southern Somalia is another example of a promontory fort. Located on a small promontory, the town was part of the Ajuran Sultanate's domain during the Middle Ages and was strategically located to defend against potential invaders. == See also == Isthmus – Narrow strip of land connecting two larger land areas == References == == External links == The dictionary definition of promontory at Wiktionary" Landforms,Purple moor grass and rush pastures,"Purple moor grass and rush pastures is a type of Biodiversity Action Plan habitat in the UK. It occurs on poorly drained neutral and acidic soils of the lowlands and upland fringe. It is found in the South West of England, especially in Devon. The vegetation consists of species-rich, semi-natural grassland containing abundant purple moor grass (Molinia caerulea) and one or more of several creeping rushes: sharp-flowered rush (Juncus acutiflorus), jointed rush (Juncus articulatus) and blunt-flowered rush (Juncus subnodulosus). Only 8% remains of the area thought to have existed in 1900. In the UK estimate the area is thought to be less than 70,000 hectares (170,000 acres). Their importance is recognised and are included as a priority habitat in the United Kingdom Biodiversity Action Plan. == Etymology == In Devon and Cornwall it is known as culm grassland, after the Culm Measures on which it is predominantly found. In East Anglia it is known as litter meadow due to the practice of cutting it for bedding. In Wales it is known as rhôs pasture. == Typical grasses == Common bent (Agrostis capillaris), crested dog's-tail (Cynosurus cristatus), floating sweet grass (Glyceria fluitans), marsh foxtail (Alopecurus geniculatus), purple moor grass (Molinia caerulea), red fescue (Festuca rubra), sweet vernal grass (Anthoxanthum odoratum). == Characteristic species == The Natural England Higher Level Stewardship Farm Environmental Plan handbook defines the habitat as grassland with at least two of the following species are found frequently, with another two being found occasionally. Bog asphodel (Narthecium ossifragum) Bog mosses (Sphagnum spp) Bog pimpernel (Anagallis tenella) Bugle (Ajuga reptans) Common valerian (Valeriana officinalis) Common meadow-rue (Thalictrum flavum) Cross-leaved heath (Erica tetralix) Devil's-bit scabious (Succisa pratensis) Globeflower (Trollius europaeus) Greater burnet (Sanguisorba officinalis) Greater bird's foot trefoil (Lotus pedunculatus) Hemp-agrimony (Eupatorium cannabinum) Jointed rush (Juncus articulatus) Lesser spearwort (Ranunculus flammula) Lesser water-parsnip (Berula erecta) Lousewort (Pedicularis sylvatica) Fen bedstraw (Galium uliginosum) Marsh bedstraw (Galium palustre) Marsh cinquefoil (Potentilla palustris) Marsh hawk's-beard (Crepis paludosa) Marsh-marigold (Caltha palustris) Marsh pennywort (Hydrocotyle vulgaris) Marsh valerian (Valeriana dioica) Marsh violet (Viola palustris) Meadow thistle (Cirsium dissectum) Meadowsweet (Filipendula ulmaria) Orchids (Orchidaceae) Ragged robin (Lychnis flos-cuculi) Rough hawkbit (Leontodon hispidus) Saw-wort (Serratula tinctoria) Sneezewort (Achillea ptarmica) Tormentil (Potentilla erecta) Water avens (Geum rivale) Water mint (Mentha aquatica) Whorled Caraway (Carum verticillatum) Wild angelica (Angelica sylvaticum) Small blue-green sedges: glaucous sedge (Carex flacca), common sedge (Carex nigra), carnation sedge (Carex panicea) etc. Yellow flag (Iris pseudacorus) == Key animal species associated with purple moor grass and rush pastures == Marsh fritillary butterfly (Eurodryas aurinia), uses scattered scrub and carr in September/October. Brown hairstreak (Theccla betulae) Narrow-bordered bee hawkmoth (Hemaris tityus) - fly during April/May, during the day. Eurasian curlew (Numenius arquata) - lays eggs in April/May in open ground on a mound or tussock, incubates them through to June, and young may not be ready to fly until late July or into August. Common snipe (Gallinago gallinago) Barn owl (Tyto alba) Marbled white (Melanargia galathea) on the wing in June/July. Reed bunting (Emberiza schoeniclus) uses scattered scrub and carr in September/October. == British National Vegetative Classification == The main British National Vegetation Classification communities associated with purple moor grass and rush pastures include M23 (Juncus effusus/acutiflorus-Galium palustre rush pasture), M25 (Molinia caerulea-Potentilla erecta mire), M26 (Molinia caerulea-Crepis paludosa mire) and British NVC community MG10 (Holco-Juncetum effusi rush-pasture). == Threats == Drainage Cultivation Fertiliser application Overgrazing Frequent burning Undergrazing - leading to succession to scrub and woodland. Can become dominated by soft rush (Juncus effusus) Afforestation == Management == Natural England Guidance advocates an average grass height of 7 and 8 centimetres (2.8 and 3.1 in) for rush during April and May, increasing to 10 and 13 centimetres (3.9 and 5.1 in) in June to October, a quarter of the sward no more than 15 centimetres (5.9 in) for grass and 40 centimetres (16 in) for rushes - a diverse sward of shorter areas interspersed by taller tussocks.Areas of dense litter are beneficial to overwintering insects and small mammals, but should be less than 25% of the total area in October. == Protection == In the UK there are a number of initiatives to help prevent deterioration and to restore these sites. These include designation as Site of Special Scientific Interest, national nature reserves, voluntary entry into the Environmental Stewardship Scheme by landowners, or work by voluntary conservation organisations such as the Devon Wildlife Trust. The largest area of Culm grassland in Devon is Hare's Down, Knowstone & Rackenford Moors near Rackenford and is owned by Devon Wildlife Trust. Their management regime includes controlled burning in winter and light grazing by cattle in the summer. The aim is to control the amounts of scrub and bracken without removing them completely. == References == == External links == Magic mapping system showing purple moor grass and rush pasture locations in the UK" Landforms,Reef knoll,"A reef knoll is a land-based landform that comprises an immense pile of calcareous material that accumulated on a previously existing ancient sea floor. At the time of its accumulation it may have had enough structure from organisms such as sponges to have been free-standing and to withstand the sea currents as material accumulated, and was likely an atoll. Another possibility is the remains of deep water coral. Such structures are thus often fossil-rich. A bioherm is a sedimentary rocky landform enclosed or surrounded by rock of different origin. A biostrome is a distinctly bedded or broadly lenticular sedimentary rocky landform. Krumbein defines these terms as types of stromatolites: ""Distinctly bedded, widely extensive, blanketlike build-ups are biostromes. Nodular, biscuit-like, dome-shaped or columnar stromatolites are also referred to as bioherms"". == England == Examples on the Derbyshire/Staffordshire border include Thorpe Cloud and Bunster Hill in southern Dovedale, and also Chrome Hill and Parkhouse Hill at the northern end. These structures are often most clearly seen where the surrounding rocks are much softer and so can be preferentially eroded. All the Derbyshire examples quoted lie at the edge of the limestone areas; Chrome and Parkhouse lie at the divide between limestone and the much softer shale. Examples in the Yorkshire Dales lie on the downthrow side (north) of the Mid Craven Fault. There is one set located around Thorpe (Skelterton, Butter Haw, Stebden, Elbolton, Thorpe Kail, Myra Bank and Hartlington Kail); one set located around Malham (Burns Hill, Cawden, and Wedber); and a set around Settle (High Hill and Scaleber). It was once proposed that in Lancashire, reef knolls could be seen between the villages of Worston and Downham near Clitheroe. == See also == Waulsortian mudmound == References == == External links == British Geological Survey website, on Chrome, Parkhouse and Derbyshire atolls" Landforms,Ridge and swale,"Ridge and swale, or in dunal areas dune and swale, is a landform consisting of regular, parallel ridges alternating with marshy depressions. Ridge-and-swale landscapes are most commonly formed by the gradual movement of a beach, for example as a result of gradually fluctuating water levels, or the shifting meanders of a river. In the river context, ridge-and-swale landscapes are commonly formed by scroll bars. They are also found along ocean coasts, for example on the Outer Banks of North Carolina. == Great Lakes ridge and swale == Freshwater ridge-and-swale ecosystems are globally rare and found only in parts of the Great Lakes of North America. They were formed as a result of the gradual retreat of beaches due to falling water levels and post-glacial rebound. The swales and the adjoining lake or river commonly form a single hydrological unit, so that rising or falling lake levels will cause water levels in the swales to rise or fall as well. Most ridge-and-swale landscapes have been destroyed as a result of the massive industrial development found in many former ridge-and-swale areas, such as the Calumet Region of Northwest Indiana. However, some extensive dune-and-swale complexes persist in Michigan, such as at the Michigan Wilderness State Park. The remaining dune-and-swale complexes along the Great Lakes are often home to extremely rare plants and animals, such as the endangered Karner Blue butterfly. In the Calumet Region, the difficulty of moving equipment through dune-and-swale topography greatly slowed industrial development, but could not stop it after the turn of the 20th century. The few remnants are preserved as nature preserves, including the Gibson Woods county park in Hessville, Indiana, the Miller Woods section of the Indiana Dunes National Park, and additional preserves operated by The Nature Conservancy and Shirley Heinze Land Trust. == Works cited == Kenneth Schoon (2016). Shifting Sands: The Restoration of the Calumet Area. ISBN 9780253023407. == References == == External links == Wooded dune and swale complex" Landforms,Rolling hills (geology), Landforms,Saddle (landform),"The saddle between two hills or mountains is the region surrounding the saddle point, the lowest point on the line tracing the drainage divide (the col) connecting the peaks. When, and if, the saddle is navigable, even if only on foot, the saddle of a (optimal) pass between the two massifs, is the area generally found around the lowest route on which one could pass between the two summits, which includes that point which is a mathematically when graphed a relative high along one axis, and a relative low in the perpendicular axis, simultaneously; that point being by definition the col of the saddle. == Topography == A saddle is the lowest area between two highlands (prominences or peaks) which has two wings which span the divide (the line between the two prominences) by crossing the divide at an angle, and, so is concurrently the local highpoint of the land surface which falls off in the lower direction. That is, the drainage divide is a ridge along the high point of the saddle, as well as between the two peaks and so defines the major reference axis. A saddle can vary from a sharp, narrow gap to a broad, comfortable, sway-backed, shallow valley so long as it is both the high point in the sloping faces which descends to lower elevations and the low area between the two (or three or four.) flanking summits. Concurrently, along a different axis, it is the low point between two peaks, so as such, is the likely 'optimal' high point in a pass if the saddle is traversed by a track, road or railway. === Saddles and cols === The relationship between saddles and cols is not universally agreed. A col is sometimes defined as the lowest point on a saddle co-linear with the drainage divide that connects the peaks. Whittow describes a saddle as ""low point or col on a ridge between two summits"", whilst the Oxford Dictionary of English implies that a col is the lowest point on the saddle. Monkhouse describes a saddle as a ""broad, flat col in a ridge between two mountain summits."" The term col tends to be associated more with mountain, rather than hill, ranges.The height of a summit above its highest saddle (called the key saddle) is effectively a measure of a hill's prominence, an important measure of the independence of its summit. Saddles lie on the line of the watershed between two hills. == Structural geology == In structural geology, a saddle is a depression located along the axial trend of an anticline. == Mathematical saddles == A 'saddle point' in mathematics derives its name from the fact that the prototypical example in two dimensions is a surface that curves up in one direction, and curves down in a different direction, resembling a riding saddle or a mountain pass between two peaks forming a landform saddle. == Notes == == References ==" Landforms,Salt surface structures,"Salt surface structures are extensions of salt tectonics that form at the Earth's surface when either diapirs or salt sheets pierce through the overlying strata. They can occur in any location where there are salt deposits, namely in cratonic basins, synrift basins, passive margins and collisional margins. These are environments where mass quantities of water collect and then evaporate; leaving behind salt and other evaporites to form sedimentary beds. When there is a difference in pressure, such as additional sediment in a particular area, the salt beds – due to the unique ability of salt to behave as a fluid under pressure – form into new structures. Sometimes, these new bodies form subhorizontal or moderately dipping structures over a younger stratigraphic unit, which are called allochthonous salt bodies or salt surface structures. == Salt == === Tectonic environments === Four key environments can facilitate salt deposition. These places allow salt-bearing water to collect and evaporate, leaving behind bedded deposits of solidified salt crystals. Below are short descriptions of these environments and a few examples. Convergent boundaries – Areas where two plates collide; if there is water trapped between the two, there is the possibility of evaporation and deposition. The Mediterranean Sea, particularly during the Messinian salinity crisis, is a prime example. Rifted boundaries/passive margins – Also known as divergent boundaries, these areas begin as rift basins, where extension is pulling apart the crust. If this rifting allows water to flood the resulting valley, salt deposition can occur. Examples include the Campos Basin, Brazil, Kwanza Basin, West Africa, and the Gulf of Mexico. Cratonic basins – Within continental boundaries, salt deposition can occur anywhere that bodies of water can collect. Even away from ocean sources, water is capable of dissolving and carrying ions that can later precipitate as salts, and when the water evaporates, the salts are left behind. Examples of these basins are the South Oman Salt Basin and the Michigan Basin. In the past, there was a great shallow sea covering most of the Great Plains region of the United States; when this sea dried up, it created the Strataca deposit now mined in Kansas, among others. === Characteristics === Salt has two key characteristics that make it unique in a tectonic setting, and important economically. The first is that salt (and other evaporites) deform plastically over geologic time, and thus behaves as a fluid rather than a rigid structure. This allows structures with salt components to deform more easily and have a slightly different appearance. Take, for example the Appalachians, which contain some salt deposits, and the Rocky Mountains, which is an accretionary terrain with little to no salt. This also allows for the creation of structural traps for oil and gas, as well as metals which makes them sought after targets in industry. The second, which is the fact that evaporites are often less dense, or more buoyant, than the surrounding rock, which aids in its mobility and creates a Rayleigh Taylor instability. This means that the less dense substance will find a way to rise through or away from the more dense one. In salt tectonics, this occurs in three ways; the first is differential loading, where the salt flows from an area of high pressure to lower pressure, the second is gravitational spreading, where the salt spreads out laterally under its own gravitational weight, the last is thermal convection, where warmer – and thus less dense – salt rises through colder and more dense salt. This is only seen in laboratory settings due to the unlikely occurrence of salt bodies with great enough temperature variance. == Evolution histories == In order for originally horizontal beds to form the allochthonous salts, they must first break free of their geological restraints. The first base structure can be formed in a combination of six ways: Reactive piercement – a normal fault synrift relieves pressure above the salt layer. This causes the salt to flow into the area of lower pressure to maintain its equilibrium. Active piercement – salt moves through sediments where there are no structures to take advantage of. Erosional piercement – overlying sediments are eroded away, revealing the present salt dome. Thrust piercement – local thrust faults apply force to salt sheets which follow the path of least resistance up the footwall of the fault. Ductile piercement – not so much a 'piercing' movement, but local differential pressure force the salt to rise through weaker overlying sediments. Occurs due to the Rayleigh-Taylor instability created by salt's low density. Passive piercement – after the salt column has initially pierced the overlying sediments, the rate it rises matches or supersedes the growing sediment layers.From here there are three paths that a forming surface structure can take. Two stem from a diapir base, and the third from a sheet base. The sheet becomes a source-fed thrust, not unlike the thrust piercement, it takes advantage of local fault planes to rise. The difference between the two diapir bases, is that one, termed a plug-fed thrust, has a sediment cap over the top, preventing the salt from freely flowing until building pressure forces it through the cap; the other, a plug-fed extrusion, lacks the sediment cap and is allowed to flow freely. == Types of surface structures == Once the salt structure has reached the surface, it is termed one of four names; salt-wing intrusions, extrusive advance, open-toed advance or thrust advance. There is a certain level of transition between the four, as some process, such as the dissolution and removal of salt, deposition of new sediment, erosion and thrusting can shift the characteristics between them. === Salt-wing intrusions === Salt-wing intrusions are technically underground structures; found in shortening, or compressional, systems, they form radial salt wedges between detached bedding planes. However, the caps on them can be eroded away, revealing the salt and transforming it into an extrusive advance. === Extrusive advance === Extrusive advances begin once the diapir reaches the ground's surface and the salt is exposed. The salt then spreads from the feeder under gravitational pressure alone. This flowing has two consequences that form the structure. First, as the top of the salt flows faster than the bottom, there is a frontal roll along the leading edge. Second, the salt overrides any sediment being deposited at the same time, causing the feature to climb upsection and prograde. Over time, some of the salt is dissolved away, leaving a layer of impurities and other sediments behind, the thickness of this roof, or sediment cap, depends on the percentage of impurities in the salt and the sedimentation rate of the area. === Thrust advance === Thrust advances return to salt sheets as their primary base structure, and form because salt provides a weak detachment layer for faulting systems. When force is applied in such systems, the buried sheet will advance along the hanging wall. There are three driving processes in this type of advance; gravitational pressure of both the salt and overlying sediments, spreading of the margin and general plate tectonics. === Open-toed advance === Open-toed advances can either evolve from the dissolution of salts from an extrusive advance structure, or it could have evolved from a plug-fed thrust. They are partially buried advances where only the advancing edge, called the toe, is open to flow, which is controlled by a combination of gravitational forces and differential pressure of the overlying sediments. There are three described sediment roof types: synclinal basins – isolated patches of consolidated sediments, prograding roof – a growing sheet of sediments, and salt breakout – where the salt had to force its way through the overlying sediments. == References ==" Landforms,Sand island,"A sand island is an island that is mostly made of sand. The largest sand island in the world is Fraser Island, Australia. Other examples of large sand islands are Moreton, North Stradbroke and Bribie Islands which lie south of Fraser Island off the east coast of Brisbane, Australia. == References ==" Landforms,Sandfall,"Sandfall (sand fall or grainfall) is a term applied to a variety of forms of sedimentary transport or sedimentary features belonging to the larger category of mass wasting, and are driven by wind, water currents and gravitational forces. One, sometimes spectacular, form is superficially similar to waterfalls and may be found under dry, desert conditions or in submarine conditions. The sand either falls vertically over suitable drops or cascades down hard slopes. The process has been described as ""dry sandflows cascading down the escarpment face, where the grain concentration decreases dramatically and the streaming component of stress greatly exceeds the collisional component"" Sandfalls are found in sandstone canyons such as Antelope Canyon. A similar process occurs in submarine environments driven by water currents and gravity. Sandfalls on a large scale occur off the southern tip of the island of Mauritius, where strong ocean currents move sand from the high coastal shelf over the edge and into the abyssal depths. Sandfalls in the submarine San Lucas Canyon off Cabo San Lucas, Baja California were dived by Jacques Cousteau. Carter (1975) argues that the ubiquity of this process is evident from the examples from the sides of submarine canyons documented by Dill (1964) and from seamounts and deep-sea trenches documented by Heezen and Holhster (1971).Also sometimes referred to as sandfall, is the movement of sand on the ""steeply sloping surface on the lee side of a dune standing at or near the angle of repose of loose sand and advancing downwind by a succession of slides wherever that angle is exceeded.""The process of sand falling like rain has also been referred to as a sandfall. == References == == External links == sand falls have u seen that before ?????? – YouTube Sand Falls Cabo San Lucas – YouTube Sand Falls – Photograph at BetterPhoto.com" Landforms,Schlatt (landform),"Schlatt or Flatt is the Lower Saxon name for a heathland pond, an undrained body of water usually shallow, that is fed by surface water and is largely unaffected by ground water. The water is impounded by a water-retentive layer. Most Schlatts can dry out from time to time. Schlatts are characteristic of the nutrient-poor geest ridges of the North German Plain. Most of them were formed as wind-blown hollows in the periglacial region of the last ice age. The term is of Lower Saxon origin and is used mainly for the ponds in that part of Germany. In the district of Diepholz (Lower Saxony) the Conservation Foundation (Stiftung Naturschutz) has taken upon itself the preservation of Schlatts as part of a Schlatt programme. Using volunteers working with the land owners and farmers over 300 small ponds and Schlatts have been cleaned up and maintained in order to preserve them as habitats for threatened animal and plant species. == Sources == === Literature === Jan Höper: Flora und Vegetation von Kleingewässern in landwirtschaftlich genutzten Bereichen des Landkreises Diepholz. Diplomarbeit, Göttingen 1999, 129 S. Georg Müller: ""Was ist ein Schlatt"", Entstehung-Entwicklung-Zustand und rechtliche Hinweise. Broschüre 16 Seiten, Ganderkesee 2009 www.wallhecke.de == External links == Schlatt programme (in German) Plant species in Schlatts (in German) Forgotten Schlatts (in German) Schlatt information (in German) Was ist ein Schlatt? (in German)" Landforms,Shi'b,"A shi'b in Arabic is a ""gorge"" or ""canyon"" for a usually (stationary or temporary) dry river. Placenames using the word are common in the Arabic peninsula. == Saudi Arabia == Shi‘b adh Dhi’b Ash Shi`b Shi`b `amir == Yemen == Ash Shiʽb al-Aswad Shiʽb an-Nur Shiʿb Hūd" Landforms,Shutter ridge,"A shutter ridge is a ridge which has moved along a fault line, blocking or diverting drainage. Typically, a shutter ridge creates a valley corresponding to the alignment of the fault that produces it. Shutter ridges occur exclusively at strike-slip faults. == Example Locations == Oakland, California Dragon's Back, Carrizo Plain, CA == References ==" Landforms,Siek (landform),"Siek is a north German term for a wet depression, hollow or lowland area. It is mainly used to describe typical cultural landscape elements in eastern Westphalia, especially in the county of Lippe and in the region of Ravensberg Land. In East Westphalia ""siek"" is a very common component of the names of tracts of land, roads, places and even personal names, e.g. Heidsiek, Siekhorst, Im Siek, Siekmann and Sieker. == Origins == The fertile loess soils in this region of north Germany are dissected by a host of brooks and headstreams, which used to flow in marshy V-shaped valleys. Not all Sieke are or were, however, crossed by a stream, but at the very least they always consisted of wet ground. During the course of medieval and early modern cultural and agricultural history, people developed these natural landforms by cutting into the edges of the V-shaped valleys (so-called Wiesenbrechen by Wiskenmaker) and turning them into trough and box valleys, and any streams were regulated such that they ran in straight beds along the edges of such a box valley. The aim of these measures was the create a wet grassland in the now broad, accessible stream meadows which could then be extensively cultivated. In addition the cut, grass sods or plaggen were able to be used to fertilise the surrounding fields (Plaggendüngung). In Ravensberg Land, sieke are generally narrow, trough valleys interspersed in the countryside and lying next to cultivated areas of slightly higher ground or kuppen (Plaggenesche), which were raised by the grass sod fertilisation. == Importance today == Since, owing to the changed production conditions in modern agriculture, the grasslands in the sieken have become economically largely superfluous, many unused sieke would become marshy again in the long term without mowing and maintenance and turn into black alder carrs. Conservation and cultural landscape management today have the task of ensuring a balanced relationship between renaturalising sieken on the one hand and regularly mown grassland sieken on the other. An example of protected siek systems is the Kilverbach valley (52.228667°N 8.461318°E / 52.228667; 8.461318 (Kilverbachsiek)) and the Wöhrener Siek in Ravensberg Land. == Siepen == Etymologically probably related and conceptually similar is the valley landform known as asiepen, which is mainly found in the south Westphalian area and generally also describes wet valley bottoms, mostly stream-bearing V-shaped valleys. == References == == Literature == Florian Herzig: Vom Wert der feuchten Wiesen, Entstehung, Nutzung und Zerstörung der Sieke im Ravensberger Hügelland. In: Kreisheimatverein Herford (publ.), Kommunalarchiv Herford (publ.): Historisches Jahrbuch für den Kreis Herford 2005. Verlag für Regionalgeschichte. Bielefeld, 2004. ISBN 389534592X" Landforms,Sky island,"Sky islands are isolated mountains surrounded by radically different lowland environments. The term originally referred to those found on the Mexican Plateau, and has extended to similarly isolated high-elevation forests. The isolation has significant implications for these natural habitats. The American Southwest region began warming up between c. 20,000 and 10,000 years BP and atmospheric temperatures increased substantially, resulting in the formation of vast deserts that isolated the sky islands. Endemism, altitudinal migration, and relict populations are some of the natural phenomena to be found on sky islands. The complex dynamics of species richness on sky islands draws attention from the discipline of biogeography, and likewise the biodiversity is of concern to conservation biology. One of the key elements of a sky island is separation by physical distance from the other mountain ranges, resulting in a habitat island, such as a forest surrounded by desert. Some sky islands serve as refugia for boreal species stranded by warming climates since the last glacial period. In other cases, localized populations of plants and animals tend towards speciation, similar to oceanic islands such as the Galápagos Islands of Ecuador. == Etymology == Herpetologist Edward H. Taylor presented the concept of ""Islands"" on the Mexican Plateau in 1940 at the 8th American Scientific Congress in Washington, D. C. His abstract on the topic was published in 1942.The sky island concept was later applied in 1943 when Natt N. Dodge, in an article in Arizona Highways magazine, referred to the Chiricahua Mountains in southeastern Arizona as a ""mountain island in a desert sea"".In about the same era, the term was used to refer to high alpine, unglaciated, ancient topographic landform surfaces on the crest of the Sierra Nevada, California.The term was popularized by nature writer Weldon Heald, a resident of southeastern Arizona. In his 1967 book, Sky Island, he demonstrated the concept by describing a drive from the town of Rodeo, New Mexico, in the western Chihuahuan desert, to a peak in the Chiricahua Mountains, 56 km (35 mi) away and 1,700 m (5,600 ft) higher in elevation, ascending from the hot, arid desert, to grasslands, then to oak-pine woodland, pine forest, and finally to spruce-fir-aspen forest. His book mentions the concept of biome, but prefers the terminology of life zones, and makes reference to the work of Clinton Hart Merriam. The book also describes the wildlife and living conditions of the Chiricahuas.Around the same time, the idea of mountains as islands of habitat took hold with scientists and has been used by such popular writers as David Quammen and John McPhee. This concept falls within the study of island biogeography. It is not limited to mountains in southwestern North America but can be applied to mountains, highlands, and massifs around the world. == Characteristics == The Madrean sky islands are probably the most studied sky islands in the world. Found in the U.S. states of New Mexico and Arizona and the Mexican states of Chihuahua and Sonora, these numerous mountains form links in a chain connecting the northern end of the Sierra Madre Occidental and the southern Colorado Plateau. Sky islands of the central and northern mountains in the United States are often called island ranges, especially by populations within view of such islands of mountains surrounded by plains such as those found within the Wichita Mountains of southwestern Oklahoma. Some more northerly examples are the Crazy Mountains, Castle Mountains, Bears Paw Mountains, Highwood Mountains, and Little Rocky Mountains, all in the US state of Montana. Each of these ranges is forested and has tundra and snowpack above treeline, but is not connected to any other range by forested ridges; the ranges are completely surrounded by treeless prairie and/or semi-arid scrubland below. Other well-known sky islands of North America are the Great Basin montane forests, such as the White Mountains in California, and the Spring Mountains near Las Vegas, Nevada. One of the unique aspects of the sky islands of the U.S.-Mexico border region is the mix of floristic affinities, that is, the trees and plants of higher elevations are more characteristic of northern latitudes, while the flora of the lower elevations has ties to the desert and the mountains further south. Some unique plants and animals are found in these sky islands, such as the mountain yucca, Mount Graham red squirrel, Huachuca springsnail, and Jemez Mountains salamander. Some montane species apparently evolved within their current range, adapting to their local environment, such as the Mount Lyell shrew. However, it has also been noted that some isolated mountain ecosystems have a tendency to lose species over time, perhaps because small, insularized populations are vulnerable to the forces of extinction, and the isolation of the habitat reduces the possibility of colonization by new species. Furthermore, some species, such as the grizzly bear, require a range of habitats. These bears historically made use of the forests and meadows found in the Madrean sky islands, as well as lower-elevation habitats such as riparian zones. (Grizzlies were extirpated from the region in the 20th century.) Seasonal movements between highland and lowland habitats can be a kind of migration, such as that undertaken by the mountain quail of the Great Basin mountains. These birds live in high elevations when free of snow, and instead of migrating south for the winter, they migrate down.Confusing the matter somewhat is the potential for an archipelago of sky islands or even the valleys between them to act not only as a barrier to biological dispersal, but also as a path for migration. Examples of birds and mammals making use of the Madrean archipelago to extend their ranges northward are the elegant trogon and white-nosed coati. == List by terrestrial realms == === Afrotropical realm === Cal Madow Cameroonian Highlands forests Ethiopian Highlands Highlands of southern Africa Green Mountain of Ascension Island Guinea Highlands Nimba Range Mount Cameroon and Bioko montane forests Mount Kilimanjaro Mount Gorongosa Rwenzori Mountains === Australasian realm === Mount Wilhelm Mount Taranaki Waitakere Ranges === Indomalayan realm === Mount Jerai Fansipan Jade Mountain Mount Kinabalu Nat Ma Taung Central Highlands (Vietnam) Titiwangsa Mountains Western Ghats === Nearctic realm === Animas Mountains Black Range Capitan Mountains Chisos Mountains Colorado Plateau's San Francisco Peaks Chuska Mountains Great Basin montane forests Davis Mountains Guadalupe Mountains San Jacinto Mountains Madrean sky islands Manzano Mountains Mogollon Mountains Oscura Mountains Olympic Mountains Peloncillo Mountains Quartz Mountains Sacramento Mountains San Augustin Mountains Sandia Mountains Spring Mountains Mount Taylor Volcano Wichita Mountains === Neotropical realm === Baja California Sierra de la Laguna Sierra de Juarez Sierra San Pedro Mártir Cordillera of Central America Tepuis Serra do Mar Hispaniolan mountain ranges Baoruco Mountain Range, Dominican Republic Cordillera Central, Dominican Republic Massif de la Hotte, Haiti Chaîne de la Selle, Haiti Sierra de Tamaulipas Venezuelan Coastal Range === Palearctic realm === Aïr Mountains Altai Mountains Baikal Mountains Caucasus Tibesti Mountains Tien Shan == See also == Altitudinal zonation Life zone Holdridge life zones Inselberg or monadnock List of life zones by region Refugium (population biology) Table (landform) Tepui == References == == External links == Sky Island Alliance homepage Sky Islands Traverse long-distance hiking route Saguaro-Juniper Corp. webpage" Landforms,Slot canyon,"A slot canyon is a long, narrow channel or drainageway with sheer rock walls that are typically eroded into either sandstone or other sedimentary rock. A slot canyon has depth-to-width ratios that typically exceed 10:1 over most of its length and can approach 100:1. The term is especially used in the semiarid southwestern United States and particularly the Colorado Plateau. Slot canyons are subject to flash flooding and commonly contain unique ecological communities that are distinct from the adjacent, drier uplands. Some slot canyons can measure less than 1 metre (3 ft) across at the top but drop more than 30 metres (100 ft) to the floor of the canyon. Many slot canyons are formed in sandstone and limestone rock, although slot canyons in other rock types such as granite and basalt are possible. Even in sandstone and limestone, only a very small number of streams will form slot canyons due to a combination of the particular characteristics of the rock and regional rainfall. == Around the world == Slot canyons are found in many parts of the world, predominantly in areas with low rainfall. Some of the best-known slot canyons are to be found in the Southwestern United States. Other significant areas include the Sierra de Guara in northern Spain, the Pyrenees on the border of France and Spain, and the Blue Mountains in New South Wales, Australia. === Australia === The largest known area of slot canyons in Australia (containing over 900) is in the Blue Mountains, west of Sydney. They occur in a narrow band of sandstone that runs roughly 30 kilometres (19 mi) from east to west, and about 100 kilometres (62 mi) from south to north. The majority of these canyons are in the Wollemi Wilderness, and are difficult to access. Many canyons within the Wollemi Wilderness have yet to be explored by humans. A small number are regularly visited by canyoners on weekends in summer with those closest to Katoomba being the most frequently visited. The Grand Canyon, near Blackheath, has a tourist track along its rim, but requires abseiling (rappelling) or swimming to visit fully. Sandstone slot canyons can also be found in a few more remote parts of Australia, including Karijini National Park and the Bungle Bungles in Purnululu National Park, both in Western Australia, and Carnarvon Gorge in Queensland. === United States === Southern Utah has the densest population of slot canyons in the world with over one thousand slot canyons in the desert lands south of Interstate 70. Utah's slot canyons are found in Zion National Park at The Narrows, along Canyonlands National Park's Joint Trail, throughout Capitol Reef National Park, within the San Rafael Swell and the Grand Staircase–Escalante National Monument, especially along the Escalante River drainage including Coyote Gulch. Many more slot canyons are located on public Bureau of Land Management and state-owned lands in southern Utah, in areas surrounding the aforementioned parks and monuments. Buckskin Gulch—one of the longest slot canyons in the world—begins in southern Utah and continues into northern Arizona within the Paria Canyon-Vermilion Cliffs Wilderness. Northern Arizona also has a high concentration of slot canyons including Antelope Canyon and Secret Canyon, which are two of the most famous slot canyons located near Page on land owned by the Navajo Nation. Slot canyons are also located in the valley between U.S. Route 89 and the Vermilion Cliffs in Arizona, and can be seen as one descends into the valley on U.S. 89, but these are on the Navajo reservation and are closed to the public. The Kasha-Katuwe Tent Rocks National Monument's slot canyon trail in New Mexico is unique as it was carved into tuff (volcanic ash). In California, several slot canyons are located within Death Valley National Park. === Europe === There are a number of slot canyons in Spain, especially in the arid foothills of the Pyrenees, such as on the Balcez river. There is an extensive tourism industry built around canyoning in this region. In Czechia, there is a spectacular slot canyon in the Teplice Mountains called Little Siberia due to the microclimate, which is several degrees colder than the surrounding area. The canyons in Teplice are surrounded by pillar-like rock formations which resemble various animals and were the site where The Chronicles of Narnia were filmed. == Drowning danger == Local as well as distant storms can cause dangerous flash flooding in slot canyons, and hikers should not enter them if there is any sign of rain in the surrounding area. In many slot canyons, it can be miles before a safe exit or rescue is possible. Australia's Blue Mountains in particular have claimed the lives of several often due to flash flooding.On August 12, 1997, eleven tourists, seven from France, one from the United Kingdom, one from Sweden and two from the United States, were killed in Lower Antelope Canyon by a flash flood. Very little rain fell at the site that day, but an earlier thunderstorm had dumped a large amount of water into the canyon basin, seven miles upstream. The lone survivor of the flood was tour guide Francisco ""Poncho"" Quintana, who had prior swift-water training. At the time, the ladder system consisted of amateur-built wood ladders that were swept away by the flash flood. Today, ladder systems have been bolted in place, and deployable cargo nets are installed at the top of the canyon. A NOAA Weather Radio from the National Weather Service and an alarm horn are stationed at the fee booth.On July 15, 2021, a Michigan woman died in a flash flood that swept through a slot canyon in Grand Canyon National Park. She was a customer with a commercial rafting group that camped overnight about a quarter of a mile from a slot canyon. Five other people with serious injuries were airlifted from the canyon as a result of the same flash flood. == Gallery == == See also == One-Line Sky == References == == External links == Media related to Slot canyons at Wikimedia Commons Southern Utah's Slot Canyons Slot Canyons of the American Southwest Video walk-through of a very tight slot canyon" Landforms,Snow field,"A snow field, snowfield or neve is an accumulation of permanent snow and ice, typically found above the snow line, normally in mountainous and glacial terrain.Glaciers originate in snowfields. The lower end of a glacier is usually free from snow and névé in summer. In the upper end and above the upper boundary of a glacier, the snow field is an ice field covered with snow. The glacier upper boundary, where it emerges from under a snow field, is ill-defined because of gradual transition. == References ==" Landforms,Sods,"Sods is a term used in the Allegheny Mountains of eastern West Virginia for a mountain top meadow or bog, in an area that is otherwise generally forested. The term is similar (perhaps identical) to that of a ""grass bald"", a more widespread designation applied throughout the central and southern Appalachian region. The best known example of a sods is Dolly Sods, a federally designated wilderness area in Tucker County, West Virginia and popular destination for recreationalists. Other examples include Nelson Sods (Pendleton County) and Baker Sods (Randolph County). == Ecology == West Virginia University botanist Earl L. Core addressed the origin of the ""sods"" in 1973: How did it happen that these grassy tracts were originally [prior to white settlement] treeless, when all the surrounding areas were covered with trees? No one really knows. Although the ""sods"" and ""balds"" have been the subject of much speculation, discussion, and research, no generally-accepted explanation has yet been proposed for their existence. Perhaps there is not really any one cause; the treelessness may be the result of a complex situation which may vary from place to place. Factors suggested may be classified as natural or artificial. Among the natural have been listed climatic, edaphic (soil), topographic, biotic and pyric (fire). The dominant grass is Allegheny flyback (danthonia compressa), a grass so light in weight that it would ""fly back"" against the scythe of the mower. == See also == Appalachian bogs == References == == Further reading == Core, Earl L. (1949), ""Original Treeless Areas in West Virginia"", J. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc., 65:306-310. Rentch, James S. and Ronald H. Fortney (1997), “The Vegetation of West Virginia Grass Bald Communities”, Castanea, 62(3): 147-160 (September issue)." Landforms,Spur (topography),"A spur is a lateral ridge or tongue of land descending from a hill, mountain or main crest of a ridge. It can also be defined as another hill or mountain range which projects in a lateral direction from a main hill or mountain range.Examples of spurs include: Abbott Spur, which separates the lower ends of Rutgers Glacier and Allison Glacier on the west side of the Royal Society Range in Victoria Land, Antarctica Boott Spur, a subpeak of Mount Washington Kaweah Peaks Ridge, a spur of the Great Western Divide, a sub-range of California's Sierra Nevada Kelley Spur, four kilometres (two nautical miles) east of Spear Spur on the south side of Dufek Massif in the Pensacola Mountains, Antarctica Geneva Spur on Mount Everest Sperrin Mountains in Northern Ireland == See also == Draw or re-entrant, the low ground between two spurs Spur castle == References ==" Landforms,Steilhang,"A Steilhang (pl: Steilhänge) is a geoscientific term for a steep mountainside or hillside (or a part thereof), the average slope of which is greater than 1:2 or 30°. Leser defines a steilhang as a mountainside with an incline of between 16° and 60°, slopes of between 30° and 60° being described as ""very steep"" (übersteil) and anything over 60° being a rock face (wand).The term is German for ""steep slope/mountainside/hillside"", ""escarpment"" or ""steep face"". The word hang in this compound is derived from hängen, ""to hang"". Also compare the British English word hanger (from Old English hangra) for a steep wooded slope (compare Hanger Lane), or used to mean woods on steep hillsides, e.g. for the East Hampshire Hangers. == Geology == The formation of slopes of different gradients depends on the one hand on the type of underlying rock of the mountain or hill - and this may result in slopes varying from those on the other side of a mountain, hill or valley – and on the other hand on its local hardness, and circumstances of its deposition (sedimentation, stratigraphy, bedding or jointing), on its resistance to erosion and not least on the water flow and local climatic conditions. From a geomorphological standpoint, there is a distinction made between steilhänge not simply on the basis of their gradient and rock type, but especially on their aspect (i.e. their orientation), their rotundity or roughness (small shapes, flexion, steps, terraces, drainage etc.), the vegetation on the mountainsides or hillsides and the soil formation. For example, the soil type known as ranker gets its name from the word Ranker which is commonly used in Western Austria to mean steilhang. == Natural dangers == Steilhänge present various natural dangers if they are not forested or interrupted by gentler slopes: Landslides – especially if the soil is saturated after long periods of rain or during snowmelt Collapse – if there is a rock face or heavily eroded crags above, or Rockfall, a less severe occurrence Destruction caused by mudflows during bad weather or avalanches episodic or sudden rock creep, that may threaten to impound water. == Farming == Steilhänge of up to about 40° can in principle be used for farming – for example to make hay or in forestry to obtain wood. Under favourable climatic conditions they can even be used for viticulture. But they are only rarely economic when compared with more level landscapes with which they are in competition. As a result, hill farmers (their definition varies according to the location of the uplands and their hillsides) are usually supported from the public purse. This support of the alpine forestry and agriculture is sometimes not only justified, but also essential. Traditionally the higher level authorities are responsible (especially the German states for example), because the individual municipalities are economically unable to. Geotechnological institutions from the fields of mining, avalanche protection and tourism, as well as the EU are active in supporting the affected highlands in Europe Through sensible support, hill farmers are encouraged or enabled to continue to work their farms or alms. Where this does not happen, the damage caused by the aforementioned natural dangers is generally more costly over time than the costs of subsidising hill farming. The advantages of protective and support measures are: Preservation of protected forests (especially against mudflows and avalanches) General conservation (""hill farmers as landscape gardeners"") Environmental protection (e.g. preservation of soil quality, biodiversity, etc...) Tourism (desire for ""intact landscapes"", native customs, etc.) Control of mountain streams and avalanches Protection of roads and stabilization of forest tracks Increased self-sufficiency in terms of the local supply of food and raw materials Regional aspects of planning. == References ==" Landforms,Swale (landform),"A swale is a shady spot, or a sunken or marshy place. In US usage in particular, it is a shallow channel with gently sloping sides. Such a swale may be either natural or human-made. Artificial swales are often infiltration basins, designed to manage water runoff, filter pollutants, and increase rainwater infiltration. Bioswales are swales that involve the inclusion of plants or vegetation in their construction, specifically. == On land == The use of swales has been popularized as a rainwater-harvesting and soil-conservation strategy by Bill Mollison, David Holmgren, and other advocates of permaculture. In this context a swale is usually a water-harvesting ditch on contour, also called a contour bund. Swales as used in permaculture are designed by permaculturalists to slow and capture runoff by spreading it horizontally across the landscape (along an elevation contour line), facilitating runoff infiltration into the soil. This archetypal form of swale is a dug-out, sloped, often grassed or reeded ""ditch"" or ""lull"" in the landform. One option involves piling the spoil onto a new bank on the still lower slope, in which case a bund or berm is formed, mitigating the natural (and often hardscape-increased) risks to slopes below and to any linked watercourse from flash flooding. In arid and seasonally dry places, vegetation (existing or planted) in the swale benefits heavily from the concentration of runoff. Trees and shrubs along the swale can provide shade and mulch which decrease evaporation. == On beaches == The term ""swale"" or ""beach swale"" is also used to describe long, narrow, usually shallow troughs between ridges or sandbars on a beach, that run parallel to the shoreline. == See also == Contour trenching Gutter Keyline design Rain garden Stormwater Water-sensitive urban design == References == == External links == Fact Sheet: Dry and Wet Vegetated Swales from Federal Highway Administration Wetlands of the Great Lakes: The Beach Swale & Dune and Swale Types from Michigan State University Video showing swales used to rehabilitate desert terrain" Landforms,Swell (geology),"A swell in geology is a domed area of considerable areal extent.According to Leser, it is also called a sill (geology), and is a gently arched landform of various orders of size in topographic, sub-glacial or sub-hydric geology. It may be as small as a rock formation in a river or may assume continental scale. == References ==" Landforms,Syrt,"A syrt is a kind of an elevated landform in Russia and Central Asia. The word means ""highland"", ""ridge"" or ""backbone"" in Turkic languages (sırt) and is present in Turkic toponymy in the mentioned areas: in Tien Shan, Pamirs, South Urals, such as Obshchiy Syrt by Urals, Uzun-Syrt (""Long back"") plateau by Koktebel in Crimea. It is a denudational upland or elevated flatland, a kind of dissected plateau. Syrts may be separated from each other by higher ridges. At the same time, syrts may serve as water divides between drainage basins for larger rivers. The term should not to be confused with the Latin term syrtis and the derived term ""syrt"" for sandy shores or quicksand. == See also == Summit accordance == References ==" Landforms,Table (landform),"A table or tableland is a butte, flank of a mountain, or mountain, that has a flat top. This kind of landform has numerous names, including: Butte Mesa Plateau – Highland area, usually of relatively flat terrain Potrero Tepui Terrace TuyaA homologous landform under the sea is called a tablemount or guyot. == Description == The term ""flat"" is relative when speaking of tables, and often the naming or identification of a table (or table hill or mountain) is based on the appearance of the terrain feature from a distance or from below it. An example is Mesa Verde, Colorado, where the ""flat top"" of the mountain is both rolling terrain and cut by numerous deep canyons and arroyos, but whose rims appear quite flat from almost all directions, terminating in cliffs. == See also == Tablelands (disambiguation) == External links == Media related to Tables (landform) at Wikimedia Commons" Landforms,Terrace (geology),"In geology, a terrace is a step-like landform. A terrace consists of a flat or gently sloping geomorphic surface, called a tread, that is typically bounded on one side by a steeper ascending slope, which is called a ""riser"" or ""scarp"". The tread and the steeper descending slope (riser or scarp) together constitute the terrace. Terraces can also consist of a tread bounded on all sides by a descending riser or scarp. A narrow terrace is often called a bench.The sediments underlying the tread and riser of a terrace are also commonly, but incorrectly, called terraces, leading to confusion. Terraces are formed in various ways. == Fluvial terraces == Fluvial terraces are remnants of the former floodplain of a stream or river. They are formed by the downcutting of a river or stream channel into and the abandonment and lateral erosion of its former floodplain. The downcutting, abandonment, and lateral erosion of a former floodplain can be the result of either changes in sea level, local or regional tectonic uplift; changes in local or regional climate; changes in the amount of sediment being carried by the river or stream; change in discharge of the river; or a complex mixture of these and other factors. The most common sources of the variations in rivers and streams that create fluvial terraces are vegetative, geomorphic, and hydrologic responses to climate. More recently, the direct modification of rivers and streams and their watersheds by cultural processes have resulted in the development of terraces along many rivers and streams. == Kame terraces == Kame terraces are formed on the side of a glacial valley and are the deposits of meltwater streams flowing between the ice and the adjacent valley side. == Marine terraces == A marine terrace represents the former shoreline of a sea or ocean. It can be formed by marine abrasion or erosion of materials comprising the shoreline (marine-cut terraces or wave-cut platforms); the accumulations of sediments in the shallow-water to slightly emerged coastal environments (marine-built terraces or raised beach); or the bioconstruction by coral reefs and accumulation of reef materials (reef flats) in intertropical regions.The formation of a marine terrace follows this general process: A wave cut platform must be carved into bedrock (high wave energy is needed for this process). Although this is the first step to the process for the formation of a marine terrace, not all wave cut platforms will become a marine terrace. After the wave cut platform is formed it must be removed from interaction with the high wave energy. This process happens by either change in sea level due to glacial-interglacial cycles or tectonically rising landmasses. When the wave cut has been raised above sea level it is preserved. The terraces are most commonly preserved in flights along the coastline. == Lacustrine terraces == A lake (lacustrine) terrace represents the former shoreline of either a nonglacial, glacial, or proglacial lake. As with marine terraces, a lake terrace can be formed by either the abrasion or erosion of materials comprising the shoreline, the accumulations of sediments in the shallow-water to slightly emerged environments, or some combination of these. Given the smaller size of lakes relative to the size of typical marine water bodies, lake terraces are overall significantly narrower and less well developed than marine terraces. However, not all lake terraces are relict shorelines. In case of the lake terraces of ancient ice-walled lakes, some proglacial lakes, and alluvium-dammed (slackwater) lakes, they often represent the relict bottom of these lakes. Finally, glaciolacustrine kame terraces are either the relict deltas or bottoms of ancient ice marginal lakes. == Structural terraces == In geomorphology, a structural terrace is a terrace created by the differential erosion of flat-lying or nearly flat-lying layered strata. The terrace results from preferential stripping by erosion of a layer of softer strata from an underlying layer of harder strata. The preferential removal of softer material exposes the flat surface of the underlying harder layer, creating the tread of a structural terrace. Structural terraces are commonly paired and not always associated with river valleys. == Travertine terraces == A travertine terrace is formed when geothermally heated supersaturated alkaline waters emerge to the surface and form waterfalls of precipitated carbonates. == See also == Parallel Roads of Glen Roy – Nature reserve in the Highlands of Scotland with ancient shoreline terraces Machair – Fertile low-lying grassy plain Piedmonttreppen Raised beach – Emergent coastal landform Raised shoreline – Ancient shoreline exposed above current water level Terrace (earthworks) – Terrain formed by tiered platforms Terrace Crossing - a geographical zone between the sedimentation (downstream) part and the erosion (upstream) part of a river Wave-cut platform – Narrow flat area created by erosion == References == == External links == Here is a good example of a river terrace: http://www.geographie.uni-erlangen.de/mrichter/gallery/photos/asia/images/river_terraces_near_kasbeki.jpg" Landforms,Thalweg,"In geography and fluvial geomorphology, a thalweg or talweg () is the line of lowest elevation within a valley or watercourse.Under international law, a thalweg is taken to be the middle of the primary navigable channel of a waterway that defines the boundary line between entities such as states. Thalwegs can acquire special significance because disputed river borders are often deemed to run along the river's thalweg. == Etymology == The word thalweg is of 19th-century German origin. The German word Thalweg (modern spelling Talweg) is a compound noun that is built from the German elements Thal (since Duden's orthography reform of 1901 written Tal) meaning valley (cognate with dale in English), and Weg, meaning way. It literally means ""valley way"" and is used, with its modern spelling Talweg, in daily German to describe a path or road that follows the bottom of a valley, or in geography with the more technical meaning also adopted by English. == Hydrology == In hydrological and fluvial landforms, the thalweg is a line drawn to join the lowest points along the entire length of a stream bed or valley in its downward slope, defining its deepest channel. The thalweg thus marks the natural direction (the profile) of a watercourse. The term is also sometimes used to refer to a subterranean stream that percolates under the surface and in the same general direction as the surface stream. == Real world application == Slowing stream-bed erosion by taking advantage of a thalweg helps stabilize running water sources. Placing boulders along the thalweg in a running water source helps to protect the channel's sedimentary erosion and deposit balance. In concurrence with the placement of boulders along a thalweg, the placement of boulders along an instream to form artificial sills also helps to slow the sedimentary erosion and deposit of running water sources, while keeping the esteem (fishing, local wildlife, and recreation) and natural resources of the running water source intact. The placement of boulders along a thalweg and the creation of instream sills help to aid the flow of water during late summer months when the flow rate drops, and help to slow sedimentary erosion and deposit in the spring and fall months when the flow rates are high. This process of utilizing a thalweg to slow stream-bed erosion was used in Meacham Creek in Umatilla, Oregon. == Thalweg principle == The thalweg principle (also known as the thalweg doctrine or the rule of thalweg) is the legal principle that if the boundary between two political entities is stated to be a waterway, without further description (e.g., a median line, right bank, eastern shore, low tide line, etc.), the boundary follows the thalweg of that watercourse. In particular, the boundary follows the center of the principal navigable channel of the waterway (which is presumably the deepest part). If there are multiple navigable channels in a river, the one principally used for downstream travel (likely having the strongest current) is used. This definition has been used in specific descriptions as well. The Treaty of Versailles, for example, specifies that ""In the case of boundaries which are defined by a [navigable] waterway"" the boundary is to follow ""the median line of the principal channel of navigation.""The precise drawing of river boundaries has been important on countless occasions. Notable examples include the Shatt al-Arab between Iraq and Iran, the Danube in central Europe (Croatia–Serbia border dispute), the Kasikili/Sedudu Island dispute between Namibia and Botswana (settled by the International Court of Justice in 1999), and the 2004 dispute settlement under the UN Law of the Sea concerning the offshore boundary between Guyana and Suriname, in which the thalweg of the Courantyne River played a role in the ruling. In the 20th century dispute between the USSR and China (PRC) over Zhenbao Island, China held that the Thalweg principle supported their position. The doctrine is also applied to sub-national boundaries, such as those between American states.In rivers with occasional flooding and especially ice cover which breaks in the spring, the thalweg can change. This can mean that the border might move if it is defined as the thalweg. The Finland–Sweden border has been moved several times due to this. == Mathematics == In the field of topology, the thalweg can be described as a parametrised curve. If the elevation of the valley floor at some position with coordinates (x, y) is represented by a surface z(x, y), then the negative gradient vector field -∇z(x, y) equips each position (x, y) with a vector pointing downhill in the direction of steepest slope (or by analogy, the direction a ball would roll if released from this position in the valley). Any parametrised curve that is everywhere directed along the gradient vector field eventually joins the thalweg (or using the same analogy, you can release a ball from any position in the valley, and it will eventually meet and then roll along the thalweg, assuming a smooth rolling surface so the ball doesn't get stuck, and also assuming sufficient rolling resistance or wind resistance that the ball doesn't roll down one side of the valley, up the other side and then oscillate back and forth). So, in this sense, the thalweg can be defined as the parametrised curve to which the gradient field converges. == See also == Stream gradient – Surface slope along a watercourse == References == == External links == USGS: Stream Modeling website" Landforms,Thule Land Bridge,"The Thule Land Bridge (also called the Thulean North Atlantic Bridge) was a land bridge, now submerged beneath the Atlantic Ocean, that connected the British Isles to central Greenland. The land bridge appeared during the Late Paleocene and disappeared during the early Eocene. The Thule Land Bridge is theorized to have connected northern Europe to North America by way of the British Isles and Greenland. The Faroe Islands, the Iceland-Faroe Ridge, Iceland, and the shallow portion of the Denmark Strait may have been parts of the Thule Land Bridge. == Relation to other land bridges == While it existed, the Thule Land Bridge would have connected Doggerland to Greenland. It is also theorized that the completion of the land bridge from Europe to North America was completed with an unnamed crossing at the southern portion of the Davis Strait, connecting Greenland to Baffin Island. == References ==" Landforms,Velma (mudflat),"Velma (plural velme) is a Venetian dialect term derived from ""melma"" (mud). It is also used by Italian scientists to refer to lagunar mudflats (also called tidal flats), such as those found in the Lagoon of Venice. They are areas of shallow lagunar bottoms which are normally submerged, but emerge at low tides. They are generally without vegetation. Only associations of Zostera noltii (dwarf eelgrass) can be found. They originate from sediments carried by sea and stronger currents which are deposited on the lagoon bottom. They often surround the edges of the lagoon's barene (a venetian term for saltmarshes).The velme, together with the barene (saltmarshes) and the shallow bottoms, constitute one of the most characteristic but also most fragile environments of the ecosystem of the Lagoon of Venice. They are subject to variations in their extent depending on the amount of materials (silt, sand and other sediments) they lose or acquire. Sediment acquisition leads to the consolidation of the velma's sediment soil and sediment loss leads to erosion of this soil. If the balance between consolidation and erosion fails, the velme and saltmarshes risk disappearing. == Erosion and loss of velma areas == The loss of velma areas in the Lagoon of Venice has been occurring for more than two centuries. From the early 19th century the combined saltmarsh area had decreased form 155 km2 to 40 km2. This has also involved a loss of velma areas because many of them surround the saltmarshes. Velma areas are often under bathymetric (depth) pressure, which makes them less likely to emerge at low tides, leading to loss of stability and potential loss of their ecological function. This has been caused by infrastructural works carried out in the last two centuries. In the 19th century breakwaters were built at the lagoon inlets to stabilise their shape and orientation and to intensify the inflow of sea current in order to create conditions for deepening them and the channels which start from them. This was done to facilitate the transit of larger ships into the lagoon. In the 20th century, an even deeper and wider navigation canal was dug from the Malamocco inlet to the port of Marghera for large container ships and oil tankers to sail to new industrial areas. The depth of the channel form the Lido inlet was also increased to let large modern cruise ships through. These kinds of interventions have led to the displacement of sediments which are lost out of the lagoon and an increase in depth of the lagoon floor form and average of -0.75 m to one of -1.5 m since 1902.The average loss of sediments is 2.2 million m3 per year. Erosion in the Lido basin was 14 cm in 1930-1970 and 12 cm in 1970-2000; in the Malamocco basin it was 20 cm and 33 cm respectively; in the Chioggia basin it was 8 cm and 20 cm; in the mid lagoon 14 cm and 20 cm.The average deepening of lagoon floor has also made the wave action created by winds stronger, producing a further erosive effect. In addition to normal strength winds, Venice can also be hit by strong winds caused the Bora from the northeast, especially in the winter, or the Scirocco from the southeast, which can occur from March to November. The latter, when combined a rising tide, can cause the acqua alta phenomenon (exceptionally high tides which cause flooding). Another erosive problem is caused by wave action created by passing motorboats. == Shelter for benthic species == The velme are ecologically important because strong variations in salinity and oxygenation created by submersion and emersion turn them into an environment which is even more selective than that of the saltmarshes. As a result, they form Benthic zones. Their substratum gives shelter to Benthos (lagoon bottom species): polychaetes (bristle worms), Daphnia (water fleas), molluscs (particularly bivalves) and some small crustaceans, such as caridean shrimps, from the low tide. These, in turn, provide food for some species of water birds, both nesting and migratory. == Food source for birds == Waders (called shorebirds in North America) are associated with the tidal variations in water level. They are found in mudflats which are exposed at low tide and or just about underwater in very shallow waters, where they search for their Benthos preys in the mud. Their thin, pointed beaks penetrate the mud to catch preys which do not have significant reactions. Their short legs allow them to walk where the water is only a few centimetres deep. Their legs and beaks are often brightly coloured, but their prey cannot see them and flee. During high tides, when their food is underwater, they rest at Roost sites. Some species feed throughout the tidal cycle shifting their feeding between mudflats and saltmarshes in synchrony with the tide rises and falls. The loss of mudflats and saltmarshes and disturbance at feeding and roosting sites poses a considerable threat to these populations. Their dependence on the presence of mudflats is a problem as these are one of the most difficult lagunar areas to restore and maintain. Many species are strongly migratory. They nest in northern Europe and Asia and winter on the Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts. Decreased food availability forces migratory species to prolong their flight periods, which results in a decrease in reproductive success and increase mortality.Common waders in the lagoon are the black-winged stilt (Himantopus himantopus), pied avocet (Recurvirostra avosetta), Eurasian curlew (Numenius arquata), black-tailed godwit (Limosa limosa), common redshank (Tringa totanus), spotted redshank (Tringa erythropus), common greenshank (Tringa nebularia) and Eurasian oystercatcher (Haematopus ostralegus). The common redshank's nesting colony in the lagoon the largest in the Mediterranean, with 2000 specimens. == Seagrass of the velma == Zostera noltii (dwarf seagrass) and especially its subspecies Nanozostera noltii, which is more common in the Lagoon of Venice, are found in velma areas. Like other seagrasses, they are important for stabilising, re-suspending and consolidating sediments. They provide a defence against erosion and reduce wave energy. They also protect the benthic species that live in the velme. An area where it has been planted in a raised artificial velma habitat at Punta vecia Sud had been colonised by 47 benthic taxa. The biomass is seven times higher than that of the areas nearby. Zostera is, however, sensitive to being smothered by shifting sediments and has a low capacity to recover when buried. This may be due to its relatively short leaves and its lack of vertical rhizomes.In addition the mentioned roles, it plays an important part in the winter diet of the whooper and mute swan, the brent goose, wigeon and wildfowl. == Protection of the velme == In the Lagoon of Venice some velma areas have been undergoing marked degradation due to the inconsistent nature of the bottom sediments or erosion. Consequently, there is degradation of the benthic species in the bottom sediments of the lagoon with pronounced bathymetric (depth) pressure. Projects to recover and regenerate these areas have been undertaken with the creation of new velma structures by creating confined areas and pouring sedimentary materials which include sandy and loamy components into them, using in part or totally materials from the dredging of the lagoon inlets. In areas under bathymetric pressure the bottom of the lagoon was increased in height to make it shallower. Small vivification canals were dug to direct the flow of water, improve sea water turnover and activate the processes of stabilisation of the bottom through an increase of primary production. Since these structures reach their highest physical and environmental value when they are colonised by Nanozostera noltii, a seagrass typical of the intertidal flats, these were planted in the intervention areas.In the twenty-five years up to 2016, 18 artificial velma habitats covering a total of 2 km2 were created. This, together with the creation 11 km2 of saltmarshes, involved the reuse of 20 million m3 of sediments from the dredging of channels and canals. The creation of more velma habitats was in progress and more were planned. There is also a wider programme of planting seagrasses which also involves the planting of Cymodocea nodosa (little Neptune grass). It is found mainly near the inlets or in places with medium to high hydrodynamics and where salinity is not variable. It likes sediments with a high sand content. As it is of tropical origin, it starts growing rapidly in late spring, assuming an emerald colour, and does not grow in the winter, assuming a brownish colour. It is planted by the inlets or in canals or channels not far from them at a depth on -1.5 m or in artificial velma habitats in conjunction with Nanozostera noltii. == References == == External links == Adriatic Sea Lagoon of Venice Mudflats" Landforms,Washland,"Washland or washes are areas of land adjacent to rivers which are deliberately flooded at times when the rivers are high, to avoid flooding in residential or important agricultural areas. They often provide for overwintering wildfowl, and several include important nature reserves.Examples of washlands include: The Ouse Washes of Cambridgeshire and Norfolk The Nene Washes of Cambridgeshire == References ==" Landforms,Waulsortian mudmound,"A Waulsortian mudmound is a calcareous geographical feature found in Early Carboniferous strata of Central Europe. It is a type of fossil-rich bioconstruction, formed by microbial activity in deep tropical waters during the mid-Dinantian (late Tournaisian to early Viséan geological age). Mud mounds are a type of high-relief biologically-mediated seafloor deposit, similar to a reef. Unlike a true reef, a mud mound is composed almost entirely of uncemented mud-sized matrix grains, and the isolated fossils do not form a significant skeletal framework. Waulsortian mudmounds in particular are unbedded, micritic limestone, heavily jointed with calcite veining. There is some galena and sphalerite mineralisation in the joints. The fossils are mainly crinoid ossicles and fenestellid bryozoans, together with gastropods and brachiopods. The term Waulsortian was first used in 1863 to describe an area of limestone near Waulsort in Namur, Belgium. Similar mudstone was recognised in the Clitheroe area of Lancashire England by Arthur Vaughan in 1916. == Formation == On a firm bed of limestone, under the deep waters of the tropical sea, crinoids fixed themselves to the rock. The oceans gentle currents eroded the base rock creating a lime-rich mud which was propelled by the current. Where the water was too rapid, the crinoids were displaced, but where it was slower they formed a barrier which arrested the mud forming a micritic deposit. Further crinoids attached themselves, and the deposit thickened to an eventual depth of 200m. In the mudmound one finds fossils of the crinoids bone structure and the angle of deposit shows the direction and speed of mudflow. == Clitheroe reef belt == There has been much debate on how the low micritic limestone hills in the Craven Basin were formed, one theory led to them being called reef knolls, knoll reefs, or bioherms but work in 1972 by Miller & Grayson identified them as mud mounds with the same fossil content as those near Waulsort. They include accessible geological sites at Clitheroe Castle, Salthill and Bellman quarries, Crow Hill and Worsaw, Gerna and Sykes. == References ==" Landforms,Windwatt,"A Windwatt is a mudflat exposed as a result of wind action on water. They occur especially in the Western Pomerania Lagoon Area National Park on Germany's Baltic Sea coast. The term is German.Unlike the Wadden Sea along Europe's North Sea coast, the shallow water zones of the Western Pomerania Lagoon Area National Park are largely unaffected by oceanic tides. When there are strong winds in a certain direction, however, water is driven out of the lagoons (the so-called bodden) into the Baltic Sea, so that several particularly shallow areas of mud become exposed and dry out. The water flows back when the wind turns again. These Windwatten are a major source of food for migrating birds in the autumn. For the Crane, which cross Western Pomeranian bodden country during migration, the Windwatten are one of the most important resting areas in Western Europe. == References ==" Landforms,Witness Hill,"A witness hill is a type of landform created from the erosion of the earth. It is a testimony of the evolution and retreat of a platform or cuesta relief, that is, it is a rest of the platform in a relief where there are layers of hard and soft rocks arranged horizontally in which erosion has sculpted landscapes that are also horizontal. As the erosion produced by the rivers increases in the soft layers, hills are formed, and if the plateau is attacked by erosion from all sides, the witness hills with flat summits appear. They are therefore, the ""witnesses"" of the platform that existed in that place millions of years ago.Some examples of this type of geological formation are: Pilot Mountain, North Carolina, Dori Plateau, Burkina Faso, La Teta Hill, La Guajira Peninsula and the Hills of Guayana, Venezuela. These hills are quite common in the sedimentary basins of the Meseta Central of the Iberian Peninsula, in the Ebro Depression and in the tabular reliefs. == References ==" Landforms,Category:Landforms by mountain range, Landforms,Category:Landforms by place, Landforms,Category:Former landforms, Landforms,Category:Ecoregions by landform, Landforms,Category:Lists of landforms, Landforms,Category:Bodies of water,"Compare to Category:Landforms and Category:Wetlands Bodies of water may exist within land areas or within other bodies of water and may be natural, human-made or a combination." Landforms,Category:Aeolian landforms, Landforms,Category:Alvars (landform), Landforms,Category:Artificial landforms,"Artificially created landforms, using various types of engineering vehicles." Landforms,Category:Basins,"This is the category for geologic basins and geographical basins, including geologic oceanic basins, sedimentary basins, geologic depression basins, drainage basins (aka watersheds), and groundwater basins. Some of these are usually thought of in their two-dimensional representation as on a map, however they are all three-dimensional bodies. They are all landforms, even if some of them are under water or under other overburden." Landforms,Category:Coastal and oceanic landforms,Coastal landforms and Physical oceanography topographic landforms. Landforms,Category:Coastal lagoons, Landforms,Category:Continents, Landforms,Category:Danxia landform, Landforms,Category:Erosion landforms, Landforms,Category:Fictional landforms, Landforms,Category:Fluvial landforms, Landforms,Category:Geologic domes, Landforms,Category:Glacial landforms,Landforms created by glaciers Landforms,Category:Glens,"Articles about glens, a type of valley, typically one that is long and bounded by gently sloped concave sides." Landforms,Category:Highlands,"Articles relating to highlands, mountainous regions or elevated mountainous plateaus. Generally speaking, upland (or uplands) refers to ranges of hills, typically up to 500–600 m (1,600–2,000 ft). Highland (or highlands) is usually reserved for ranges of low mountains." Landforms,Category:Islands,"""Islands by country"" refers to sovereignty, which may be different from physical location. ""Islands by continent"" also refers to sovereignty. ""Islands by body of water"" refers to physical location, specifically: ""Islands in lakes"" ""Islands by ocean or sea"" ""River islands""." Landforms,Category:Karst, Landforms,Category:Lacustrine landforms, Landforms,Category:Mountain ranges, Landforms,Category:Mountains,"Related categories: Category:Climbing Category:Hills Category:Mountain ranges Category:Mountaineering" Landforms,Category:Mud volcanoes, Landforms,Category:Patterned grounds,"Patterned grounds may have different origins, amongst others: Cryoturbation (ice wedges, palsa and pingo); Desiccation; Water expulsion by squeezing; Lava recrystallisation." Landforms,Category:Periglacial landforms, Landforms,Category:Rock formations, Landforms,Category:Slope landforms, Landforms,Category:Soil landforms, Landforms,Category:Tectonic landforms, Landforms,Category:Volcanic landforms,Volcanic landforms Landforms,Category:Wikipedia categories named after landforms, Islands,Island,"An island or isle is a piece of subcontinental land completely surrounded by water. Very small islands such as emergent land features on atolls can be called islets, skerries, cays or keys. An island in a river or a lake island may be called an eyot or ait, and a small island off the coast may be called a holm. Sedimentary islands in the Ganges Delta are called chars. A grouping of geographically or geologically related islands, such as the Philippines, is referred to as an archipelago. There are two main types of islands in the sea: continental islands and oceanic islands. There are also artificial islands (man-made islands). There are about 900,000 official islands in the world. This number consists of all the officially-reported islands of each country. The total number of islands in the world is unknown. There may be hundreds of thousands of tiny islands that are unknown and uncounted. The number of sea islands in the world is estimated to be more than 200,000. The total area of the world's sea islands is approx. 9,963,000 sq km, which is similar to the area of Canada and accounts for roughly 1/15 (or 6.7%) of the total land area of Earth. == Etymology == The word island derives from Middle English iland, from Old English igland (from ig or ieg, similarly meaning 'island' when used independently, and -land carrying its contemporary meaning; cf. Dutch eiland (""island""), German Eiland (""small island"")). However, the spelling of the word was modified in the 15th century because of a false etymology caused by an incorrect association with the etymologically unrelated Old French loanword isle, which itself comes from the Latin word insula. Old English ieg is actually a cognate of Swedish ö and German Aue, and related to Latin aqua (water). == Relationships with continents == === Differentiation from continents === There is no standard of size that distinguishes islands from continents, or from islets.There is a widely accepted difference between islands and continents in terms of geology. Continents are often considered to be the largest landmass of a particular continental plate; this holds true for Australia, which sits on its own continental lithosphere and tectonic plate (the Australian Plate).By contrast, islands are usually seen as being extensions of the oceanic crust (e.g. volcanic islands), or as belonging to a continental plate containing a larger landmass (continental islands); the latter is the case of Greenland, which sits on the North American Plate. === Continental islands === Continental islands are bodies of land that lie on the continental shelf of a continent. Examples are Borneo, Java, Sumatra, Sakhalin, Taiwan and Hainan off Asia; New Guinea, Tasmania, and Kangaroo Island off Australia; Great Britain, Ireland, and Sicily off Europe; Greenland, Newfoundland, Long Island, and Sable Island off North America; and Barbados, the Falkland Islands, and Trinidad off South America. ==== Microcontinental islands ==== A special type of continental island is the microcontinental island, which is created when a continent is horizontally displaced or rifted. Examples are Madagascar and Socotra off Africa, New Caledonia, New Zealand, and some of the Seychelles. ==== Subcontinental islands ==== A lake such as Wollaston Lake drains in two different directions, thus creating an island. If this island has a seashore as well as being encircled by two river systems, it becomes what might be called a subcontinental island. The one formed by Wollaston Lake is very large, about 2,000,000 km2 (770,000 sq mi). ==== Bars ==== Another subtype is an island or bar formed by deposition of tiny rocks where water current loses some of its carrying capacity. This includes: barrier islands, which are accumulations of sand deposited by sea currents on the continental shelves fluvial or alluvial islands formed in river deltas or midstream within large rivers. While some are transitory and may disappear if the volume or speed of the current changes, others are stable and long-lived. === Oceanic islands === ==== Tectonic versus volcanic ==== Oceanic islands are typically considered to be islands that do not sit on continental shelves. Other definitions limit the term to only refer to islands with no past geological connections to a continental landmass. The vast majority are volcanic in origin, such as Saint Helena in the South Atlantic Ocean. The few oceanic islands that are not volcanic are tectonic in origin and arise where plate movements have lifted up the ocean floor above the surface. Examples are the Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago in the North Atlantic Ocean and Macquarie Island in the South Pacific Ocean. ==== Volcanic islands ==== ===== Arcs ===== One type of volcanic oceanic island is found in a volcanic island arc. These islands arise from volcanoes where the subduction of one plate under another is occurring. Examples are the Aleutian Islands, the Mariana Islands, and most of Tonga in the Pacific Ocean. The only examples in the Atlantic Ocean are some of the Lesser Antilles and the South Sandwich Islands. ===== Oceanic rifts ===== Another type of volcanic oceanic island occurs where an oceanic rift reaches the surface. There are two examples: Iceland, which is the world's second-largest volcanic island, and Jan Mayen. Both islands are in the Atlantic Ocean. ===== Hotspots ===== A third type of volcanic oceanic island is formed over volcanic hotspots. A hotspot is more or less stationary relative to the moving tectonic plate above it, so a chain of islands results as the plate drifts. Over long periods of time, this type of island is eventually ""drowned"" by isostatic adjustment and eroded, becoming a seamount. Plate movement across a hot-spot produces a line of islands oriented in the direction of the plate movement. An example is the Hawaiian Islands, from Hawaii to Kure, which continue beneath the sea surface in a more northerly direction as the Emperor Seamounts. Another chain with similar orientation is the Tuamotu Archipelago; its older, northerly trend is the Line Islands. The southernmost chain is the Austral Islands, with its northerly trending part the atolls in the nation of Tuvalu. Tristan da Cunha is an example of a hotspot volcano in the Atlantic Ocean. Another hotspot in the Atlantic is the island of Surtsey, which was formed in 1963. ===== Atolls ===== An atoll is an island formed from a coral reef that has grown on an eroded and submerged volcanic island. The reef rises to the surface of the water and forms a new island. Atolls are typically ring-shaped with a central lagoon. Examples are the Line Islands in the Pacific Ocean and Maldives in the Indian Ocean. == Tropical islands == Approximately 45,000 tropical islands with an area of at least 5 hectares (12 acres) exist. Examples formed from coral reefs include Maldives, Tonga, Samoa, Nauru, and Polynesia. Granite islands include Seychelles and Tioman. The socio-economic diversity of tropical islands ranges from the Stone Age societies in the interior of North Sentinel, Madagascar, Borneo, and Papua New Guinea to the high-tech lifestyles of the city-islands of Singapore and Hong Kong. International tourism is a significant factor in the economy of many tropical islands including Seychelles, Sri Lanka, Mauritius, Réunion, Hawaii, Puerto Rico and the Maldives. == De-islanding == The process of de-islandisation is often concerning bridging, but there are other forms of linkages such as causeways: fixed transport links across narrow necks of water, some of which are only operative at low tides (e.g. that connecting Cornwall's St Michael's Mount to the peninsular mainland), while others (such as the Canso Causeway connecting Cape Breton to the Nova Scotia mainland) are usable all year round (aside from interruptions during storm surge periods).Some places may retain ""island"" in their names for historical reasons after being connected to a larger landmass by a land bridge or landfill, such as Coney Island and Coronado Island, though these are, strictly speaking, tied islands. Conversely, when a piece of land is separated from the mainland by a man-made canal, for example the Peloponnese by the Corinth Canal, more or less the entirety of Fennoscandia by the White Sea Canal, or Marble Hill in northern Manhattan during the time between the building of the United States Ship Canal and the filling in of the Harlem River which surrounded the area, it is generally not considered an island. Another type of connection is fostered by harbor walls/breakwaters that incorporate offshore islets into their structures, such as those in Sai harbor in northern Honshu, Japan, and the connection to the mainland which transformed Ilhéu do Diego from an islet. De-islanded through its fixed link to the mainland, the former islet's name, Ilhéu do Diego, became functionally redundant (and thereby archaic) and the location took the fort as its namesake. Some former island sites have retained designations as islands after the draining/subsidence of surrounding waters and their fixed linkage to land (England's Isle of Ely and Vancouver's Granville Island being respective cases in point). Their names are thereby archaic in that they reflect the islands' pasts rather than their present structures or transport logistics. Other examples include Singapore and its causeway, and the various Dutch delta islands, such as IJsselmonde. == Artificial islands == Almost all of Earth's islands are natural and have been formed by tectonic forces or volcanic eruptions. However, artificial (man-made) islands also exist, such as the island in Osaka Bay off the Japanese island of Honshu, on which Kansai International Airport is located. Artificial islands can be built using natural materials (e.g., earth, rock, or sand) or artificial ones (e.g., concrete slabs or recycled waste).Sometimes natural islands are artificially enlarged, such as Vasilyevsky Island in the Russian city of St. Petersburg, which had its western shore extended westward by some 0.5 km in the construction of the Passenger Port of St. Petersburg. Artificial islands are sometimes built on pre-existing ""low-tide elevation,"" a naturally formed area of land which is surrounded by and above water at low tide but submerged at high tide. Legally these are not islands and have no territorial sea of their own. == Island superlatives == Largest island: Greenland Largest island in a lake: Manitoulin Island, Ontario, CanadaLargest lake island within a lake island: Treasure Island, in Lake Mindemoya on Manitoulin Island Largest island in a river: Bananal Island, Tocantins, Brazil Largest island in fresh water: Marajó, Pará, Brazil Largest sand island: Fraser Island, Queensland, Australia Largest artificial island: Flevopolder, the Netherlands (created 1969) Largest uninhabited island: Devon Island, Nunavut, Canada Most populous island: Java, Indonesia Lowest island: Franchetti Island, Lake Afrera, Ethiopia Island shared by largest number of countries: Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia) Island with the highest point: New Guinea (Puncak Jaya, 4,884 m, 16,024 ft), Indonesia Northernmost island: Kaffeklubben Island, Greenland Southernmost island (not fully surrounded by permanent ice): Ross Island, Antarctica Island with the most populated city: Honshu (Tokyo), Japan Most remote island (from nearest land): Bouvet Island Island with earliest known settlement: Sumatra (Lida Ajer cave), Indonesia == See also == == References == == External links == Definition of island from United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea Listing of islands Archived February 14, 2008, at the Wayback Machine from United Nations Island Directory." Islands,Lists of islands,"This is a list of the lists of islands in the world grouped by country, by continent, by body of water, and by other classifications. For rank-order lists, see the other lists of islands below. == Lists of islands by country == === Africa === === Antarctica === === Asia === === Europe === === North America === === Oceania === === South America === == Lists of islands by continent == == Lists of islands by body of water == By ocean: By other bodies of water: == List of ancient islands == == Other lists of islands == == External links == Island Superlatives" Islands,Portal:Islands, Islands,Aquapelago,"An aquapelago is an assemblage of marine and terrestrial elements in which the aquatic spaces are key to community livelihoods and to communities’ senses of identity and belonging. Aquapelago refers to the socially constructed spaces of island, coastal, lacustrine or riverine locations, where humans have developed particularly concentrated engagements with the marine environment for their livelihoods (such as fishing or gathering aquatic plants) or leisure (such as surfing or diving). A neologism, aquapelago denotes the manner in which environmental psychology has been key to various maritime communities and causes in recent years. For example, the famous Mabo decision on indigenous Australian native title in 1992, successfully argued that areas of the seabed, and the aquatic resources above them, were part of traditional Torres Strait Islander community territories and related senses of communal homelands. == Concept and etymology == The term aquapelago was introduced in 2012 in Shima online journal of research into island and maritime cultures. The term subsequently gained momentum in geography, anthropology, and cultural studies, since it addresses a conceptual and lexical gap in topical discourse on the human relationship to nature. More recently, the concept has extended in reach to creative fields such as theatre, science fiction, and music.In its initial coinage, etymologically, the term replaces the initial two syllables of the well-known term archipelago with aqua in order to reassert the role of marine elements in aggregations of islands that has been largely lost from contemporary usage of archipelago. The concept has been further elaborated, linking it to livelihood activities and to the Japanese concept of shima (referring to islands and related distinct cultural landscapes). This concept is striking in that it conceives of combined terrestrial and aquatic spaces as, effectively, neighborhoods. The concept of aquapelago has been envisaged as a reflection on the Anthropocene and as: Subsequent developments of the concept have analysed its applicability to topics such as ocean spaces and national rights of access to these, cultural practices in Melanesian coastal societies and career making in island communities. The original analyses of the aquapelago have been further expanded by addressing metropolitan locales and providing a characterisation of Manhattan as an aquapelagic city that was subsequently critiqued and modified. While there have been critics of the concept, some who regard the term as unnecessary in that archipelagic analyses can be extended to address aquatic elements, writers from various disciplines have engaged with the concept in a positive manner, such as an exploration of the concept with regard to water ecology themed performance works in the journal Women’s Studies Quarterly and a discussion of a geopolitical aesthetic of the subterranean in the journal Geopolitics. Further, the lens of the aquapelago can act as a bridge between the fields of island studies and studies examining seasteading. == Associated concepts == One significant development of the concept of the aquapelago has concerned the notion of there being an “aquapelagic imaginary).” This concept has been subsequently elaborated in a theme issue of the journal Shima on mermaids, mer-cultures and the aquapelagic imaginary to refer to the manner in which communities’ “engagements with their aquapelagic locales” in folk-/media-loric contexts can be understood to reflect upon and transcend “perceptions of the limits of human presence in and experience of aquatic spaces.” In an article analysing the creation of a modern mythic entity, the Ningen, a creature rumoured to inhabit the southern Pacific Ocean, there is a discussion about the aquapelagic imaginary as a “subset"" of the ""social imaginary”, which can be regarded as a historically determined “enabling but not fully explicable symbolic matrix within which a people imagine and act as world-making collective agents”. == References ==" Islands,Boyuk Zira,"Boyuk Zira (Böyük Zirə), also known as Nargin, is an island in the Caspian Sea. It is one of the islands of Baku Archipelago located in the Baku bay near Baku city. Nargin Island is part of the Baku Archipelago, which consists of the following islands: Boyuk Zira, Dash Zira, Qum Island, Zenbil, Sangi-Mugan, Chikil, Qara Su, Khara Zira, Gil, Ignat Dash and a few smaller ones. Boyuk Zira is the biggest island that separates the Bay of Baku from the sea south of the Absheron Peninsula. It has a length of 3.1 km, and a width of 900 m. The northwestern side of the island is vertical and steep. There is little vegetation. Caspian seals, sturgeon, and numerous types of birds, such as teal ducks, herring gulls, and grebes are some of the species that can be found on and around Boyuk Zira Island. == Toponym == A modern name of the island is “Boyuk Zira”, which was also its initial name, and it is originated from the merging of two words – “boyuk” means “big” in Azerbaijani and “jazira” means “island” in Arabic. Most of the names of islands in the Baku archipelago, including Boyuk Zira, were changed by the Russians and partially by Cossacks, who appeared in the Caspian Sea region in the 17th century. Boyuk Zira was also called Nargin, which is related to the name given by Peter the Great. The shape of this island reminded the Russian emperor of the island Nargen (now Naissaar) near Tallinn in the Gulf of Finland. German “Nargen” and Estonian “Nartingen” mean a “narrow strait”. In 1990, Nargin Island reverted to its indigenous name. == Strategic significance == Boyuk Zira Island, located in the Caspian Sea, 5 km directly offshore from Baku port, is strategically significant for Azerbaijan and is under the authority of the Ministry of Defence of the Republic of Azerbaijan. The island is stony. In January, 2008 SOCAR finished construction of a 17 km long, 12–14 meters deep water line extending from Lökbatan township to Boyuk Zira Island. == History == === Beacon === A beacon on the island began to function on December 11, 1884. The beacon was constructed on the southern part of the island and provided ships with an opportunity to enter Baku Bay at night. The beacon is a stone residential building with three-metered tower on a roof, along with a lamp. A kerosene-wick burner, and then a gas lamp with a light-optic apparatus of the 4th degree, which was specially produced in Sweden, illuminates the way for ships. In 1941, because of the beginning of the Great Patriotic War, the beacon building was blown up by order of the Soviet Military Command. Anti-aircraft guns were established on the island to defend Baku from German air raids, because the beacon building was a potential landmark for German aviators. The beacon was restored in 1958 and still functions. An 18m stone tower equipped with a complex optical-navigational system was built on the elevated middle part of the island. Servicing of the way is carried out by a watching method and personnel are changed every two weeks. The beacon's light can be seen 20–30 km from Baku. The beacon's power is provided by solar batteries, which give a charge of up to 7 days, and also by a diesel generator. === World War I === Nargin Island was the scene of tragic events in the history of Azerbaijan and Turkey during World War I. About ten thousand soldiers, as well as civilians, who were captured in 1914-1915 in Turkey during the occupation of Eastern Anatolia by the Russian army, were held in captivity on the island. The captives died of starvation, snake bites, and murder and torture by prison guards. Few prisoners managed to escaped island. According to Hasan Cüneyt Zapsu, a deputy and counselor of the Cabinet of Ministers of Turkey, his grandfather Abdurrahim Rahmi Zapsu was imprisoned on Nargin Island and escaped with the help of a nurse. Vecihi Hürkuş – a Turkish veteran pilot and aviation pioneer– also escaped from the island with the assistance of local residents, and a film dedicated to him is intended to be shot in Turkey.A documentary exposing the tragedy Turkish soldiers endured in Nargin island in the early 20th century was shot by order of the Ministry of Culture and Tourism of Turkey. Archive documents and scenes of those years, and also memories of 11 Turkish soldiers, who were in camps in Nargin Island and returned to the motherland alive, were used in the film called Hellish Nargin Island. In recent years, the erection of a monument on Nargin Island to the perished Turkish soldiers has been frequently proposed by Turhan Çömez, a former deputy of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey, and others. === Victims of repressions === Nargin Island was called the Azerbaijani gulag during the Stalin-era repression. It was the place of mass shootings and burials of Stalin-Beria terror victims, who were taken there in barges. Ten thousand people condemned by judicial communist “trios” were shot on the island, far from witnesses. Sometimes, barges full of people were sunk in order to save ammunition. According to scuba divers, there are still remains of people, tortured by the Soviet regime, tied with chains under water. == Development plans == In 2009 a plan was mooted for turning Boyuk Zira Island into a carbon-neutral eco-resort and recreation centre with a profile based on Azerbaijan's seven best-known peaks. The cost of the project, known as “The dream island”, by Danish architects Bjarke Ingels Group (BIG), would have been around two billion US dollars. But as of 2015 there is no sign of the project advancing. == Panoramic view == == Places of interest == The Boyuk Zira Lighthouse in the island was begun to function since 1884. It illuminated road for ships entering Bay of Baku. Until 1907, Maiden Tower executed these functions. But later, Nargin Island detaching Baku Bay from the sea, became the main guide for sailors. A kerosene-wick burner, and then a gas lantern with a light-optic apparatus of the 4th degree illuminated a road for ships. The Nargin lighthouse illuminated by acetylene in 1912, became the first lighthouse in the Russian Empire illuminated by such a way. == References == == External links == Nargin photos Zira Island masterplan project Archived 2017-05-15 at the Wayback Machine" Islands,Cikobia-i-Ra,"Cikobia-i-Ra, also Thikombia Island, Tchecombia and Tikobia, is the northernmost island in Fiji and has a primarily limestone geology. As the island is affected by climate change, women there have established the Cikobia Island Development Committee, which supports businesses that donate some profit to sustainability initiatives. The island has some of the earliest evidence for Lapita culture in the Pacific, as well as significant archaeological sites. == Geography == Located to the north of Vanua Levu in Macuata Province in Fiji, Cikobia-i-Ra is 300 km to the northeast of Suva. The island is 10 km long and 2km wide; it is 60 km from the northernmost point of Vanua Levu. It is primarily made from uplifted limestone formations.Settlements on Cikobia-i-Ra include Nalele, Nautovatu and Vatulele. == Climate crisis == Cikobia-i-Ra is the northernmost and the most remote of the islands in the Northern Division. The island has been affected by the climate crisis, including an increase in the number of natural disasters. In response, women from the island established the Cikobia Island Development Committee, which enables women to start businesses based on natural resources available to them. This then enables the women to return 10% of their earnings to sustainability projects on the island, so that ""10 per cent of their earnings had been channelled towards their environment sustainability project."" == History == The island was first settled around 850 BC by people who were part of the Eastern Lapita cultural complex. According to oral tradition, Cikobia-i-Ra was settled by Manaoneata and his son Iri-ni-buno, who came from Laucala in Cakaudrove. One of Manaoneata's sons settled later on Naqelelevu. Other accounts, recorded by Bruce Biggs, state that a chief called Sau Mata-i-walu spent time in Cikobia-i-Ra before discovering Naqelelevu.Cikobia-i-Ra's language is most closely related to Naqelelevu's and exchanges between the two islands and the island of Futuna have been reconstructed through linguistic analysis. === Korotuku complex === At Korotuku a defensive fort was built, which contained ninety different structures, as well as burials. In 1997 a team of archaeologists from Fiji and France investigated the archaeological remains on the island. They identified twenty-five funerary sites on the island, most of which related to the historic period (c.1850), and whose history is attested in the island's oral culture. The team excavated ten internments, which included two children and eight adults, five of whom could be identified as males, two of which females. A number of grave goods were found, including glass trade beads, a qato – which is an armband made of Trochus shell, a boar's tusk, a shark's tooth and a coral object which was tentatively identified as part of a tabua – a ceremonial object which accompanied a person into the afterlife. It is likely that the bodies were wrapped in tapa prior to burial. A later study used stable isotope analysis to examine the diets of those buried there, concluding that they ate a diet based primarily on vegetal food, with some shellfish consumption, which has been interpreted as dietary selection which may indicate those buried were part of an island elite.As part of the archaeological work instigated in 1997, Fijian colleagues undertook oral history work with the island's community to better understand the site. In response, islanders began to rebuild one of the fortifications, known as Rukunikoro. Years after work ended, families still tended the project, explaining that they preferred to keep tourists away, that it was for themselves, not for others.Glass beads have been excavated from graves on the island, which originated in Europe in the nineteenth century and may have been brought to the island by American whalers or European sailors, during the period of colonisation. === Intangible heritage === The Archive of Māori and Pacific Sound at the University of Auckland holds recordings made on the island by Bruce Biggs in 1974. == Notable people == Penina Namata, advisor to Cikobia Island Development Committee. == References == == External links == Trip to Cikobia Island (documentary) Defensive wall at a fortified site on Cikobia-i-Ra, Fiji (image) Seasea, a dance, being performed in Fiji (image) Na Ciri Kali: The Oral Tradition of Cikobia-i-ra, Northernmost Island of the Fijian Group (book)" Islands,First island chain,"The first island chain refers to the first chain of major Pacific archipelagos out from the East Asian continental mainland coast. It is principally composed of the Kuril Islands, the Japanese archipelago, the Ryukyu Islands, Taiwan (Formosa), the northern Philippines, and Borneo, hence extending all the way from the Kamchatka Peninsula in the northeast to the Malay Peninsula in the southwest. The first island chain forms one of three island chain doctrines within the island chain strategy in the U.S. foreign policy. Much of the first island chain is roughly situated in waters claimed by China. These include the South China Sea, within the nine-dash line, as well as the East China Sea west of the Okinawa Trough. == Strategic value == === China === According to a 2018 United States Department of Defense report to Congress, the People's Liberation Army's Anti-Access/Area Denial military capabilities aimed at the first island chain are its most robust. The report also stated that the People's Liberation Army Navy's ability to perform missions beyond the first island chain is ""modest but growing as it gains experience operating in distant waters and acquires larger and more advanced platforms."" === Japan === Around 2009 Japanese military strategist Toshi Yoshihara and Naval War College professor James R. Holmes suggested the American military could exploit the geography of the first island chain to counter the People's Liberation Army Navy build-up. The Cabinet of Japan has also passed defense white papers emphasizing the threat posed by the People's Liberation Army Navy in the first island chain.In the later years of the 2010s, Japan started deploying military assets to Yonaguni and its other islands to counter China's presence along that area of the first island chain.Japan's strategic position in the first island chain began with US-Japan joint efforts to counter Soviet expansion. The Japan Self-Defense Forces currently plays the role of protecting US military bases and preserving military strength in East Asia. As for Japan's Territorial Protection Self-Defense Forces, which mainly rely on islands in southern Japan adjacent to the Yellow Sea and the East China Sea, Japan has military advantages in anti-submarine, air defense and sea mine technologies. === Philippines === In 2021, Lloyd Austin, on behalf of the United States, thanked his counterpart in the Philippines Delfin Lorenzana for retaining the 70-year-old visiting forces agreement between the two nations. In 2023 four new bases were announced in the Philippines. === Taiwan === In the First Island Chain, Taiwan is considered of critical strategic importance. It is located at the midpoint of the first chain and occupies a strategic position. === United States === U.S. General Douglas MacArthur pointed out that before World War II, the US protected its western shores with a line of defense from Hawaii, Guam, to the Philippines. However, this line of defense was attacked by Japan with the Pearl Harbor bombing of 1941, thereby drawing the U.S. into the war. The US subsequently launched the air Raid on Taipei (called Taihoku under Japan's empire) and launched the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The WW2 victory allowed the US to expand its line of defense further west to the coast of Asia, and thus the US controlled the first island chain. Between the end of WW2 and the Korean War, MacArthur praised Taiwan, located at the midpoint of the first island chain, as an 'unsinkable aircraft carrier'.In April 2014, the United States Naval Institute (USNI) assessed that the first island chain is the most effective point to counter any Chinese invasion. The US could not only cut off the People's Liberation Army Navy from entering the western Pacific, but also predict where they may move before trying to break through in the first place. The US and first island chain countries are able to coordinate because of the US military's freedom of navigation in the first chain block. A June 2019 article published by the United States Naval Institute (USNI) called for the navy to establish and maintain a blockade around the first island chain if the US was go to war with China.Andrew Krepinevich argued that an ""archipelagic defense"" of the countries that make up the first island chain would make up a big part of the implementation of the national defense strategy of 2018. A 2019 report by the Center for Strategic and Budgetary Assessments ""proposes a U.S. military strategy of Maritime Pressure and a supporting joint operational concept, “Inside-Out” Defense, to stabilize the military balance in the Western Pacific and deny China the prospect of a successful fait accompli."" The first island chain plays a central role in the report. In 2020, the United States Marine Corps started shifting its tactics in conjunction with the United States Navy to be deployed along or near the first island chain. In 2021, the United States Marine Corps announced a goal of three additional Pacific-based regiments. == See also == Island chain strategy United States foreign policy toward the People's Republic of China AirSea Battle Bamboo Curtain Power projection == References ==" Islands,Island ecology,"Island ecology is the study of island organisms and their interactions with each other and the environment. Islands account for nearly 1/6 of earth’s total land area, yet the ecology of island ecosystems is vastly different from that of mainland communities. Their isolation and high availability of empty niches lead to increased speciation. As a result, island ecosystems comprise 30% of the world’s biodiversity hotspots, 50% of marine tropical diversity, and some of the most unusual and rare species. Many species still remain unknown. The diversity of species on islands is highly impacted by human activities such as deforestation and introduction of the exotic species. In response, ecologists and managers are directing attention towards conservation and restoration of island species. Because they are simple systems, islands provide an opportunity to study processes of extinction that can be extrapolated to larger ecosystems. == Ecological processes on islands == Islands are attractive sites for ecological research because they provide clear examples of evolution in action. They show interesting patterns of colonization, adaptation, and speciation. === Colonization and establishment === Islands are surrounded by water, and may or may not exist as part of a continental land mass. Oceanic islands arise due to volcanic activity or reef growth, and usually subside over time due to erosion and changing sea levels. When islands emerge, they undergo the process of ecological succession as species colonize the island (see theory of island biogeography). New species cannot immigrate via land, and instead must arrive via air, water, or wind. As a result, organisms with high dispersal capabilities, such as plants and birds, are much more common on islands than are poorly dispersing taxa like mammals. However, some mammals are present on islands, presumably from swimming or riding on natural “rafts” that are washed away from the mainland. Of the species that arrive, only some will be able to survive and establish populations. As a result, islands have fewer species than mainland habitats. Island populations are small and exhibit low genetic variability (see founder effect), but are isolated from the predators and competitors that they initially evolved with. This can lead to a process called ecological release, where a species is released from its ancestral community interactions and then colonizes new niches. === Adaptation === In response to these changing ecological pressures, island species can become much more docile than their mainland counterparts, and may grow larger (see island gigantism) or smaller (see island dwarfism). Some of these unique adaptations are reflected in charismatic island species such as the Malagasy hippopotamus, Komodo dragon, or pygmy mammoths. Although, the giant tortoises of the Galápagos Islands and the Seychelles (the Galápagos tortoise and Aldabrachelys respectively) are sometimes given as examples of insular gigantism, they are now thought to represent the last remaining populations of historically widespread giant tortoises i.e. gigantism is an ancestral trait that occurred in the absence of insular selection pressures. The collection of differences in morphology, ecology, physiology and behaviour of insular species compared to their continental counterparts is termed Island syndrome. After immigration, birds, and some reptiles or mammals, tend to become larger and predatory, showing relaxed intraspecific competition. For mammals, small species will increase in size and large species will decrease in size. This is referred to as the “island rule,” and is suggested to minimize energy expenditure.Other adaptations to life on islands include increased poikilothermy, relaxed anti-predator behavior, and reduced sexual selection in animals, and loss of herbivore defenses and reduced dispersal in plants. === Speciation === The formation of new islands and their isolation from the mainland provides many unoccupied niches for species to adapt to. Since immigration of predators and competitors is limited, many organisms are able to persist in these new niches. This results in a high occurrence of endemism, where species are unique to a localized area. For example, 50% of endemic bird areas are found on islands. Endemism is often the result of adaptive radiation. Adaptive radiation is when a single species colonizes an area and rapidly diversifies to fill all of the available niches. A common example is the assemblage of finch species documented by Charles Darwin in the Galapagos Islands. Darwin’s finches exhibited adaptive radiation by evolving different beak sizes to exploit the diversity of seeds present on the different islands. Because the distributions of these populations are limited by their island habitats, they tend to have fewer individuals than their mainland counterparts and lower genetic variation. This, along with the behavioral and ecological factors mentioned above, makes island species more vulnerable to extinction. === Survival === The continued survival of species on islands depends on factors such as natural selection, genetic variation, natural disturbances (hurricanes, volcanic eruptions) and human-caused disturbances (introduced species, habitat loss). Human-caused disturbances tend to be the greatest cause of mortality, and understanding the causes of extinction facilitates conservation efforts. === Human impacts on island ecosystems === The movement of humans to islands has led to rapid extinction of native island species either from hunting, habitat destruction, or introduced species. === Hunting === Many large animals on islands have been hunted to extinction by humans. A well-known example is the dodo, once found on the island of Mauritius. It evolved to become large, flightless and docile, and was subsequently driven to extinction by humans and introduced predators. === Habitat destruction === The depletion of natural resources can have dramatic effects on island ecology. On Easter Island, the depletion of the forest by humans not only resulted in widespread loss of species, but also the collapse of the island civilization. Today there are over 500 million people on islands, all dependent on local resources either directly (traditional use) or indirectly (ecotourism revenue). Population growth and development result in heavy deforestation, pollution, and over-exploitation. Overharvesting of ocean fauna is particularly troubling as yields of coral reef fish species are an important food source for island populations. === Introduced species === Humans have contributed to globalization and decreased effective isolation of island communities, allowing for invasion of exotic species. This can have a profound effect on the native species. In Guam, the introduced brown tree snake ate nearly all of the native vertebrate species to extinction. Feral cats and dogs have also greatly diminished native vertebrate populations on islands, through both predation and disease. Introduced ungulates are another major threat, as they graze on native vegetation and can destroy entire forests. Exotic grasses can out-compete native understory species and increase the risk of fire. Lastly, social insects such as ants also cause major problems.Nonnative species introduced onto islands can have profound effects on an island's ecosystem, more so than nonnative species introduced to continental land (Platenberg). The higher impact of introduced and nonnative species on islands is largely a result of lower biodiversity levels (Platenburg et al). Biodiversity on islands is especially threatened by logging, hunting, fishing and plant gathering. However, islands’ vulnerability to introduced species is also due to agricultural, economic, and health differences as compared to continental land (Russel et al). The smaller land area and population sizes of islands compared to continents create greater vulnerability to the impacts of introduced species (Russel et al). Introduced species negatively impact ecosystems through altered predator-prey interactions that can cause harm or even local extinction to native species populations (Towns et al). There are many examples of animal species such as birds, reptiles, and aquatic insects being harmed by the introduction of predators such as rats, cats, and ants. For example, seabirds on islands in Hawaii are impacted by non-native predators like barn owls and ants. At a colony in Hawaii, at least 20% of wedge-tailed shearwater eggs were taken by mynas, dark-plumaged birds of the starling family (Towns et al). Also in Hawaii, more than forty four introduced ant species, especially tropical fire ants, caused detriments to the growth of shearwater chicks, such as loss of tissue in their feet (Towns et al). Other examples of high-impact species to island ecosystems are the Cuban treefrog and cane toad, which were introduced to the US Virgin Islands under various circumstances (Platenberg). The Cuban treefrog has been present in the USVI since arriving unintentionally on a cargo ship in the 1970s (Platenberg). The Cuban tree frog is known for its ability to survive under harsh conditions, and it is highly adaptable, as it will eat a wide variety of organisms (Platenberg). Native frog and anole lizard populations have declined, likely due to Cuban tree frog interference (Platenberg). In contrast to the accidental introduction of the Cuban treefrog, the cane toad was deliberately introduced to control agricultural pests (Platenberg). Similar to the Cuban treefrog, the cane toad is also omnivorous. Cane toad tadpoles compete for limited freshwater resources with the white-lipped frog, a native species, thus limiting their resources (Platenberg). In general, when the introduction of a nonnative species results in extinction, the ecosystem experiences losses in some trophic levels (Platenberg). For example, vertebrate herbivores that are prone to extinction change the ecosystem function in plant communities. This phenomenon is seen in New Zealand, where the loss of bird species may have changed dynamics in avian-induced vegetation communities and impacted abundances of forest plants (Platenberg). Also in New Zealand, small mammalian predators such as rodents have little direct effect on vegetation but have greater effect on island faunas through extinction and displacement (Wood et al). Pacific rats, for example, were thought to be causing the local extinction of large, nocturnal ground-dwelling lizards, and they were assumed to have minimal effect on diurnal species, those that sleep at night, such as shore skinks (Wood et al). In places where Pacific rats were removed, however, shore skink populations rapidly changed, indicating that the rats’ impact has been underestimated (Wood et al). The loss of a keystone species, a species that all other species in the ecosystem depend on such as seabirds, can also have significant effects (Towns). Seabirds are essential to the structure of the ecosystem because they transport large amounts of nutrients into ecosystems and burrow into soils, helping vegetation (Towns). However, since human settlement, seabird communities have been severely impacted on islands across the globe (Towns). While some exotic species may perform ecological roles similar to those of extinct species, there are many roles that cannot be fulfilled by other species. Therefore, similar exotic species do not offer complete replacement for extinct species in the community (Towns). Even if the number of species introduced to an island is roughly the same as the number of extinct ones, the ecological traits are not comparable enough to make up for losses (Towns). === Global warming === Global warming is emerging as a strong cause of species loss on islands. This can be due to sea level rise, the intrusion of salt water into freshwater habitats, or species inability to adapt to increasing temperatures and extreme weather events. Plant species are particularly susceptible. In more isolated areas, such as the Southern Ocean Islands, indirect effects such as invasive species and global warming can play a greater role in influencing populations than overexploitation, pollution and habitat loss. === Trophic cascades === Human activities and the introduction of non-native species often cause trophic cascades, where direct effects on one species result in indirect effects on other species in the food web. An example is on Santa Cruz Island of the California Channel Islands, where DDT poisoning reduced bald eagle populations. This, along with an abundance of introduced feral pigs for prey, allowed golden eagles to colonize the island and replace bald eagles. However, the golden eagles also ate native island foxes. Fox population levels decreased to near extinction, while skunk populations increased due to relaxed competition with foxes. == Island conservation == === Conservation on islands === Since island ecosystems are self-contained, it should be possible to mitigate many of the threats to species. Ecologists and managers are working together to prioritize areas for conservation and to quickly design and implement action plans. Not everything can be put into a reserve, so it is important to first compile pertinent information and prioritize areas of concern. Once an area has been chosen, managers must then acquire ownership and gain support. Local experts and indigenous populations should also be involved in this process. Having clearly defined goals will facilitate the many necessary interactions between people and agencies. Once a reserve is in place, managers can then practice adaptive management and do continued community education. On land, island conservation focuses on the protection of species and their habitat. In some cases, conservation can be integrated with agricultural production. For example, the Acacia koa plantations and wooded pastures in Hawaii are anthropogenically altered ecosystems, yet allow connectivity between forest fragments and thus maintain higher diversity than would open pasture. Other directions include habitat restoration, and eradication of introduced predators, ungulates, and exotic plants (via hunting, removal or biological control). In marine ecosystems, there has been an increasing establishment of “no-take” reserves. This allows for the reestablishment of native species, and also the augmentation of commercially harvested species. However, in both terrestrial and marine systems, these actions are expensive and do not always result in the desired outcomes. For example, some non-natives become keystone species and their removal can cause more harm than good to the ecosystem. To be more effective, managers of island ecosystems should share information and learn from each other’s mistakes. === Island restoration === Island conservation tends to focus on preservation of individual species and their habitats. However, many ecologists caution that ecological and evolutionary processes should be conserved as well. The conservation of island communities as a whole is closely linked to restoration. Active restoration on islands can be done for both animal species (translocations, induced breeding) and plant species (reforestation). Creating goals for restoration can be challenging because it is often impossible to restore the ecosystem to its “historic” or “normal” state, if that state can even be clearly defined. Restoration is never complete, as ecological communities are always in a state of change. === Sustainable use === As resource depletion is a major issue on islands, the needs of human populations must also be taken into account. On many islands, scientists and managers are studying traditional practices of indigenous populations as potential conservation solutions. In some cases, limited-take systems that serve the community may provide a better alternative to fully closed protected areas, if there are not enough resources for proper enforcement. Public education plays an important role. == See also == Disturbance (ecology) Island biogeography Island syndrome Hawaiian honeycreeper conservation Mammals of the Caribbean Patch dynamics Distance decay Sky island == References == == External links == Island Conservation" Islands,Island restoration,"The ecological restoration of islands, or island restoration, is the application of the principles of ecological restoration to islands and island groups. Islands, due to their isolation, are home to many of the world's endemic species, as well as important breeding grounds for seabirds and some marine mammals. Their ecosystems are also very vulnerable to human disturbance and particularly to introduced species, due to their small size. Island groups such as New Zealand and Hawaii have undergone substantial extinctions and losses of habitat. Since the 1950s several organisations and government agencies around the world have worked to restore islands to their original states; New Zealand has used them to hold natural populations of species that would otherwise be unable to survive in the wild. The principal components of island restoration are the removal of introduced species and the reintroduction of native species. == Islands, endemism and extinction == Isolated islands have been known to have greater levels of endemism since the 1970s when the theory of island biogeography, formulated by Robert MacArthur and E.O. Wilson, was developed. This higher occurrence of endemism is because isolation limits immigration of new species to the island, allowing new species to evolve separately from others on the mainland. For example, 71% of New Zealand's bird species (prior to human arrival) were endemic. As well as displaying greater levels of endemism, island species have characteristics that make them particularly vulnerable to human disturbance. Many island species evolved on small islands, or even restricted habitats on small islands. Small populations are vulnerable to even modest hunting, and restricted habitats are vulnerable to loss or modification of said habitat. More importantly, island species are often ecologically naive, that is they have not evolved alongside a predator, or have lost appropriate behavioural responses to predators. This often resulted in flightlessness, or unusual levels of tameness. This made many species susceptible to hunting (it is thought, for example, that moas were hunted to extinction in a few short generations) and to predation by introduced species. Some, such as the dodo, are thought to have become extinct because of the pressure of both humans and introduced animals. One estimate of birds in the Pacific islands puts the extinctions at 2000 species. Between 40 and 50% of the bird species of New Zealand have become extinct since 200 AD. The field of island restoration is usually credited with having been started in New Zealand in the 1960s, but other smaller projects, such as the restoration of Nonsuch Island in Bermuda (which began in 1962) have been going on for almost as long. Nevertheless, the program undertaken by the Department of Conservation (DOC) is one of the largest in the world. It began on Cuvier Island, where ecologists removed stock, goats, feral cats and finally, in 1993, Pacific rats. The success of the project resulted in similar projects around New Zealand. The advantages to the DOC were considerable; in addition to protecting species endemic to smaller islands, like the magenta petrel, islands near the mainland, once restored, could act as habitat for species of birds that were unable to survive on the mainland. Species like the takahe, where the remaining wild population was at considerable risk from feral cats and dogs, could be moved to these islands to safeguard the species. === Eradication of introduced alien species === One important aspect of island restoration is the removal of invasive alien species. Since these species are most often the reason that native fauna and flora is threatened, their removal is essential to the restoration project. From 1673 until 2009, 786 successful invasive vertebrate eradication have been recorded and in the last few decades the frequency of eradications and the size of islands from which invasive vertebrates have been eradicated has increased. A definitive list of past island restoration efforts exists as the Database of Island Invasive Species Eradications. In addition a list of the current invasive species present on the world's islands exists as the Threatened Island DatabaseIslands are particularly suitable for restoration as once cleared of an introduced species they can be kept cleared of these species by virtue of being an island. Species removal is intensive and expensive, and methods used must be carefully chosen as to not create too much impact on non-target species. Feral cats, goats and three species of rats are among the most damaging species introduced to islands (Moors & Atkinson 1984). The differences in size, lifestyle and behaviour preclude the use of the same techniques for all of them, but with many species a range of techniques needs to be used in order to ensure success. Larger animals, such as goats and pigs, can be effectively hunted; in the case of Round Island, in Mauritius, all the goats were eliminated by a single marksman. On larger islands ecologists use a Judas goat, where a radio collared goat is released into the wild. This goat is then followed and groups it joins are removed. To remove cats a combination of techniques is needed: hunting, trapping and poisoning. Cats are more difficult to hunt than goats and pigs, requiring the use of experienced hunters and night hunting. Trapping is ineffective for rats, given their sheer numbers, and the only method that works is poisoning, which can be delivered into the field by broadcasting (by hand or from the air) or by the maintenance of bait stations. This method has been employed around the world, in the Falkland Islands, in the tropical Pacific, and off New Zealand, where over 40 islands have been cleared. This method is not without problems, especially if the rats share the island with other, native species of rodent that might take the bait as well, as has happened on Anacapa Island in the Channel Islands and Rat Island (Hawadax) in the Aleutian archipelago. In the Pacific poison intended for rats was taken by land crabs instead; the crabs were not affected by the poison but frustrated attempts to clear the rats. The removal of invasive weeds is, in most cases, more difficult than removing animal species. One such eradication was that of sandbur, Cencrus echinatus, an introduced grass on Laysan. The grass, introduced to Laysan around 1961, had taken over 30% of the island by 1991, displaced the native bunchgrass, and reduced the breeding habitat of two endemic threatened species, the Laysan duck and Laysan finch, as well as those of several seabirds. The removal took ten years, with controlled spraying for the first year, then individual removal of plants, then, when few plants were being found, sifting of the sands around plants to remove seeds. The cost of the eradication program was $150,000 per year. Invasive vertebrate eradication has many benefits besides conservation of species and has been found to align with 13 UN Sustainable Development Goals and 42 associated targets encompassing marine and terrestrial biodiversity conservation, promotion of local and global partnerships, economic development, climate change mitigation, human health and sanitation and sustainable production and consumption. ==== Strategies ==== There are three strategies to reduce the numbers of the introduced animals in order to lighten the problems caused by them: exclusion, control, and eradication. Exclusion is removal of introduced species in limited areas and focused on a local impact. Control has a meaning of mitigation by reducing the numbers of introduced species down to ecologically and economically less harmful level. Since it is not complete wiping out strategy, this has to be taken constantly and repeatedly. This strategy is said to be feasible but less cost effective due to its incompleteness. Eradication is the complete removal of all the individuals of the population, down to the last potentially reproducing individual, or the reduction of their population density below sustainable levels (J. H. Myerset al., 2000). For islands, it is usually the best strategy as it gives permanent effects, which potentially means most cost effective. However, it is still logistically and economically high cost. Also, this strategy is sometimes hard to accomplish depending on the environment of island and the alien species. Island Conservation exclusively focuses on the eradication of invasive vertebrate species from islands. Up until 2021, the organization had deployed teams to protect 1,195 populations of 487 species and subspecies on 64 islands. ==== Methods ==== Fencing is used for excluding the alien mammals. This method intends to limit the area for the mammals before control or eradication. Shooting is often used for large animals to control them. This method has meanings of gaining food supply and recreation. It requires accessibility in the field and experience for the hunters. Also, to maintain the effect, it requires good amount of manpower for long time, so it can be costly. Trapping is designed for medium-sized mammals which are hard to shoot at. This method is usually only for reduction not eradication. The advantage of this method is that it can be selective since it is possible to exclude or reduce the possibility of trapping native animals. However, trapping requires limited area to cover and limited population to capture. Poisoning is very effective for small species. However, there are some disadvantages of this method. It is possible that untargeted animals take the poison. It is also necessary to consider the secondary poisoning that other animals are affected by poisoned species. This method can be costly if the area to cover is large.Pathogen Introduction (parasitism) is one of the biological methods to eradicate alien species. It is very effective for limited species, but the viruses and bacteria need to be specified clearly for use.Predator introduction is another biological method to eradicate the introduced species. It is less costly and environmentally clean, but it can cause greater problems, because it is possible that the introduced predator targets the native animals instead of alien species and its existence and its parasites can be new problems.Competitor introduction is also a biological method to eradicate introduced carnivores. It can be very effective with good amount of information. In the end, the competitor has to be removed as well. Virus vectored immune-contraception is one of the newest method that is to infect introduced animals with genetically engineered viruses. This method is considered environmentally clean, low cost, selective, and ethical. However, it is not fully operational and the effect comes slowly. === Restoration of former habitat === In many cases the removal of introduced species is sufficient to allow a return to a pre-disturbance state, but generally active management, often in the form of replanting native flora and reintroduction of extirpated fauna is needed to achieve restoration goals. Planting of native species helps to replenish species that were either grazed or out competed. Species of animal can be translocated either from existing populations, or from captive bred populations. These reintroductions need to be carefully managed, particularly in the case of endangered species, where the potential benefits need to be weighed against the possibility of failure. Not all translocations succeed, and it may be necessary to help the reintroduced animals along with supplementary feeding or other kinds of management. One other important aspect of restoration is prevention, that is, keeping invasive species from returning to a cleared island. This can be achieved by restricting access to the island in question (reducing possible instances of invasion) to more stringent quarantine methods. For example, in order to prevent invasive weeds from returning to Laysan, people working on the island must bring entirely new clothes to the island, which must be frozen prior to arrival. == Opposition to island restoration == Prior to the initial efforts to remove rats from New Zealand's offshore islands there was a great deal of skepticism as to the feasibility of island restoration amongst ecologists and conservation workers. However, as the techniques have improved and larger islands have been restored, most of the initial criticisms from within the field have been dropped, in particular as the costs of eradication are often much lower than continuous pest control. Outside of the field of conservation there has been some opposition from other interested groups, particularly from the animal rights movement, which contends that the welfare of the pests in question is not adequately addressed in island restoration plans. Because a broad spectrum of pest removal techniques needs to be used, including leg traps, animal rights campaigners accuse ecologists of cruelty, and indifference to non-targeted species that also take bait or are trapped, and suggest that more humane methods such as capture and sterilization be used instead (something those working in island restoration contend would be too expensive, and potentially ineffective as in Kangaroo Island koalas). Some also defend the rights of the introduced species to exist as well. Others, including scientists affiliated with the animal rights movement, accept that when the choice is between the future of a species and a population of pests, the future of a species must take priority (with the caveat that the extermination is conducted as humanely as possible). Opposition to island restoration has not led to the abandonment of many projects but has delayed several, particularly through court action. Groups sometimes adopt different approaches; opponents of hedgehog removal in the Outer Hebrides offered bounties for live hedgehogs removed from the islands and relocated in their natural habitat. Invasive plants can also generate strong feelings. The removal of Eucalyptus trees from Angel Island in San Francisco Bay faced considerable opposition. == Island restoration projects == Island restoration has been attempted in many countries since the 1960s, and has met with varying degrees of success. The following examples highlight some of the factors that influence projects. A comprehensive list of projects can be found on the Database of Island Invasive Species Eradications. === Round Island === Round Island (Île Ronde in French) is a tropical island 22.5 kilometres north of Mauritius, with an area of 1.69 square kilometres and a maximum elevation of 280 metres. Compared to other Mascarene islands and islets, Round Island remained relatively pristine until goats and rabbits were introduced in the 19th century (goats were introduced between 1846 and 1868, whilst rabbits were present in large numbers before 1810). These herbivores, along with other factors, such as sporadic logging and frequent cyclones, led to the eventual dwindling of the island's forests and dependent fauna. In turn, this led to soil erosion by wind and rain, impeding forest regeneration, acting as a positive feedback mechanism that caused rapid deforestation of the island. In 1957, however, Round Island was officially made a nature reserve, and in 1979 and 1986 was rid of goats (shooting) and rabbits (poisoning), respectively, after several unsuccessful attempts.Since removal of the introduced herbivores, the Round Island plant community has recovered dramatically. This is especially stark for three of the endemic tree species, Latania loddigesii, Pandanus vandermeerschii and Hyophorbe lagenicaulis, which constituted a large portion of the Round Island forest historically. This has led to six reptile species (five of which were critically endangered) recovering in tandem with the plant community; these are the skinks Leiolopisma telfaririi and Scelotes bojerii, the geckos Phelsuma guentheri, P. ornata and Nactus serpensinsula, and the snake Casarea dussumerii.The Round Island restoration program represents one of the longest-running projects of its kind in the world, since its conservation status was confirmed in 1957. Much of the current conservation work on Round Island is conducted by the Mauritian Wildlife Foundation and Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust and revolves around maintaining soil levels, reforestation of the island, and eradication of remaining invasive plants and invertebrates. === Aleutian Islands === The Aleutian Islands, prior to the 18th century, lacked any terrestrial predators, but from the mid-18th century Arctic foxes were introduced to act as a source for the fur trade, a practice that continued into the early 20th century. This introduction decimated the birds of the chain, particularly seabirds like the whiskered auklet. The reduction in seabirds, in turn, had effects on the ecology of the islands, as many of the plants were dependent on the guano from nesting birds acting as a fertilizer. In the early 1950s managers of the Aleutian Islands Reservation became aware of the damage, and an eradication program began. Since then over 80 islands have been cleared of non-native foxes (only six islands remain) and bird populations have rebounded. Whiskered auklets, which numbered 25,000 in 1974, had increased to 116,000 in 2003. === Campbell Island === Campbell Island is a sub Antarctic island 700 km south of New Zealand that became infested with rats in the 19th century. Several endemic birds, including the Campbell teal and Campbell snipe, only survived on small rocky islets just off the island, and the populations were perilously low. Several teals were taken into captivity for ex-situ conservation, but once they had bred in captivity there was no-where else to return them to until the island was cleared of rats. The DOC's plan to remove rats from the island was one of the most ambitious attempted, as the island was so remote, the rat populations had the highest density of rats anywhere in the world, the weather treacherous and, at 113 km2, it was the largest island at that point where eradication had been attempted. The poison had to be dropped in the winter, to minimize disturbance to nesting seabirds and reduce the chance of bird strike for the pilots. After several experiments, the eradication began in 2001. In 2003 trackers with dogs were unable to find any rats. Soon after the island was cleared it was possible to return the teals to the island. Snipe have self-reintroduced to the island and have begun breeding. === South Georgia === Rats, brought to South Georgia Island as stowaways on sealing and whaling ships in the late 18th century, have caused much damage to native wildlife, destroying tens of millions of ground-nesting birds’ eggs and chicks. While previously the island's glaciers formed a natural barrier to the spread of rats, these glaciers are now slowly melting as the climate warms. In 2011, scientists instituted a four-year programme to entirely eradicate the rats and mice, in what would be by far the largest rodent eradication attempt in the world to date. The project was led by zoologist Anthony Martin of The University of Dundee who stated, ""This is a man-induced problem and it's about time that man put right earlier errors."" In July 2013, the success of the main phase of the extermination of the rats, which took place in May that year, was announced. 180 tonnes of rat poison, brodifacoum, were dropped over 70% of the island, in what was the world's largest ever operation of this kind. Another 95t of rat poison was planned to be dropped by three helicopters in January 2015. In June 2015 the eradication programme concluded, apparently successfully, with the island believed ""very likely"" to be rat free. Monitoring will continue for a further two or three years. == Notes == == References == Courchamp, F., Chapuis, J., and Pascal, M. (2003). Mammal invaders on islands: impact, control and control impact. Cambridge Philosophical Society. 78, 347-383. Myers, J. H., Simberloff, D., Kuris, A. M. & Carey, J. R. (2000). Eradication revisited : dealing with exotic species. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 15, 316–320. == Further reading == Atkinson, I A E, (1988). Presidential address: Opportunities for Ecological Restoration. New Zealand Journal of Ecology 11: 1-12 Flint, E. & Rehkemper, G. (2002) Control and eradication of the introduced grass, Cenchrus echinatus, at Laysan Island, Central Pacific Ocean. Turning the tide: the eradication of invasive species (proceedings of the international conference on eradication of island invasives) (Occasional Paper of the IUCN Species Survival Commission No. 27. Veitch, C. R. and Clout, M.N., eds). Kettmann, M. ( April 29, 2003) Death for Life on Anacapa island, The Santa Barbara Independent Moors, P.J.; Atkinson, I.A.E. (1984). Predation on seabirds by introduced animals, and factors affecting its severity.. In Status and Conservation of the World's Seabirds. Cambridge: ICBP. ISBN 0-946888-03-5. Nogales, Manuel et al. (2004). A review of feral cat eradication on islands. Conservation Biology. 18 (2), 310-319. Williams, J.C., Byrd G.V.& Konyukhov, N.B. (2003) ""Whiskered Auklets Aethia pygmaea, foxes, humans and how to right a wrong."" Marine Ornithology 31: 175-180. Wingate, D.B. (1985) The restoration of Nonsuch Island as a living museum of Bermuda's precolonial terrestrial biome. In Conservation of Island Birds. ICBP Technical Publication. ISBN 0-946888-04-3 THE RAT ISLAND RAT ERADICATION PROJECT: A CRITICAL EVALUATION OF NONTARGET MORTALITY. PREPARED FOR ISLAND CONSERVATION THE NATURE CONSERVANCY and the U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE, ALASKA MARITIME NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGE. PREPARED BY THE ORNITHOLOGICAL COUNCIL. Final report issued December 2010. US Fish and Wildlife Service, Office of Law Enforcement, Report of Investigation #2009703127R001 == See also == Island ecology Restoration ecology == External links == Database of Island Invasive Species Eradications (DIISE) Threatened Island Biodiversity database (TIB) USDA - APHIS - Wildlife Services Island Conservation Conservación de Islas New Zealand Department of Conservation Ecological Restoration IUCN Proceedings of the International Conference on Eradication of Island Invasives UC Santa Cruz: Impact of Foxes in Alaska BBC News: New Zealand's pest eradication on islands UK SNH Uist Wader Project: impact of hedgehogs on wading bird breeding success" Islands,Island syndrome,"Island syndrome describes the differences in morphology, ecology, physiology and behaviour of insular species compared to their continental counterparts. These differences evolve due to the different ecological pressures affecting insular species, including a paucity of large predators and herbivores as well as a consistently mild climate. == Ecological driving factors == Reduced predation. Island ecosystems cannot support a sufficient biomass of prey in order to accommodate large predators. This largely relieves prey species of the risk of predation, which mostly removes the selection pressure for morphologies, ecologies and behaviours that help to evade large predators. Reduced biodiversity. Insular ecosystems tend to comprise large populations of a limited number of species (a state termed density compensation), therefore, they exhibit low biodiversity. This results in reduced interspecific competition and increased intraspecific competition. Reduced sexual selection. There is also reduced sexual selection in insular species, which is especially prominent in birds which lose their sexually dimorphic plumage used in sexual displays. Reduced parasite diversity. Finally, there is reduced parasite diversity in insular ecosystems which reduces the level of selection acting on immune-related genes. == Features of island syndrome in animals == === Body size === Interspecific competition between continental species drives divergence of body size so that species may avoid high levels of competition by occupying distinct niches. Reduced interspecific competition between insular species reduces this selection pressure for species to occupy distinct niches. As a result, there is less diversity in the body size of insular species. Typically small mammals increase in size (for example fossa are a larger insular relative of the mongoose) while typically large mammals decrease in size (for example the Malagasy hippopotamuses are smaller insular relatives of continental hippopotamuses). These are examples of insular gigantism and insular dwarfism respectively. This observed effect is called Foster's rule. Conversely, birds and reptiles tend to exhibit insular gigantism, exemplified by the moa, cassowary and Komodo dragon. Although the giant tortoises of the Galápagos Islands and the Seychelles (the Galápagos tortoise and Aldabrachelys respectively) are sometimes given as examples of insular gigantism, they are now thought to represent the last remaining populations of historically widespread giant tortoises. The remains of tortoises of similar or larger size have been found in Australia (Meiolania), southern Asia (Megalochelys), Madagascar (Aldabrachelys), North America (Hesperotestudo) and South America (Chelonoidis). The extant giant tortoises are thought to persist only in a few remote archipelagos because humans arrived there relatively late and have not heavily predated them, suggesting that these tortoise populations have been less subjected to overexploitation. === Locomotion === Since insular prey species experience a reduced risk of predation, they often lose or reduce morphologies utilised in predator evasion. For example, the wings of weevils, rails and pigeons have become so reduced in insular species that many have lost the ability to fly. This has occurred in several ratites including the kiwi and the cassowary as well as in the dodo and the kakapo after invading island habitats. The extinct moa of New Zealand exhibit the most extreme known example of insular wing reduction; there is no osseous evidence of even vestigial wings and the pectoral girdle is reduced to a scapulocoracoideum which would be unable to bear a forelimb as it lacks a glenoid fossa. Therefore, it is the only bird known to have completely lost its wings after a shift to insularity. Loss of flight allows birds to eliminate the costs of maintaining large flight-enabling muscles like the pectoral muscles and allows the skeleton to become heavier and stronger. Insular populations of barn owl have shorter wings, representing a transitional stage in which their capacity for flight is being reduced. === Adaptive coloration === Due to the reduced sexual selection of insular species, they tend to exhibit reduced sexual coloration so as to conserve the energy that this demands. Additionally, the low biodiversity of insular ecosystems makes species recognition less important so species-specific coloration is under less selection. As a result, insular bird species often exhibit duller, sexually monomorphic plumage.Several insular species acquire increased melanin colouration. Male white-winged fairywrens living on mainland Australia exhibit a blue nuptial plumage, whereas two island subspecies (Malurus leucopterus leucopterus from Dirk Hartog Island and Malurus leucopterus edouardi from Barrow Island) exhibit a black nupital plumage. A subspecies of the chestnut-bellied monarch endemic to the Solomon Islands, Monarcha castaneiventris obscurior, exhibits polymorphism in plumage color: some birds are black with a chestnut-colored belly while others are completely melanic. The frequency of the melanic phenotype increases on smaller islands, even when the relative proximity of the islands is accounted for. === Reproduction === High levels of intraspecific competition between offspring selects for the very fittest individuals. As a result, insular parents tend to produce fewer offspring so that each offspring receives greater parental investment, maximising their fitness. Lizards endemic to island ecosystems lay smaller clutches that give larger offspring compared to continental lizards of a similar size. Because of increased frequency of laying in insular lizards, continental and insular lizards produced offspring at a comparable rate. === Brain size === The expensive tissue hypothesis suggests that tissues with a high metabolic demand like the brain will become reduced if they confer little selective advantage and so do not help to increase food intake. The paucity of large predators means that insular species can afford to become slower and less alert without suffering from massively increased predation risk. As such, reduction in relative brain size is often seen in insular species as this reduces basal metabolic rate without increases in predation risk. For example, the endocranial volume of the extinct Malagasy dwarf hippos is 30% less than that of an equally sized continental ancestor. Similarly, the early human, Homo floresiensis, had a brain of similar size to that of the significantly earlier Australopithecus specimens from mainland Africa and 3.4 times smaller than that of Homo sapiens which evolved later (see Evolution of human brain size). === Poikilothermy === Due to low predation risk, insular prey species can afford to reduce their basal metabolic rate by adopting poikilothermy without any significant increase in predation risk. As a result, poikilothermy is far more common in island species. === Behaviour === Due to lack of predation, insular species tend to become more docile and less territorial than their continental counterparts (sometimes referred to as island tameness). Deer mice, song sparrows and bronze anoles all have smaller territories with greater overlap compared to their mainland conspecifics. They are also more tolerant to intruders. Falkland Island foxes and Tammar wallabies have both lost an innate fear of large predators including humans. == In parasites == The nematode parasite Heligmosomoides polygyrus underwent niche expansion (by invading new host species) and a reduction in genetic diversity after invading ecosystems in seven western Mediterranean islands. The loss of genetic diversity was related to the distance between the contemporal population and the mainland origin. == In plants == === Plant structure === Plant stature and leaf area both follow the pattern of insular mammals, with small species becoming larger and large species becoming smaller in island populations. This may be due to reduced interspecific competition which would decrease the ecological drive for plants to occupy separate niches. Due to reduced biomass of large herbivores, several island plants lose protective spines and thorns as well as decreasing the amounts of defensive chemicals produced. The improbability of island fires also results in a loss of fire-resistance in bark, fruits and cones. Insular woodiness, the evolutionary transition from herbaceousness toward woodiness, is a very common phenomenon among island floras. === Reproduction and dispersal === Due to a lack of dedicated pollinators on remote islands, insular plants often use small, inconspicuously colored and easily accessible flowers to attract a range of alternative pollinator species. Self-pollination is also more commonly used by insular plant species, as pollen does not have to travel so far to reach a receptive ovule or stigma. Seeds exhibit insular gigantism, becoming predominantly larger than mainland seeds, which is thought to improve mortality at sea during dispersal. == Consequences of island syndrome for conservation == The relaxed predation risk in island ecosystems has resulted in the loss of several adaptations and behaviours that act to evade or discourage predation. This makes insular species particularly vulnerable to exploitation by alien species. For example, when humans first introduced dogs, pigs, cats, rats, and crab-eating macaques to the island of Mauritius in the 17th century, they plundered dodo nests and increased interspecies competition for the limited food resources. This ultimately resulted in the dodo's extinction. The limited resources in island ecosystems are also vulnerable to overexploitation if they are not managed sustainably. == Hațeg Island == Hațeg Island was a large offshore island in the Tethys Sea of the Late Cretaceous and is often called ""The Island of the Dwarf Dinosaurs"" on account of the extensive fossil evidence that its native dinosaurs exhibited island dwarfism. The island's native titanosaur, Magyarosaurus dacus, had a body mass of only 900 kilograms (2,000 lb) while mainland titanosaurs like Patagotitan could reach up to 69 tonnes (76 tons). The pterosaur Hatzegopteryx took over the position of apex predator of Hațeg Island in the absence of any hypercarnivorous dinosaurs and likely hunted juvenile dwarf dinosaurs or even adults of the smaller species. Based on its robust jaw and cervical vertebrae, Hatzegopteryx is thought to have hunted in a similar manner to modern storks by attacking prey that are too large to swallow whole. Its wingspan is estimated to have reached up to 10 to 12 metres (33 to 39 ft), making it one of the largest pterosaurs to have ever lived. As such, it is a potent example of island gigantism, in this case to fill the otherwise empty niche of apex predator. Balaur bondoc was originally classified as a dromaeosaurid dinosaur based on its retractable toe claws. Its forelimbs appeared to be too short and stocky for it to be a basal avialan, however, phylogenetic analysis later confirmed that Balaur was indeed a basal member of Avialae, a clade that includes modern birds. Its limbs were clearly incapable of powered flight and so Balaur is yet another example of the secondary loss of flight after invading an island niche, similar to insular species of barn owls and ratites as well as the extinct moa and the dodo (See Insular reduction in flight capacity). == Reversed island syndrome == The term ""reversed island syndrome"" (RIS) was first used by Pasquale Raia in 2010 to describe the differences in morphology, ecology, physiology and behaviour observed in insular species when population density is either low or fluctuating. This results in stronger natural selection and weaker intraspecific selection, leading to different phenotypes compared to the standard island syndrome. RIS was first described in a population of Italian wall lizard endemic to the Licosa Islet where the unpredictable environmental conditions and highly fluctuating population density have selected for aggressive behaviour and increased reproductive effort. The male lizards exhibit elevated α-MSH levels relative to mainland populations, which increases the basal metabolic rate, strengthens immune responses, produces darker blue coloration and raises 5α-dihydrotestosterone levels. The latter improves male reproductive success by increasing the likelihood of winning sexual conflicts over females and augmenting sperm quality. Females produce similar numbers of eggs compared to mainland populations but the eggs of insular females are significantly heavier, reflecting increased reproductive effort. The unpredictable conditions produce high mortality rates so adults invest more effort into current broods since they are less likely to survive to produce subsequent broods i.e. there is low interbrood conflict. == References == == See also == Island ecology" Islands,Little Shell Island,"Little Shell Island is a small island 2km east of Sidney, British Columbia, Canada. It is part of the Gulf Islands. The island is approximately 1 acre (0.4 hectares) in size. It is part of the Little Group of islands near Sidney and has a rich variety of wildlife. It is named after its beach, which is composed of broken seashells. In 2021, it was put up for sale for $1.1 million. == References ==" Islands,Island mentality,"Island mentality is the notion of isolated communities perceiving themselves as exceptional or superior to the rest of the world. This term does not directly refer to an island or other geographically confined society, but to the cultural, moral, or ideological superiority of a community or a person that lacks social exposure to the outside world. Island mentality can be characterized by narrow-mindedness, ignorance, or outright hostility towards any artifact (concept, ideology, lifestyle choice, art form, etc.) originating from outside the geographic area inhabited by the society. The term ""island mentality"" is also used in some psychological research to describe individuals who dislike or have problems with relating to others, and then live as loners or ""islands"". This concept (in which people may feel inferior, afraid, or alone) is unrelated to the above terminology. == See also == Ethnocentrism Exceptionalism Galápagos syndrome Groupthink Light unto the nations Not invented here Shtetl Siege mentality == References == Israel and Pacific republics, united by an island mentality Desert the island mentality Ditch the island mentality" Islands,Port-Christmas,"Port-Christmas is a natural and historical site on the Kerguelen Islands, located at the northern tip of the main island, on the east coast of the Loranchet Peninsula. It covers the bottom of Baie de l'Oiseau, the first shelter for sailors approaching the archipelago from the north, and is easily identifiable by the presence at the entrance of a natural arch, now collapsed, known as the Kerguelen Arch. It was here, in 1774, that the explorer Yves Joseph de Kerguelen de Trémarec took possession of the island on behalf of King Louis XV of France. However, the name of the island, Christmas Harbour, was given by James Cook, whose ships anchored in the bay on Christmas Day back in 1776, during his third circumnavigation. The name appears in some French translations or fictional works such as le Havre de Noël or Port-Noël. Considered to be a safe haven, in the 19th century it regularly welcomed the ships of seal and whale hunters, mainly from Nantucket, who scoured the southern seas and islands. The site is also occasionally used as a research station for geomagnetism investigations. Descriptions of these landscapes by explorers in their travelogues inspired great writers, starting with Edgar Allan Poe (1838), followed by Jules Verne (1897), who incorporated them into their adventure novels, then Valery Larbaud (1933) and Jean-Paul Kaufmann (1993), among others, in their more personal works. == Toponymy == The name ""Port-Christmas"" was established by Raymond Rallier du Baty in 1908 to designate the most isolated part of Baie de l'Oiseau, as shown on the 1⁄228000 map published in 1922. The Commission territoriale de toponymie des Terres australes françaises (TAAF Territorial Commission) upheld this designation when the 1⁄100000 IGN map was published in 1973. It also extended the name to the area between the beach and Lake Rochegude, location to a secondary scientific station.This now-official toponymy puts an end to almost two centuries of debate between the name given to the whole bay by Kerguelen, ""Baie de l'Oiseau"", and the one chosen by Cook, ""Christmas Harbour"". Indeed, during his second expedition, Yves Joseph de Kerguelen de Trémarec called this bay after L'Oiseau, the frigate he sent there in January 1774 to do reconnaissance. Almost three years later, on December 25th 1776, the ships HMS Resolution and HMS Discovery anchored in the same location. Captain Cook, in command of the expedition, was well aware of the French navigator's earlier discovery, but was not yet aware of the details, nor that the bay had already been named. He decided to celebrate the holiday's festivities by giving this ""Christmas haven"" the English name of Christmas Harbour.The predominantly Anglo-American presence of the archipelago in the 19th century, along with its literature, favored the use of the latter name. However, when France decided to reaffirm its sovereignty by sending the French aviso ship l'Eure in 1893 to perform a new take-over ceremony, Baie de l'Oiseau formally reverted to its original name. In the end, the current consensus, instituted by Rallier du Baty, which ""semi-francizes"" Christmas Harbour as Port-Christmas and reserves its denominations for a particular area of Baie de l'Oiseau, allows us to respect Kerguelen's former discovery while preserving the historical trace of Cook's passage. == Geography == === Location === From the permanent base at Port-aux-Français, located 115 km to the southeast, Port-Christmas is one of the most isolated and inaccessible areas of the archipelago. Given its distance and, in particular, its mountainous topography, the site is almost never reached by land. It can, however, be reached by sea after sailing at least 100 nautical miles (190 km). Baie de l'Oiseau, at the base of which the site is located, forms the first indentation at the northeastern end of the Loranchet peninsula. The bay is closed off to the north by the Cape-Haïtien and to the south by Kerguelen Arch. Port-Christmas is towered over by Table de l'Oiseau (403 m) to the north and Mount Havergal (552 m) to the south.While most of the bay's shores are rocky and often steep, the bottom is occupied by a 350-meter-long black sand beach, formed by the erosion of the surrounding basalt rocks. Here, a stream flows into the sea, after collecting both stormwaters from Mount Havergal and drainage tunnel waters from Lake Rochegude. This lake, located approximately 500 m from the shore at an altitude of 40 m, marks the barrier separating Port-Christmas from Baie Ducheyron to the west.The anchorage at Port-Christmas is 11 meters deep (6 fathoms). It offers a relatively safe haven for sailors who frequent this particularly turbulent part of the ocean caused by the Roaring Forties. === Geology === The geological environment of Port-Christmas, like that of practically the entire Loranchet Peninsula, is dominated by trap-rocks, terraced basaltic piles formed by the superimposition of lava outpourings around twenty-eight to twenty-nine million years ago.At various points in the bay, between the hard stratum, a few small coal seams emerge. British explorer James Clark Ross noted this as early as 1840. He also noted the presence of fossilized trees, the first of their kind to be spotted in the archipelago. These petrified woods, or simply lignites, found at Port-Christmas and Mount Havergal, mainly belong to the conifer tree families known as Araucariaceae and Cupressaceae, more specifically the Araucarites, Cupressinoxylon, and Cupressoxylon genera, which are similar to those found today in the southernmost regions of the Southern Hemisphere. They bear witness to widespread ancient vegetation and past climates that were milder, or at least did not undergo intense glacial periods. === Highlights === From Port-Christmas, the sight of the pillars of the Kerguelen Arch is a must. As soon as the archipelago was discovered, Kerguelen mentioned the imposing rocky arch located at the tip of the southern rim at the entrance to Baie de l'Oiseau. It rises to over 100 meters. Named ""le Portail"" by Kerguelen, then ""Arched-Rock"" by James Cook, the arch collapsed between 1908 and 1913, leaving only its two basalt columns standing.Port-Christmas also has the geographical distinction of being one of the only land-based antipodes with the United States territory. It corresponds to Kevin, a township in Toole County, in the state of Montana, near the border with Canada. == Natural environment == When the first navigators landed in the archipelago, they were struck by the abundance of a rich variety of birds. On the Port-Christmas shore itself, Kerguelen's lieutenants, like James Cook, noted the presence of ""penguins"". A nesting colony of king penguins is still found there today, one of the smallest on Kerguelen with just forty breeders. Elephant seals, known at the time as ""sea lions"", also frequent the beach.Fishing, on the other hand, was disappointing as the net Cook had thrown into the sea brought back only half a dozen fish. Recent samples show that the fish in the area belong to the Channichthyidae family, or sometimes to the species Zanclorhynchus spinifer, the Antarctic horsefish, of the Congiopodidae family. The beach drop-offs at Port-Christmas are notable for their abundance of soft corals (Onogorgia nodosa), and the giant seaweed Macrocystis pyrifera forms dense seagrass meadow.Conversely, terrestrial vegetation is poorly developed. While early records describe a verdant, albeit short and treeless, coastal landscape covered with grasses (Gramineae), azorella, and Kerguelen cabbage, the colonization of the entire main island by rabbits has since led to a considerable weakening of plant formations, which are often reduced to a meager meadow of Acaena magellanica. Generally speaking, the fauna and flora are in accordance with that to be found in Baie de l'Oiseau and more widely on the main island of the archipelago, known as La Grande Terre.The entire Port-Christmas area is part of the Réserve naturelle nationale des Terres australes françaises, which, since 2019, has been classified as World Heritage under the name of ""French Southern and Antarctic Lands"". Like the majority of the archipelago, its terrestrial sector benefits from the ""classic"" protection regime. The area is closed to the introduction of any new animal or plant, any disturbance of living communities, any industrial, commercial or mining activity, and any biological or mineral extraction, with the exception of rare exemptions that may be granted by the Reserve's management or for scientific research purposes. Access to the site is possible, but is regulated and subject to authorization.The marine section, like all the territorial waters of the Kerguelen Islands, is included in the ""zone de protection renforcée marine"". Any disturbance of the natural environment is prohibited, except for scientific activities duly approved by the authorities. All professional and recreational fishing is prohibited, with no exceptions. == History == The first sighting of the islands dates back to the second expedition of Yves Joseph de Kerguelen de Trémarec, aboard the Roland, a 64-cannon vessel, with an escort of two smaller ships, l'Oiseau and la Dauphine. The expedition reached the coast of Grand-Terre [sic] on December 14th, 1773, but adverse weather conditions prevented them from disembarking. During the few days la Dauphine was separated from the group, Ferron du Quengo, commander of the Corvette, spotted the entrance to a bay around December 20th, 1773, but was unable to gain entry. On December 25th, 1773, Kerguelen delegated to l'Oiseau and la Dauphine the task of trying to land there. The commander of l'Oiseau, Monsieur de Rosnevet, mapped out the bay and named it Baie de l'Oiseau, after his frigate. But it wasn't until January 6th, 1774, that he managed to send his lieutenant Henri Pascal de Rochegude ashore in a longboat. The latter attached a bottle to a prominent rock, containing a formal takeover statement:« Ludovico XV. galliarum rege, et d. de Boynes regi a Secretis ad res maritimas annis 1772 et 1773. »The fact that the years 1772 and 1773 are mentioned, even though the official parchment was not issued until 1774, means that the land had already been discovered and that this formal takeover merely reiterated the first expedition by Kerguelen, who was led by Lieutenant Charles-Marc du Boisguéhenneuc on February 14th, 1772, to ""Baie du Lion-Marin"" (now known as Anse du Gros Ventre), forty leagues to the south. James Cook, who stopped off in the archipelago on his ""third voyage"", dropped the anchors of his ships Discovery and Resolution on Christmas Day, 1776. He called the place Christmas Harbour and realized the previous presence of the French when he found the message they had left. He added a mention of his own berthing and a vintage silver coin, relocating the bottle under a cairn. The British explorer notes the optimal anchorage and water provisioning conditions. The ship's surgeon, William Anderson, noted both the presence of Kerguelen cabbage (Pringlea antiscorbutica), which could be used to combat the scurvy often suffered by crews on long voyages, and the abundance of ""oil resources"". It was also from Christmas Harbour that Cook thought of naming the archipelago the ""Islands of Desolation"", before paying tribute to his first French discoverer by naming them after himself, albeit somewhat mischievously: « I would have called them the Islands of Desolation, if I didn't want to deprive Monsieur de Kerguelen the honor of giving them his name. »The expedition set off again on December 31st to explore the surrounding eastern coasts all the way to the present-day Gulf of Morbihan, which James Cook named ""Royal Sound"". It only took a few years for the previously untouched Desolation Islands to become a coveted land. The first expedition to hunt marine mammals by American ships from the island of Nantucket was documented as early as 1792. The interest of the Americans in undertaking campaigns in the southern seas was even greater, considering that the British had forbidden them to hunt in the northern hemisphere. Christmas Harbour, with its safe anchorage, became a popular stopover throughout the nineteenth century, as it was easy to reach, even if it didn't offer the best shelter in poor weather. In the early 1820s, American explorer and sealing captain Benjamin Morrell (1795–1839) made it his main anchorage. The Kerguelen archipelago was frequented by whalers and sealers until 1909 (with a highpoint between 1840 and 1870). In 1840, British explorer James Clark Ross anchored at Port-Christmas for 68 days, between May and July, as part of a major scientific expedition around the world and towards the poles, with the primary objective of studying geomagnetism. Two temporary observatories were built at the far end of the bay, one dedicated to astronomical observations, and the other to the study of terrestrial magnetism. Every day, at a fixed time, regardless of the weather, magnetism readings were taken simultaneously with a complementary station located almost antipodally in Toronto, Canada. Ross's mission brief included a long series of other physical observations to be carried out: meteorological, oceanographic, hydrographic, as well as a naturalistic component to which the expedition's surgeons, Robert McCormick, Joseph Dalton Hooker and David Lyall, made a major contribution by exploring from Christmas Harbour. Since its discovery, despite numerous visits, the islands have never been permanently inhabited, particularly by the French, which exposes them to the possibility of dispossession by other countries. Around 1890, England and Australia began to lay claim to the Kerguelens. Consequently, at the suggestion of the Boissière brothers, President Sadi Carnot decided to send the Eure, an aviso french ship under the captaincy of Commander Louis Édouard Paul Lieutard (1842–1902) , to solemnly repossess the Austral Islands on behalf of France. The mission took place in the Kerguelen archipelago from January 1st to 15th 1893, before moving on to Saint Paul Island and Amsterdam Island. On New Year's Day 1893, the Eure arrived at Port-Christmas, where the Francis Allyn, an American seal-hunting schooner under Captain Joseph J. Fuller, happened to be. The French military, reiterating the takeover made 120 years earlier on the same spot, proceeded ashore to raise the colors on the mast and affix a copper plaque engraved ""EURE – 1893"". Twenty-one cannon shots were fired. Over the following fifteen days, the same operations were repeated at various points around the archipelago. The territory was now ready for the arrival of settlers. Six months later, Henry and René-Émile Bossière obtained an exclusive 50-year concession over the entire French Southern Territories.Returning from an oceanographic expedition to the outskirts of Antarctica, German marine biologist Carl Chun arrived in Port-Christmas aboard the Valdivia in 1898, where he declared himself fascinated by the ""romanesque"" character of the place.On March 9th, 1908, Raymond Rallier du Baty and his brother Henri anchored their ketch, the J.B. Charcot, before embarking on a methodical exploration of the archipelago. To own a territory, it is essential to be fully acquainted with it and to officially designate its remarkable landmarks, especially with the economic development of Kerguelen in mind. To this effect, the du Baty brothers received moral and financial support from the Société de Géographie to carry out their reconnaissance and mapping work.During the 20th century, Port-Christmas was occasionally used as a site for scientific studies, but its remoteness was an obstacle to continuous monitoring. During the International Geophysical Year in 1957 and 1958, Port-aux-Français was chosen as the site for a permanent magnetic repeat station. In December 1964, the replacement ship, the Gallieni, brought a team to Port-aux-Français to carry out tellurometer measurements and helicopter overflights to produce a general map of the archipelago. This team set up camp in virtually the same location as Ross had chosen in 1840. Two Ferdinand Fillod-type metal cabins were erected in the hope of providing a permanent secondary station. For several years, they were used as shelters for scientific teams during southern summer, but were eventually abandoned and destroyed, and no longer appear on the TAAF or IPEV cabin lists.Given its historic character, the Port-Christmas site is one of several whose artifacts will be inventoried under the 2018–2027 Management Plan from the Réserve naturelle nationale des Terres australes françaises. == Literature == Numerous writers, mainly novelists, have made mention of this place. In 1838, the American writer Edgar Allan Poe was the first to publish ""The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket"", translated into French in 1858 by Charles Baudelaire under the title Aventures d'Arthur Gordon Pym. In it, he describes the nearly one-month stay on Christmas Harbour in 1827 by the crew of the Jane Guy vessel, who rescued the two main protagonists. Poe accurately describes the natural harbor and the typical arch, sometimes repeating almost verbatim the description given by seal-hunting captain Benjamin Morrell in A Narrative of Four Voyages, published in 1832. In particular, the protagonist Arthur Pym cites Wasp Harbour, a toponym that only Morrell uses to designate his usual anchorage, which resembles Port-Christmas but whose description is too imprecise to be sure.Jules Verne, using Poe's novel as a theme and plot for his own, sets the first three chapters of An Antarctic Mystery (1897) set in the Desolation Islands, where his hero, the American mineralogist Joerling, spends from June to August 1839 in Christmas Harbour, before sailing south on the schooner Halbrane. Without ever having been there, the French novelist gives a precise geographical description and establishes a fictitious cosmopolitan settlement of around twenty inhabitants centered around Fenimore Atkins, the proprietor of the Au Cormoran-Vert inn, living off the seasonal staging of English and American sealers and whalers. The two 19th-century novelists anchored Port-Christmas in the collective imagination as one of the gateways to the Deep South, the Southern Ocean and the Antarctic continent. Navigator and travel writer Raymond Rallier du Baty docked at Port-Christmas in 1908 to map the archipelago and wrote a literary description in his story On peut aller loin avec des cœurs volontaires. In 1933, novelist and poet Valery Larbaud published Le gouverneur de Kerguelen (The Governor of Kerguelen), a short story that uses a disciplinary transfer to Port-Noël as a pretext to initiate the game of ""ten essential books that one would take to a desert island"" and establish a library. He humorously proposes the following rules:""... 'You have had the misfortune to displease those in high places; but in deference to your merits, we have contented ourselves with distancing you by appointing you for one ... three ... five years (that's a maximum) Governor of (sic) Kerguelen, with residence at Port-Noël, the main town of this colony. [...] You will only be able to take with you one... five... ten... twenty books, on condition that they are chosen by you from...'. Here, all suppositions are allowed..."" – Valery Larbaud, 1933.This little game is also the occasion for correspondence between Larbaud and the Dutch literary scholar Edgar du Perron, who proposes and discusses his own choices.Edgar Aubert de la Rüe, who visited the archipelago four times between 1928 and 1953 to carry out various geographical and geological studies, spending many months there in total, mentions Port-Christmas in his brief novel Deux ans aux Îles de la Désolation (1954).In 1993, journalist and writer Jean-Paul Kauffmann, in his story L'Arche des Kerguelen, made Port-Christmas the ultimate goal of a personal quest he undertook in the Kerguelen archipelago a few years after his release from three years' captivity as a hostage in Lebanon. His entire book – which retells the history of the Kerguelen archipelago, its explorers and residents, as well as the details of his own several-week stay – focuses on reaching this mythical place, one of the most isolated in the archipelago and even one of the most inaccessible on Earth, which he never managed to reach despite various attempts by boat, on foot and by helicopter. French sailor Isabelle Autissier, after a dismasting in 1994 that forced her to make reparations in Port-aux-Français, published a literary biography in 2006, Kerguelen, le voyageur du pays de l'ombre, in which she describes in detail the arrival of the crew of L'Oiseau in the homonymous bay in January 1774, and the onshore takeover led by Messieurs de Rochegude and du Cheyron, based on available historical data (diaries and accounts) and her own experience of the site. She gives the following description:""Beyond the beach, they waded through a grassy swamp and climbed a mound. [...] No trees, no flowers, in the heart of that summer brightened by austerity. The sparse greenery was covered in patches of old snow. The overall atmosphere was sad and cold. Grandiose indeed, but in the manner of a funerary monument when the shine of smooth marble evokes eternity... "" – Isabelle Autissier, 2006. == Philately == At least five TAAF stamps featuring the Port-Christmas location or its immediate surroundings were issued, the first three engraved by Pierre Béquet : 1976: face value of 3.50 francs, commemorating the bicentenary of Cook's arrival in 1776 with a reproduction of the landing scene engraved in 1784 by John Webber; 1979: face value 2.70 francs, illustrating the arrival of explorer Ross at Christmas Harbour in 1840, with a reproduction of Samuel Williams' engraving of the HMS Terror passing in front of the Kerguelen Arch (Arched Rock); 1997: face value of 24 francs, celebrating the bicentenary of Admiral Kerguelen's death, with a depiction of ""Le Hâvre [sic] de Noël"", one of the French copies of John Webber's engraving; 2001: face value of 3 euros, depicting an actual view of the Kerguelen Arch, engraved from a photograph by Jacques Jubert; 2011: face value of 1.10 euros, depicting the EE Forbin at the Kerguelen arch during its visit to the archipelago from January 17th to 23rd 1978, stamp engraved by Elsa Catelin, issued jointly with Saint-Pierre-et-Miquelon. == Notes == == References == == Annex ==" Islands,Pseudo-atoll,"A pseudo-atoll, like an atoll, is an island that encircles a lagoon, either partially or completely. A pseudo-atoll differs from an atoll as established by several authorities, such as how it is formed (not by subsidence, nor by coral). It is considered a preferable term to ""near-atoll"". There is a need for rigorous definition of ""pseudo-atoll"" before it can be accepted as a general term. == Definitions == Alexander Agassiz gave the term pseudo-atoll to ""any ring-shaped reefs not formed as a result of subsidence"". while Norman D. Newell and J. Keith Rigby called such reefs non-coral. and ""We conclude that almost-atoll should be retained as a descriptive term as defined by Davis and Tayama, and that the use of ""near-atoll"" as a synonym be abandoned. The value of terms such as ""semi-atoll"" and ""pseudo-atoll"" needs close examination and more rigorous definition before being generally accepted."" H. Mergner yet states that micro-atolls classify as pseudo-atolls. Professor David R. Stoddart of Berkeley states an ""almost-atoll"" is an atoll with a central island of left over residue. == Usage == Dr. Edward J. Petuch, author of Cenozoic seas: the view from eastern North America, refers to pseudo-atolls as pseudoatolls with the Everglades Pseudoatoll as an example. == See also == Coral reef Depression (geology) == References == == Further reading == David R. Stottart, Department of Geography, University of California-Berkeley B. V. Preobrazhenskiĭ, B. V., Contemporary reefs; CRC Press; 1 edition, 1993, ISBN 90-6191-945-2." Islands,San Giacomo in Paludo,"San Giacomo in Paludo is an island north of the Venice Lagoon. It is being repurposed as a cultural center after serving as a monastery, pilgrim refuge, and quarantine island in prior centuries. == References ==" Islands,Unsinkable aircraft carrier,"An unsinkable aircraft carrier is a term sometimes used to refer to a geographically or politically important island that is used to extend the power projection of a military force. Because such an entity is capable of acting as an airbase and is a physical landmass not easily destroyed, it is, in effect, an immobile aircraft carrier that cannot be sunk. The term unsinkable aircraft carrier first appeared during World War II, to describe the islands and atolls in the Pacific Ocean that became strategically important as potential airstrips for American bombers in their transoceanic war against Japan. To this end, the US military engaged in numerous island hopping operations to oust the occupying Japanese forces from such islands; the US Navy Seabees would often have to subsequently construct airstrips there from scratch—sometimes over entire atolls—quickly, in order to support air operations against Japan. Midway Atoll has been described as a fourth, unsinkable, American aircraft carrier at the Battle of Midway in 1942 (the Americans had three conventional carriers). It did indeed function this way in the battle, with aircraft from the atoll attacking Japanese carriers and the atoll being attacked in turn.Malta and Iceland were sometimes described as unsinkable aircraft carriers during World War II, making Malta a target of the Axis powers. At the end of the Chinese Civil War, the US military was said to have considered Taiwan an unsinkable aircraft carrier, though this position toward Taiwan changed when the United States and the People's Republic of China normalized relations in the 1970s and the United States annulled the Sino-American Mutual Defense Treaty with Taiwan. However, the United States has de facto maintained the status quo through the Taiwan Relations Act. The US military is also said to have considered the British Isles as unsinkable aircraft carriers during the Cold War. In 1983, Japanese Prime Minister Yasuhiro Nakasone pledged to make Japan an ""unsinkable aircraft carrier in the Pacific"", assisting the US in defending against the threat of Soviet bombers. US Secretary of State General Alexander Haig described Israel as ""the largest American aircraft carrier in the world that cannot be sunk"". In arguing against production of the CVA-01 aircraft carriers, the Royal Air Force claimed that Australia could serve adequately in the same role, using false maps that placed Singapore 400 miles (640 km) closer to Australia. The island of Cyprus is also often described as an unsinkable aircraft carrier, in relation to the military presence of the United Kingdom there. During the Second World War, the United Kingdom gave some serious thought to building virtually unsinkable aircraft carriers from ice reinforced with sawdust (Project Habakkuk). A model was made, and serious consideration was given to the project, with a design displacing 2.2 million tons and accommodating 150 twin-engined bombers on the drawing board, but it was never produced. == See also == Diego Garcia Military on Gotland Mobile offshore base Strategic geography Tinian in World War II Territorial disputes in the South China Sea == References == == Further reading == Abraham, Itty (2015). ""India's Unsinkable Aircraft Carrier"". Economic and Political Weekly. 50 (39): 10–13. ISSN 0012-9976. JSTOR 24482452." Islands,Category:Islands by body of water,"This category includes articles on islands and islets, organized by their physical location." Islands,Category:Islands by city, Islands,Category:Islands by continent, Islands,Category:Islands by country,"This category includes articles on islands, organized by their sovereign country which may differ from their physical location." Islands,Category:Islands by dependent territory, Islands,Category:Islands by type, Islands,Category:Lists of islands,"These are lists of islands. See list of islands for an overview." Islands,Category:Categories by island, Islands,Category:Archipelagoes,"Island arcs and other archipelagoes. Archipelago articles are placed in the archipelago category of their ocean and in the island category of their country." Islands,Category:Car-free islands, Islands,Category:Island countries,"This includes countries that consist of an island, an archipelago, or part of an island." Islands,Category:Disputed islands,These are islands or islets that have been disputed for sovereignty. Usually the surrounding waters are considered in dispute as well. Islands,Category:Islands in fiction,Fiction set on islands. Islands,Category:Former islands, Islands,Category:Island Games, Islands,Category:Insular ecology,"This category is for the ecology of actual islands, as well as the ecological effects of insular isolation (e.g. may include peninsulas, etc.). == See also == Life zone Sky island Oasis Endemism" Islands,Category:International islands,"Islands in which the territory is divided between two sovereign states or (more rarely) held in common by two sovereign states. For islands that are the subject of disputed sovereignty, see Category:Disputed islands." Islands,Category:Prison islands, Islands,Category:Private islands, Islands,Category:Island resorts, Islands,Category:Island restoration, Islands,Category:Songs about islands, Islands,Category:Uninhabited islands,This category is for islands that are uninhabited. Islands,Category:Island stubs, Islands,Category:Wikipedia categories named after islands, National_parks,National park,"A national park is a natural park in use for conservation purposes, created and protected by national governments. Often it is a reserve of natural, semi-natural, or developed land that a government declares or owns. Although individual countries designate their own national parks differently, there is a common idea: the conservation of 'wild nature' for posterity and as a symbol of national pride. National parks are almost always open to visitors.The United States established the first ""public park or pleasuring-ground for the benefit and enjoyment of the people"", Yellowstone National Park, in 1872. Although Yellowstone was not officially termed a ""national park"" in its establishing law, it was always termed such in practice and is widely held to be the first and oldest national park in the world. However, the Tobago Main Ridge Forest Reserve (in what is now Trinidad and Tobago; established in 1776), and the area surrounding Bogd Khan Uul Mountain (Mongolia, 1778), which were restricted from cultivation in order to protect surrounding farmland, are seen as the oldest legally protected areas. Parks Canada, established on May 19, 1911, became the world's first national park service.An international organization, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), and its World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA), has defined ""National Park"" as its Category II type of protected areas. According to the IUCN, 6,555 national parks worldwide met its criteria in 2006. IUCN is still discussing the parameters of defining a national park. == Definitions == In 1969, the IUCN declared a national park to be a relatively large area with the following defining characteristics: One or several ecosystems not materially altered by human exploitation and occupation, where plant and animal species, geomorphological sites and habitats are of special scientific, educational, and recreational interest or which contain a natural landscape of great beauty; Highest competent authority of the country has taken steps to prevent or eliminate exploitation or occupation as soon as possible in the whole area and to effectively enforce the respect of ecological, geomorphological, or aesthetic features which have led to its establishment; and Visitors are allowed to enter, under special conditions, for inspirational, educative, cultural, and recreative purposes.In 1971, these criteria were further expanded upon leading to more clear and defined benchmarks to evaluate a national park. These include: Minimum size of 1,000 hectares within zones in which protection of nature takes precedence Statutory legal protection Budget and staff sufficient to provide sufficient effective protection Prohibition of exploitation of natural resources (including the development of dams) qualified by such activities as sport, hunting, fishing, the need for management, facilities, etc.While the term national park is now defined by the IUCN, many protected areas in many countries are called national park even when they correspond to other categories of the IUCN Protected Area Management Definition, for example: Swiss National Park, Switzerland: IUCN Ia – Strict Nature Reserve Everglades National Park, United States: IUCN Ib – Wilderness Area Koli National Park, Finland: IUCN II – Surface Area Victoria Falls National Park, Zimbabwe: IUCN III – National Monument Vitosha National Park, Bulgaria: IUCN IV – Habitat Management Area New Forest National Park, United Kingdom: IUCN V – Protected Landscape Etniko Ygrotopiko Parko Delta Evrou, Greece: IUCN VI – Managed Resource Protected AreaWhile national parks are generally understood to be administered by national governments (hence the name), in Australia, with the exception of six national parks, national parks are run by state governments and predate the Federation of Australia; similarly, national parks in the Netherlands are administered by the provinces. In Canada, there are both national parks operated by the federal government and provincial or territorial parks operated by the provincial and territorial governments, although nearly all are still national parks by the IUCN definition.In many countries, including Indonesia, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom, national parks do not adhere to the IUCN definition, while some areas which adhere to the IUCN definition are not designated as national parks. === Terminology === As many countries do not adhere to the IUCN definition, the term ""national park"" may be used loosely. In the United Kingdom, and in some other countries such as Taiwan, a ""national park"" simply describes a general area that is relatively undeveloped, scenic, and attracts tourists, with some form of planning restrictions to ensure it maintains those characteristics. There may be substantial human settlements within the bounds of a national park. Conversely, parks that meet the criteria may be not be referred to as ""national parks"". Terms like ""preserve"" or ""reserve"" may be used instead. == History == === Early references === Starting in 1735 the Naples government undertook laws in order to protect Natural areas, which could be used as a game reserve by the royal family; Procida was the first protected site; the difference between the many previous royal hunting preserves and this one, which is considered to be closer to a Park rather than a hunting preserve, is that Neapolitan government already considered the division into the present-day wilderness areas and non-strict nature reserves.In 1810, the English poet William Wordsworth described the Lake District as a ""sort of national property, in which every man has a right and interest who has an eye to perceive and a heart to enjoy."" The painter George Catlin, in his travels through the American West, wrote during the 1830s that Native Americans in the United States might be preserved ""(by some great protecting policy of government) ... in a magnificent park ... A nation's Park, containing man and beast, in all the wild and freshness of their nature's beauty!"" === First efforts: Hot Springs, Arkansas and Yosemite Valley === The first effort by the U.S. Federal government to set aside such protected lands was on 20 April 1832, when President Andrew Jackson signed legislation that the 22nd United States Congress had enacted to set aside four sections of land around what is now Hot Springs, Arkansas, to protect the natural, thermal springs and adjoining mountainsides for the future disposal of the U.S. government. It was known as Hot Springs Reservation, but no legal authority was established. Federal control of the area was not clearly established until 1877. The work of important leaders who fought for animal and land conservation were essential in the development of legal action. Some of these leaders include President Abraham Lincoln, Laurance Rockefeller, President Theodore Roosevelt, John Muir, and First Lady, Lady Bird Johnson to name a few.John Muir is today referred to as the ""Father of the National Parks"" due to his work in Yosemite. He published two influential articles in The Century Magazine, which formed the base for the subsequent legislation.President Abraham Lincoln signed an Act of Congress on 1 July 1864, ceding the Yosemite Valley and the Mariposa Grove of giant sequoias (later becoming Yosemite National Park) to the state of California. According to this bill, private ownership of the land in this area was no longer possible. The state of California was designated to manage the park for ""public use, resort, and recreation"". Leases were permitted for up to ten years and the proceeds were to be used for conservation and improvement. A public discussion followed this first legislation of its kind and there was a heated debate over whether the government had the right to create parks. The perceived mismanagement of Yosemite by the Californian state was the reason why Yellowstone was put under national control at its establishment six years later. === First national park: Yellowstone === In 1872, Yellowstone National Park was established as the United States' first national park, being also the world's first national park. In some European and Asian countries, however, national protection and nature reserves already existed - though typically as game reserves and recreational grounds set aside for royalty, such as a part of the Forest of Fontainebleau (France, 1861).Yellowstone was part of a federally governed territory. With no state government that could assume stewardship of the land, the federal government took on direct responsibility for the park, the official first national park of the United States. The combined effort and interest of conservationists, politicians and the Northern Pacific Railroad ensured the passage of enabling legislation by the United States Congress to create Yellowstone National Park. Theodore Roosevelt and his group of conservationists, the Boone and Crockett Club, were active campaigners and were highly influential in convincing fellow Republicans and big business to back the bill. Yellowstone National Park soon played a pivotal role in the conservation of these national treasures, as it was suffering at the hands of poachers and others who stood at the ready to pillage what they could from the area. Theodore Roosevelt and his newly formed Boone and Crockett Club successfully took the lead in protecting Yellowstone National Park from this plight, resulting in laws designed to conserve the natural resources in Yellowstone and other parks under the Government's purview.American Pulitzer Prize-winning author Wallace Stegner wrote: ""National parks are the best idea we ever had. Absolutely American, absolutely democratic, they reflect us at our best rather than our worst."" === International growth of national parks === The first area to use ""national park"" in its creation legislation was the U.S.'s Mackinac National Park, in 1875. (The area was later transferred to the state's authority in 1895, thus losing its official ""national park"" status.) Following the idea established in Yellowstone and Mackinac, there soon followed parks in other nations. In Australia, what is now Royal National Park was established just south of Sydney, Colony of New South Wales, on 26 April 1879, becoming the world's second official national park Since Mackinac lost its national park status, the Royal National Park is, by some considerations, the second oldest national park now in existence. Banff National Park became Canada's first national park in 1885. New Zealand established Tongariro National Park in 1887. In Europe, the first national parks were a set of nine parks in Sweden in 1909, followed by the Swiss National Park in 1914. Africa's first national park was established in 1925 when Albert I of Belgium designated an area of what is now Democratic Republic of Congo centred on the Virunga Mountains as the Albert National Park (since renamed Virunga National Park). In 1895, the Groenkloof Nature Reserve was established as the first game sanctuary in Africa. In 1926, the government of South Africa designated Kruger National Park as the nation's first national park, although it was an expansion of the earlier Sabie Game Reserve established in 1898 by President Paul Kruger of the old South African Republic, after whom the park was named. Argentina became the third country in the Americas to create a national park system, with the creation of the Nahuel Huapi National Park in 1934, through the initiative of Francisco Moreno.After World War II, national parks were founded all over the world. The United Kingdom designated its first national park, Peak District National Park, in 1951. This followed perhaps 70 years of pressure for greater public access to the landscape. By the end of the decade a further nine national parks had been designated in the UK. Europe has some 359 national parks as of 2010. The Vanoise National Park in the Alps was the first French national park, created in 1963 after public mobilization against a touristic project. In 1971, Lahemaa National Park in Estonia was the first area to be designated a national park in the former Soviet Union. In 1973, Mount Kilimanjaro was classified as a National Park and was opened to public access in 1977.In 1989, the Qomolangma National Nature Preserve (QNNP) was created to protect 3.381 million hectares on the north slope of Mount Everest in the Tibet Autonomous Region of China. This national park is the first major global park to have no separate warden and protection staff—all of its management being done through existing local authorities, allowing a lower cost basis and a larger geographical coverage (in 1989 when created, it was the largest protected area in Asia). It includes four of the six tallest mountains in the world: Everest, Lhotse, Makalu, and Cho Oyu. The QNNP is contiguous to four Nepali national parks, creating a transborder conservation area equal in size to Switzerland.In 1993, the Blue and John Crow Mountains National Park was established in Jamaica to conserve and protect 41,198 hectares, including tropical montane rainforest and adjacent buffer areas. The site includes Jamaica's tallest peak (Blue Mountain Peak), hiking trails and a visitor center. The Park was also designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2015. === National parks services === The world's first national park service was established May 19, 1911, in Canada. The Dominion Forest Reserves and Parks Act placed the dominion parks under the administration of the Dominion Park Branch (now Parks Canada), within the Department of the Interior. The branch was established to ""protect sites of natural wonder"" to provide a recreational experience, centred on the idea of the natural world providing rest and spiritual renewal from the urban setting. Canada now has the largest protected area in the world with 450,000 km2 of national park space.Even with the creation of Yellowstone, Yosemite, and nearly 37 other national parks and monuments, another 44 years passed before an agency was created in the United States to administer these units in a comprehensive way – the U.S. National Park Service (NPS). The 64th United States Congress passed the National Park Service Organic Act, which President Woodrow Wilson signed into law on 25 August 1916. Of the 425 sites managed by the National Park Service of the United States, only 63 carry the designation of National Park. == Notable parks == The largest national park in the world meeting the IUCN definition is the Northeast Greenland National Park, which was established in 1974 and is 972,000 km2 (375,000 sq mi) in area.The smallest official national park in the world is Isles des Madeleines National Park. Its area of just 0.45 square kilometres (0.17 sq mi) was established as a national park in 1976. == Economic ramifications == Countries with a large ecotourism industry, such as Costa Rica, often experience a huge economic effect on park management as well as the economy of the country as a whole. === Tourism === Tourism to national parks has increased considerably over time. In Costa Rica for example, a megadiverse country, tourism to parks has increased by 400% from 1985 to 1999. The term national park is perceived as a brand name that is associated with nature-based tourism and it symbolizes a ""high quality natural environment with a well-designed tourist infrastructure"". === Staff === The duties of a park ranger are to supervise, manage, and/or perform work in the conservation and use of park resources. This involves functions such as park conservation; natural, historical, and cultural resource management; and the development and operation of interpretive and recreational programs for the benefit of the visiting public. Park rangers also have fire fighting responsibilities and execute search and rescue missions. Activities also include heritage interpretation to disseminate information to visitors of general, historical, or scientific information. Management of resources such as wildlife, lake shores, seashores, forests, historic buildings, battlefields, archaeological properties, and recreation areas are also part of the job of a park ranger. Since the establishment of the National Park Service in the US in 1916, the role of the park ranger has shifted from merely being a custodian of natural resources to include several activities that are associated with law enforcement. They control traffic, manage permits for various uses, and investigate violations, complaints, trespass/encroachment, and accidents. == Concerns == National parks in former European colonies have come under criticism for allegedly perpetuating colonialism. National parks were created by individuals who felt that pristine, natural sections of nature should be set aside and preserved from urban development. In America, this movement came about during the American Frontier and were meant to be monuments to America's true history. Yet the lands that were to be set aside and protected were already being inhabited by native communities, who were removed and set aside to create pristine sites for public consumption. Critics claim that the removal of people from national parks enhanced the belief that nature can only be protected when humans do not exist within it, and that this leads to perpetuating the dichotomy between nature and humans (also known as the nature–culture divide). They see creation of national parks as a form of eco-land grabbing. Others claim that travelling to national parks to appreciate nature there leads people to ignore the nature that exists around them every day. Some argue that tourism can actually negatively impact the areas that are being visited. == See also == == References == === Citations === === Sources === Eagles, Paul F. J; McCool, Stephen F. (2002). Tourism in National Parks and Protected Areas: Planning and Management. CABI. ISBN 0851997597. 320 pages. Sellars, Richard West (2009). Preserving Nature in the National Parks: A History. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300154146. 404 pages. Sheail, John (2010) Nature's Spectacle - The World's First National Parks and Protected Places Earthscan, London, Washington. ISBN 978-1-84971-129-6 == External links == ""Areas of Biodiversity Importance: National Parks"". Biodiversity A-Z. Archived from the original on 16 May 2011. Retrieved 21 April 2011. ""Europe's protected areas"". EUROPARC Federation. ""FAQs"". U.S. National Park Service. Macomber, Drew (10 September 2018). ""Map of All The World's National Parks"". Travel Is Free. ""Man and the Biosphere Programme (Biosphere Reserves)"". UNESCO. 7 January 2019. ""National parks, landscape parks and protected areas in the world"". nighthee.com. Archived from the original on 5 September 2015. Retrieved 11 August 2015. ""National Parks Worldwide"". amu.edu.pl. Archived from the original on 19 January 2008. Retrieved 3 January 2008. ""World Database of Protected Areas"". Protected Planet. ""Digital Observatory for Protected Areas (DOPA)"". by the Joint Research Centre of the European Commission. ""World Heritage Sites"". UNESCO." National_parks,Lake Mburo- Nakivali Wetland System,"Lake Mburo-Nakivali Wetland System is a wetland located in Mbarara district, 60 km from Mbarara town in western Uganda, East Africa, bordering Tanzania and Rwanda. The system encompasses five lakes lying in the National park including Mburo being the largest, Kigambira, Mutukula, Kazuma and Bwara in the west-east location.It is a habitat for birds such as Palearctic as well as fish species including impala and cichlid. It is a source of water for domestic use, wildlife, and livestock. It is also a source of food including fish, provides pastures for herds, as well as materials for making crafts, baskets, and thatching. == Setting and Structure == Lake Mburo-Nakivali Wetland System is situated at Latitude 00°40′ south and Longitude 030°57′ East. == See Also == Lake Nabugabo Wetland SystemLake George Uganda == References ==" National_parks,Our Great National Parks,"Our Great National Parks is a five-part Netflix documentary series about some of the world's national parks and their wildlife. It is presented by former president of the United States Barack Obama and was released on April 13, 2022. == Cast == Barack Obama, narrator == Critical assessment == The documentary received generally positive reviews upon its release. A reviewer writing for the Hollywood Reporter described Obama's skills as a narrator: ""He explains the synergistic ways in which governmentally reserved natural spaces can have non-antagonistic relationships with nearby human populations. He contributes wry humor to the scripts, with their slightly superficial, overly anthropomorphic explanations for animal behavior. And, more than that, his trademark deliberate cadences and oft-emulated calculated pauses are a perfect delivery mechanism for letting lovely nature photography breathe"", adding that it ""doesn’t push too hard to be educational [but]....Just because Our Great National Parks isn’t always revelatory definitely doesn’t mean, though, that it isn’t generally attractive and occasionally breathtaking.""A reviewer writing for the Houston Press said that the series is ""the single most calming thing on television"" and went on to say that ""What truly sets Our Great National Parks apart, though, is the message woven into the episodes. Pragmatically, Obama tells us how various parts of humanity have made preserving the wild world a priority.""The review in the San Diego Union Tribune observed that the series is ""devoted to the eye-popping, heart-stopping, consciousness-raising wonders of the world’s most astounding national parks.""A less favorable review in The Daily Telegraph described the series as ""dazzlingly gorgeous yet a long way short of groundbreaking"" and compared Obama's role negatively to David Attenborough, concluding ""where David Attenborough enthusiastically brings to life the tooth and claw rhapsody of the natural world, Obama sounds stilted, even bored."" == Episodes == == Release == === Accolades === == References == == External links == Our Great National Parks at IMDb Our Great National Parks on Netflix" National_parks,Shimen National Forest Park,"Shimen National Forest Park is the largest forest park in Guangdong Province. == Geography == Located in the Tsunghua District of Guangzhou City, Guangdong Province , with a total area of 2626.67 hectares and a forest coverage rate of 96.76%. It is 86 kilometers from Guangzhou city and 13 kilometers from the famous Tsunhua hot spring, bordered by the Nankun Mountain Nature Reserve to the east,, and overlooks the Guangzhou Hydroelectric Storage Power Plant and Liushihe National Forest Park to the north. Located in the subtropical zone, the climate is warm all year round with an average annual temperature of 21.4°C, an average maximum temperature of 28.5°C from July to August and an average minimum temperature of 12.4°C from January to February. == Establishment History == Shimen Park was established on the basis of the state-owned Dalinshan Forest Farm, founded in 1960. In 1995, Shimen National Forest Park was established with the approval of the Ministry of Forestry, which is the first international forest bathing resort approved by the former Ministry of Forestry. == Flora and Fauna == There are mainly three categories of trees in the park: maple, sapium discolor, and red maple. == References ==" National_parks,Touron,"Touron is a derogatory term combining the words ""Tourist"" with ""Moron"" to describe any person who, while on vacation, commits an act of pure stupidity. The term is considered park ranger slang that describes how some tourists act when entering a national park. The phrase indicates an act of ignorance and is known to be used in different subcultures. It is also used to describe tourists in general when they are outside their normal ""comfort zone"". == Etymology == Early mentions are '=""touron n. A tourist, usually an annoying one. —""Say wha?"", The Washington Post, September 20, 1987"". In 1991 the term was cited in: ""Over at U.S. 192 and State Road 535, westbound touron — (a combo of tourists and morons, according to a local dj) are constantly making sudden U-turns from the left lane, causing oodles of rear-end wrecks. —""The Road Toad,"" Orlando Sentinel, September 29, 1991"". The National Park Service constantly warns park guests about the dangers of wildlife and the natural surroundings. Images and video of tourist in dangerous situations are uploaded to the internet and demonstrate their, often stunning, behavior. Tourists acting as Tourons can drive erratically. A common occurrence is to see vehicles stopped in the middle of the road at the first sighting of deer. Drivers and occupants leave the vehicle to take pictures, backing traffic up for miles. The term is used as humor to defend against the usual aggravation of continued exposure to tourists by even local residents of tourist areas.It has been argued that everyone is a touron outside their own home and away from familiar surroundings. Just being a traveler in a foreign location could make one a touron. Author Kelsey Timmerman believes that: ""A touron is one part eager tourist and one part well-meaning moron. You yourself have likely been a touron at one time or another."" Tourists become touronic out of an innocent reaction to places they have never been due to a greater curiosity. == References == == External links == Don't be a Touron blog as mentioned by Kelsey Timmerman in article." National_parks,Wilsons Promontory,"Wilsons Promontory, also known as Yiruk and Wamoon in the Gunai and Boonwurrung languages respectively, is a peninsula that forms the southernmost part of the Australian mainland, located in the state of Victoria. South Point at 39°08′06″S 146°22′32″E is the southernmost tip of Wilsons Promontory and hence of mainland Australia. Located at nearby South East Point, (39°07′S 146°25′E) is the Wilsons Promontory Lighthouse. Most of the peninsula is protected by the Wilsons Promontory National Park and the Wilsons Promontory Marine National Park. == Human history == The promontory was first occupied by indigenous Koori people at least 6,500 years prior to European arrival. Middens along the western coast indicate that the inhabitants subsisted on a seafood diet.The promontory is mentioned in dreamtime stories, including the Bollum-Baukan, Loo-errn and Tiddalik myths. It is considered the home of the spirit ancestor of the Brataualung clan - Loo-errn. The area remains highly significant to the Gunai/Kurnai and the Boon wurrung people, who consider the promontory to be their traditional country/land.The first European to see the promontory was George Bass in January 1798. He initially referred to it as ""Furneaux's Land"" in his diary, believing it to be what Captain Furneaux had previously seen. But on returning to Port Jackson and consulting Matthew Flinders he was convinced that the location was so different it could not be that land. Bass and Flinders recommended the name Wilsons Promontory to Governor Hunter, honouring Flinders's friend from London Thomas Wilson. Little is known of Wilson except that he was a merchant engaged in trade with Australia.Seal hunting was conducted in the area in the 19th century. Shore-based whaling was also carried out in a cove at Wilsons Promontory from at least 1837. It was still underway in 1843 at Lady's Bay (Refuge Cove).Throughout the 1880s and '90s a public campaign to protect the area as a national park was waged, including by the Field Naturalists' Club of Victoria. The promontory has been a national park, to one degree or another, since 1898. Wilsons Promontory National Park, also known locally as ""the Prom"", contains the largest coastal wilderness area in Victoria. Until the 1930s, when the road was completed, it was accessible only by boat. The site was closed to the public during World War II, as it was used as a commando training ground. The only settlement within Wilsons Promontory is Tidal River which lies 30 kilometres (19 mi) south of the park boundary and is the focus for tourism and recreation. This park is managed by Parks Victoria. In 2005 a burn started by staff got out of control and burnt 13% of the park, causing the evacuation of campers. In 2009, a lightning strike near Sealer's Cove started a fire that burned over 25,000 hectares (62,000 acres). Much of the area had not been burned since 1951. The fire began on 8 February, the day after ""Black Saturday"", where an intense heat wave, combined with arson, faulty electrical infrastructure and natural causes, led to hundreds of bushfires burning throughout the state of Victoria. Although the fire burned to within 1 kilometre (0.62 mi), the Tidal River camping area and park headquarters were unaffected. The park reopened to the public one month after the incident and the burned areas quickly regrew. Despite the damage, the natural beauty of the area remained largely intact.In March 2011 a significant rainfall event led to major flooding of the Tidal River camping area. The bridge over Darby River was cut, leaving no vehicle access to Tidal River, leading to the evacuation of all visitors by helicopter over the following days, and the closure of the southern section of the park. In September 2011 public access to Tidal River was reopened following repair of the main access road, and the bridge at Darby River. All sections of the park south of Tidal River were closed while further repairs of tracks and footpaths were undertaken. The park was fully re-opened by Easter of 2012. Tourists may choose basic or glam, cabins or camping (powered/unpowered) if they wish to stay inside Wilsons Promontory National Park. Many however choose to stay in accommodation just outside the Park in Yanakie, where they can still view the Wisons Promontory mountains and scenery and be only minutes from the Park's free entrance. There are overnight hiking tracks with two key circuits, one in the north and one in the south. The southern circuit is more popular with overnight hikers with several camping areas suited to wild camping. Camping is only allowed in the designated areas to reduce damage to the bush. == Geography and wildlife == Coastal features include expansive intertidal mudflats, sandy beaches and sheltered coves interrupted by prominent headlands and plunging granite cliffs in the south, backed by coastal dunes and swamps. The promontory is surrounded by a scatter of small granite islands which, collectively, form the Wilsons Promontory Islands Important Bird Area, identified as such by BirdLife International because of its importance for breeding seabirds.Tidal River is the main river in Wilsons Promontory. The river runs into Norman Bay and swells with the tide. The river is a very fascinating color, a purple-yellow. This is due to the large number of tea trees in the location, which stain the water with tannin, giving it a tea-like appearance. Darby River is the second major river, with extensive alluvial flats and meanders. It was the site of the original park entrance and accommodation area from 1909 to the Second World War.Wilsons Promontory is home to many marsupials, native birds and other creatures. One of the most common marsupials found on the promontory is the common wombat, which can be found in much of the park (especially around campsites where it has been known to invade tents searching for food). The peninsula is also home to kangaroos, snakes, wallabies, koalas, long-nosed potoroos, white-footed dunnarts, broad-toothed rats, feather-tailed gliders and emus. Some of the most common birds found on the promontory include crimson rosellas, yellow-tailed black cockatoos and superb fairywrens. There are also many pests, including hog deer, foxes, feral cats, rabbits, common starlings, and common blackbirds. As the Wilsons Promontory Marine National Park and Corner Inlet Marine National Park have been established, the area holds a variety of marine life and coral reefs. In recent years, after a long disappearance, due to illegal hunting by the Soviet Union with help by Japan, Southern right whales started to return to the area to rest and calve in the sheltered bays along with Humpback whales. Killer whales are also known to pass the area, and dolphins, seals, sea lions, and penguins still occur today. The peninsula is also home to two large sets of dunes, the Big Drift and Little Drift. They are not very well-known but sometimes visited by hikers and suitable for sandboarding. == Climate == Wilsons Promontory has an oceanic climate heavily influenced by the Roaring Forties, bringing summer temps far below what is the norm. Winters are dominated by low-pressure systems and high rainfall. == Gallery == == References == == External links == Wilsons Promontory Resources, Parks Victoria. A map of the burned area from Prom Map, Parks Victoria." National_parks,Category:National parks by continent, National_parks,Category:National parks by country, National_parks,Category:IUCN Category II,"Protected areas listed as IUCN Category II (National Park) by the World Conservation Union / International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN). Note: Articles tagged as ""II"" in the Protected Area Infobox are automatically added to this Wikipedia category." National_parks,Category:Lists of national parks, National_parks,Category:National park administrators,"National park administrators.The government departments, agencies, services, ministries, &/or boards which administer nature conservation and management of the national parks of countries." National_parks,Category:Films set in national parks, National_parks,Category:Former national parks, Tourist_attractions,Tourist attraction,"A tourist attraction is a place of interest that tourists visit, typically for its inherent or an exhibited natural or cultural value, historical significance, natural or built beauty, offering leisure and amusement. == Types == Places of natural beauty such as beaches, tropical island resorts, national parks, mountains, deserts and forests, are examples of traditional tourist attractions which people may visit. Cultural tourist attractions can include historical places, sites of significant historic event, monuments, ancient temples, zoos, aquaria, museums and art galleries, botanical gardens, buildings and structures (such as forts, castles, libraries, former prisons, skyscrapers, bridges), theme parks and carnivals, living history museums, public art (sculptures, statues, murals), ethnic enclave communities, historic trains and cultural events. Factory tours, industrial heritage, creative art and crafts workshops are the object of cultural niches like industrial tourism and creative tourism. Many tourist attractions are also landmarks. But sports events such as a soccer game, Formula 1 race or sailing regatta can also attract tourists. Tourists' expectations when visiting a particular place are related to several features of the chosen destination: culture, architecture, gastronomy, infrastructure, landscape, events, shopping, etc. These features attract people to the destination and contribute to the overall experience of the trip. The ultimate primary purpose of attractions is to attract the customer's attention so that they can come to a specific location and explore the various attractions on vacation. In the travel and tourism industry, attractions therefore play a particularly important role as this attracts tourists from all over the world.Tourist attractions are also created to capitalize on legends such as a supposed UFO crash site near Roswell, New Mexico and the alleged Loch Ness monster sightings in Scotland. Ethnic communities may become tourist attractions, such as Chinatowns in the United States and the black British neighborhood of Brixton in London, England. Tourists also look for special local culinary experiences such as street kitchens in Asian metropolises or the coffeehouse culture in Central Europe. In particular, cultural property and the individual places of the UNESCO World Heritage Site have developed into tourist attractions. If too many tourists frequent individual places, this can lead to environmental pollution and resistance from the local population, such as in Barcelona or Venice. With regard to this whole subject, there are already lists of destinations that are not recommended to tourists. There are innumerable lists and reviews of tourist attractions. Visitor statistics, cultural significance, beauty or age are used and these always reflect the author's personal assessments. Sometimes it is particularly emphasized that this particular tourist attraction has not yet been in the focus of the international tourism industry. Some of the sights are internationally known or target the national or local market. Some attractions are reserved for the local population or are rarely advertised because the main traffic routes and main airports are too far away. In the United States, owners and marketers of attractions advertise tourist attractions on billboards along the sides of highways and roadways, especially in remote areas. Tourist attractions often distribute free promotional brochures to be displayed in rest areas, information centers, fast food restaurants, and motel rooms or lobbies. While some tourist attractions provide visitors a memorable experience for a reasonable admission charge or even for free, others may be of low quality and overprice their goods and services (such as admission, food, and souvenirs) in order to profit excessively from tourists. Such places are commonly known as tourist traps. Within cities, rides on boats and sightseeing buses are sometimes popular. == Examples == === Human-made attractions === === Natural tourist attractions === === Cultural tourist attractions === === Novelty attractions === Novelty attractions are oddities such as the ""biggest ball of twine"" in Cawker City, Kansas, the Corn Palace in Mitchell, South Dakota, or Carhenge in Alliance, Nebraska, where old cars serve in the place of stones in a replica of Stonehenge. Novelty attractions are not limited to the American Midwest, but are part of Midwestern culture. == Tourist destination == A tourist destination is a city, town, or other area that is significantly dependent on revenues from tourism, or ""a country, state, region, city, or town which is marketed or markets itself as a place for tourists to visit"". It may contain one or more tourist attractions and possibly some ""tourist traps"". Fátima town, for example, is a popular tourist destination in Portugal. Siem Reap town is a popular tourist destination in Cambodia, mainly owing to its proximity to the Angkor temples. The Loire valley, the third tourist destination in France, is a good example of a region marketed and branded as a place for tourists to visit, mainly known for its Châteaux of the Loire valley. A tropical island resort is an island or archipelago that depends on tourism as its source of revenue. The Bahamas in the Caribbean, Bali in Indonesia, Phuket in Thailand, Hawaii in the United States, Fiji in the Pacific, and Santorini and Ibiza in the Mediterranean are examples of popular island resorts. France, the United States, and Spain were the three most popular international destinations in 2017. The total number of international travelers arriving in those countries was about 234 million, contributing 8.9%, 7.7%, and 14.9%, respectively, to the total GDP of those countries.Although some years back, Africa was lean on tourism, the continent is currently regarded as the second fastest growing tourism region with over 67 million tourists visits to Africa in 2018. Ethiopia, with a growth rate of 48.6% in 2018, is at the top of the list of African tourist centers. Other tourist locations in Africa include Cape Town, South Africa, Giza Necropolis, Egypt, The Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya, Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe and Zambia.From the tourism industry supply perspective, a destination is usually defined by a geo-political boundary, and destination marketing is most commonly funded by governments. From the traveler perspective, a destination might be perceived quite differently. == Economic impact and protection == Tourism generates substantial economic benefits for both host countries and tourists' home countries. Especially in developing countries, one of the primary motivations for a region to promote itself as a tourism destination is the expected economic benefit. According to the World Tourism Organization, 698 million people travelled to a foreign country in 2000, spending more than US$478 billion. International tourism receipts combined with passenger transport currently total more than US$575 billion – making tourism the world's number one export earner.Tourist attractions can: contribute to government revenues; direct contributions are generated by taxes on incomes from tourism employment and tourism businesses, and by direct levies on tourists, such as departure taxes provide employment support conservation of habitats, species and historic sites stimulate infrastructure investment contribute to local economies provide foreign currency earningsIn the event of war, many tourist attractions are a special goal in order to cause lasting damage to the enemy or to finance the war. International attempts are therefore made to protect and preserve these economic and cultural foundations of a community, city or country. There is intensive cooperation between the United Nations, UNESCO and Blue Shield International on the protection of cultural goods and UNESCO World Heritage Sites. However, cooperation between organizations and state authorities is not enough to prevent destruction, robbery and looting. The founding president of Blue Shield International Karl von Habsburg summed it up with the words: “Without the local community and without the local participants, that would be completely impossible”. == See also == Cultural tourism Impacts of tourism Lists of tourist attractions Overtourism Tourism World Heritage Site Sustainable Tourism World Tourism Day == References == == External links == Attractions at Curlie" Tourist_attractions,Lists of tourist attractions,"The following lists of tourist attractions include tourist attractions in various countries. == By type == List of airshows List of amusement parks List of aquaria List of beaches List of botanical gardens List of buildings List of casino hotels List of casinos List of castles List of festivals List of forts List of gardens List of heritage railways List of memorials List of monuments List of museums List of most visited art museums in the world List of national parks List of Renaissance fairs List of shopping malls List of ski areas and resorts List of sports facilities List of indoor arenas List of motor racing tracks List of stadia List of tennis venues List of velodromes List of tourist attractions providing reenactment List of World Heritage Sites List of zoos See also: Category:Nature reserves Tourist traps === Tall buildings and structures === List of tallest buildings and structures in the world List of tallest buildings in the world List of tallest freestanding structures in the world List of tallest structures in the world List of tallest towers in the world Observation decks == By country == === Algeria === Tourism in Algeria === Australia === List of attractions in Brisbane List of attractions in Sydney Attractions in Victor Harbor, South Australia === Austria === Category: Tourist attractions in Austria List of World Heritage Sites in Austria Tourist attractions in Vienna === Azerbaijan === Category: Tourist attractions in Azerbaijan List of World Heritage Sites in Azerbaijan List of tourist attractions in Baku === Botswana === Visitor attractions in Botswana === Brazil === List of attractions in Brazil === Bulgaria === === Cambodia === === Canada === === China === List of landmarks in Beijing List of attractions in Shanghai World Heritage Sites in China === Colombia === List of national parks of Colombia === Croatia === === Denmark === List of tourist attractions in Denmark === Egypt === Tourism in Egypt === Finland === List of tourist attractions in Helsinki === France === List of tourist attractions in Paris === Georgia === === Germany === List of sights in Berlin List of sights of Potsdam List of castles in Germany List of cathedrals in Germany List of museums in Germany List of tallest structures in Germany === Greece === List of museums in Greece List of Archaeological sites in Greece === Hong Kong === List of museums in Hong Kong === Hungary === List of tourist attractions in Budapest List of national parks of Hungary List of World Heritage Sites in Hungary === India === Tourism in Tamil Nadu Tourism in Chennai List of tourist attractions in Delhi Tourism in Telangana List of tourist attractions in Hyderabad Tourism in Andhra Pradesh List of tourist attractions and events in Visakhapatnam List of tourist attractions in Vijayawada Tourism in Karnataka List of tourist attractions in Bangalore Tourist attractions in Mysore Tourism in Madhya Pradesh Tourism in Jharkhand Tourist attractions in West Bengal Places of interest in Kolkata Tourism in Uttarakhand Tourism in Kerala Tourism in Thiruvananthapuram Tourism in Gujarat Tourism in Bihar Tourism in Goa Tourism in Himachal Pradesh Tourism in Jammu and Kashmir Tourism in Ladakh Tourism in Haryana Tourism in Rajasthan Tourism in Uttar Pradesh List of tourist attractions in Allahabad === Indonesia === Tourism in Indonesia === Iran === Visitor attractions in Isfahan Visitor attractions in Kermanshah Visitor attractions in Shiraz Visitor attractions of Tabriz Visitor attractions in Tehran Zagros Paleolithic Museum Visitor Attractions of Yazd Visitor Attractions of Khuzestan Visitor Attractions of Kerman === Ireland === === Israel === List of Israeli museums National parks and nature reserves of Israel === Italy === List of tourist attractions in Rome List of tourist attractions in Sardinia === Jamaica === List of beaches in Jamaica === Japan === Groups of Traditional Buildings Japanese museums Japan's Top 100 Castles List of castles in Japan List of lakes of Japan List of museums in Japan List of National Geoparks in Japan List of national parks of Japan List of Special Places of Scenic Beauty, Special Historic Sites and Special Natural Monuments World Heritage Sites in Japan National Treasures of Japan Three Views of Japan Tourism in Tokyo === Jordan === Main tourist destinations in Jordan === Kenya === Visitor attractions in Kenya === Kuwait === Tourism in Kuwait === Lebanon === Tourism in Lebanon === Macau === List of museums in Macau === Madagascar === Tourist attractions in Madagascar === Morocco === Tourism in Morocco === Nepal === Nepal is the country where Mount Everest, the highest mountain peak in the world, is located. Mountaineering and other types of adventure tourism and ecotourism are important attractions for visitors. The world heritage site Lumbini, birthplace of Gautama Buddha, is located in southern Nepal, and there are other important religious pilgrimage sites throughout the country. Tourism in Nepal === Netherlands === List of tourist attractions in Amsterdam === New Zealand === Auckland List of World Heritage Sites in New Zealand === Nicaragua === Tourist attractions in Nicaragua === North Korea === List of tourist attractions in Pyongyang === Pakistan === Archaeological sites in Pakistan Biosphere reserves of Pakistan List of barrages and headworks in Pakistan List of beaches in Pakistan List of birds of Pakistan List of botanical gardens in Pakistan List of bridges in Pakistan List of cathedrals in Pakistan List of caves in Pakistan List of dams and reservoirs in Pakistan List of endangered species in Pakistan List of faults in Pakistan List of festivals in Pakistan List of forts in Pakistan List of glaciers of Pakistan List of hydroelectric power stations in Pakistan List of lakes of Pakistan List of mammals of Pakistan List of mausolea and shrines in Pakistan List of minerals of Pakistan List of mosques in Pakistan List of museums in Pakistan List of mountain passes in Pakistan List of mountains in Pakistan List of national monuments of Pakistan List of national parks of Pakistan List of parks and gardens in Pakistan List of rivers of Pakistan List of Shiva Temples in Pakistan List of shopping malls in Pakistan List of stadiums in Pakistan List of Pakistani sweets and desserts List of valleys in Pakistan List of waterfalls of Pakistan List of World Heritage Sites in Pakistan List of zoos in Pakistan Tourism in Azad Jammu & Kashmir Tourism in Balochistan Tourism in Gilgit-Baltistan List of tourist attractions in Islamabad Tourism in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Tourism in Punjab, Pakistan List of tourist sites in Lahore List of parks and gardens in Lahore Tourism in Sindh Tourism in Karachi List of tourist attractions in Karachi List of parks and gardens in Karachi === Papua New Guinea === Attractions in Papua New Guinea === Philippines === Tourist attraction in the Philippines === Poland === Tourism in Poland Tourist attractions in Warsaw === Portugal === List of World Heritage Sites in Portugal Christ the King statue in Almada Sanctuary of Our Lady in Fátima Marinha Beach in Lagoa, Algarve === Russia === List of Moscow tourist attractions Landmarks of Saint Petersburg === Singapore === List of tourist attractions in Singapore === South Africa === List of tourist attractions in South Africa === South Korea === List of South Korean tourist attractions === Spain === List of national parks of Spain List of World Heritage Sites in Spain === Sri Lanka === Visitor attractions in Sri Lanka === Switzerland === Lists of tourist attractions in Switzerland === Taiwan === List of museums in Taiwan List of tourist attractions in Taipei List of tourist attractions in Taiwan === Thailand === Tourism in Bangkok List of national parks of Thailand World Heritage Sites in Thailand === Tunisia === Attractions in Tunisia === Turkey === Attractions in Turkey === Ukraine === List of museums in Ukraine List of World Heritage Sites in Ukraine === United Arab Emirates === List of tourist attractions in the United Arab Emirates === United Kingdom === === United States === List of heritage railroads in the United States List of botanical gardens and arboretums in the United States List of museums in the United States Art museums === Uruguay === === Venezuela === == See also == Vacation spot (disambiguation) Landmark" Tourist_attractions,Beach,"A beach is a landform alongside a body of water which consists of loose particles. The particles composing a beach are typically made from rock, such as sand, gravel, shingle, pebbles, etc., or biological sources, such as mollusc shells or coralline algae. Sediments settle in different densities and structures, depending on the local wave action and weather, creating different textures, colors and gradients or layers of material. Though some beaches form on inland freshwater locations such as lakes and rivers, most beaches are in coastal areas where wave or current action deposits and reworks sediments. Erosion and changing of beach geologies happens through natural processes, like wave action and extreme weather events. Where wind conditions are correct, beaches can be backed by coastal dunes which offer protection and regeneration for the beach. However, these natural forces have become more extreme due to climate change, permanently altering beaches at very rapid rates. Some estimates describe as much as 50 percent of the earth's sandy beaches disappearing by 2100 due to climate-change driven sea level rise.Sandy beaches occupy about one third of global coastlines. These beaches are popular for recreation, playing important economic and cultural roles—often driving local tourism industries. To support these uses, some beaches have man-made infrastructure, such as lifeguard posts, changing rooms, showers, shacks and bars. They may also have hospitality venues (such as resorts, camps, hotels, and restaurants) nearby or housing, both for permanent and seasonal residents. Human forces have significantly changed beaches globally: direct impacts include bad construction practices on dunes and coastlines, while indirect human impacts include water pollution, plastic pollution and coastal erosion from sea level rise and climate change. Some coastal management practices are designed to preserve or restore natural beach processes, while some beaches are actively restored through practices like beach nourishment. Wild beaches, also known as undeveloped or undiscovered beaches, are not developed for tourism or recreation. Preserved beaches are important biomes with important roles in aquatic or marine biodiversity, such as for breeding grounds for sea turtles or nesting areas for seabirds or penguins. Preserved beaches and their associated dune are important for protection from extreme weather for inland ecosystems and human infrastructure. == Location and profile == Although the seashore is most commonly associated with the word beach, beaches are also found by lakes and alongside large rivers. Beach may refer to: small systems where rock material moves onshore, offshore, or alongshore by the forces of waves and currents; or geological units of considerable size.The former are described in detail below; the larger geological units are discussed elsewhere under bars. There are several conspicuous parts to a beach that relate to the processes that form and shape it. The part mostly above water (depending upon tide), and more or less actively influenced by the waves at some point in the tide, is termed the beach berm. The berm is the deposit of material comprising the active shoreline. The berm has a crest (top) and a face—the latter being the slope leading down towards the water from the crest. At the very bottom of the face, there may be a trough, and further seaward one or more long shore bars: slightly raised, underwater embankments formed where the waves first start to break. The sand deposit may extend well inland from the berm crest, where there may be evidence of one or more older crests (the storm beach) resulting from very large storm waves and beyond the influence of the normal waves. At some point the influence of the waves (even storm waves) on the material comprising the beach stops, and if the particles are small enough (sand size or smaller), winds shape the feature. Where wind is the force distributing the grains inland, the deposit behind the beach becomes a dune. These geomorphic features compose what is called the beach profile. The beach profile changes seasonally due to the change in wave energy experienced during summer and winter months. In temperate areas where summer is characterised by calmer seas and longer periods between breaking wave crests, the beach profile is higher in summer. The gentle wave action during this season tends to transport sediment up the beach towards the berm where it is deposited and remains while the water recedes. Onshore winds carry it further inland forming and enhancing dunes. Conversely, the beach profile is lower in the storm season (winter in temperate areas) due to the increased wave energy, and the shorter periods between breaking wave crests. Higher energy waves breaking in quick succession tend to mobilise sediment from the shallows, keeping it in suspension where it is prone to be carried along the beach by longshore currents, or carried out to sea to form longshore bars, especially if the longshore current meets an outflow from a river or flooding stream. The removal of sediment from the beach berm and dune thus decreases the beach profile. If storms coincide with unusually high tides, or with a freak wave event such as a tidal surge or tsunami which causes significant coastal flooding, substantial quantities of material may be eroded from the coastal plain or dunes behind the berm by receding water. This flow may alter the shape of the coastline, enlarge the mouths of rivers and create new deltas at the mouths of streams that had not been powerful enough to overcome longshore movement of sediment. The line between beach and dune is difficult to define in the field. Over any significant period of time, sediment is always being exchanged between them. The drift line (the high point of material deposited by waves) is one potential demarcation. This would be the point at which significant wind movement of sand could occur, since the normal waves do not wet the sand beyond this area. However, the drift line is likely to move inland under assault by storm waves. == Formation == Beaches are the result of wave action by which waves or currents move sand or other loose sediments of which the beach is made as these particles are held in suspension. Alternatively, sand may be moved by saltation (a bouncing movement of large particles). Beach materials come from erosion of rocks offshore, as well as from headland erosion and slumping producing deposits of scree. A coral reef offshore is a significant source of sand particles. Some species of fish that feed on algae attached to coral outcrops and rocks can create substantial quantities of sand particles over their lifetime as they nibble during feeding, digesting the organic matter, and discarding the rock and coral particles which pass through their digestive tracts. The composition of the beach depends upon the nature and quantity of sediments upstream of the beach, and the speed of flow and turbidity of water and wind. Sediments are moved by moving water and wind according to their particle size and state of compaction. Particles tend to settle and compact in still water. Once compacted, they are more resistant to erosion. Established vegetation (especially species with complex network root systems) will resist erosion by slowing the fluid flow at the surface layer. When affected by moving water or wind, particles that are eroded and held in suspension will increase the erosive power of the fluid that holds them by increasing the average density, viscosity, and volume of the moving fluid. Coastlines facing very energetic wind and wave systems will tend to hold only large rocks as smaller particles will be held in suspension in the turbid water column and carried to calmer areas by longshore currents and tides. Coastlines that are protected from waves and winds will tend to allow finer sediments such as clay and mud to precipitate creating mud flats and mangrove forests. The shape of a beach depends on whether the waves are constructive or destructive, and whether the material is sand or shingle. Waves are constructive if the period between their wave crests is long enough for the breaking water to recede and the sediment to settle before the succeeding wave arrives and breaks. Fine sediment transported from lower down the beach profile will compact if the receding water percolates or soaks into the beach. Compacted sediment is more resistant to movement by turbulent water from succeeding waves. Conversely, waves are destructive if the period between the wave crests is short. Sediment that remains in suspension when the following wave crest arrives will not be able to settle and compact and will be more susceptible to erosion by longshore currents and receding tides. The nature of sediments found on a beach tends to indicate the energy of the waves and wind in the locality. Constructive waves move material up the beach while destructive waves move the material down the beach. During seasons when destructive waves are prevalent, the shallows will carry an increased load of sediment and organic matter in suspension. On sandy beaches, the turbulent backwash of destructive waves removes material forming a gently sloping beach. On pebble and shingle beaches the swash is dissipated more quickly because the large particle size allows greater percolation, thereby reducing the power of the backwash, and the beach remains steep. Compacted fine sediments will form a smooth beach surface that resists wind and water erosion. During hot calm seasons, a crust may form on the surface of ocean beaches as the heat of the sun evaporates the water leaving the salt which crystallises around the sand particles. This crust forms an additional protective layer that resists wind erosion unless disturbed by animals or dissolved by the advancing tide. Cusps and horns form where incoming waves divide, depositing sand as horns and scouring out sand to form cusps. This forms the uneven face on some sand shorelines. White sand beaches look white because the quartz or eroded limestone in the sand reflects or scatters sunlight without absorbing other colors. === Sand colors === The composition of the sand varies depending on the local minerals and geology. Some of the types of sand found in beaches around the world are: White sand: Mostly made of quartz and limestone , it can also contain other minerals like feldspar and gypsum . Light-colored sand: This sand gets its color from quartz and iron , and is the most common sand color in Southern Europe and other regions of the Mediterranean Basin , such as Tunisia . Tropical white sand: On tropical islands, the sand is composed of calcium carbonate from the shells and skeletons of marine organisms, like corals and mollusks , as found in Aruba . Pink coral sand: Like the above, is composed of calcium carbonate and gets its pink hue from fragments of coral, such as in Bermuda and the Bahama Islands . Black sand: Black sand is composed of volcanic rock, like basalt and obsidian, which give it its gray-black color. Hawaii 's Punaluu Beach, Madeira's Praia Formosa and Fuerteventura's Ajuy beach are examples of this type of sand. Red sand: This kind of sand is created by the oxidation of iron from volcanic rocks. Santorini 's Kokkini Beach or the beaches on Prince Edward Island in Canada are examples of this kind of sand. Orange sand: Orange sand is high on iron. It can also me a combination of orange limestone, crushed shells, and volcanic deposits. Ramla Bay in Gozo , Malta or Porto Ferro in Sardinia are examples of each, respectively. Green sand: In this kind of sand, the mineral olivine has been separated from other volcanic fragments by erosive forces. A famous example is Hawaii's Papakolea Beach , which has sand containing basalt and coral fragments. Olivine beaches have high potential for carbon sequestration , and artificial greensand beaches are being explored for this process by Project Vesta . == Erosion and accretion == === Natural erosion and accretion === ==== Causes ==== Beaches are changed in shape chiefly by the movement of water and wind. Any weather event that is associated with turbid or fast-flowing water or high winds will erode exposed beaches. Longshore currents will tend to replenish beach sediments and repair storm damage. Tidal waterways generally change the shape of their adjacent beaches by small degrees with every tidal cycle. Over time these changes can become substantial leading to significant changes in the size and location of the beach. ==== Effects on flora ==== Changes in the shape of the beach may undermine the roots of large trees and other flora. Many beach adapted species (such as coconut palms) have a fine root system and large root ball which tends to withstand wave and wind action and tends to stabilize beaches better than other trees with a lesser root ball. ==== Effects on adjacent land ==== Erosion of beaches can expose less resilient soils and rocks to wind and wave action leading to undermining of coastal headlands eventually resulting in catastrophic collapse of large quantities of overburden into the shallows. This material may be distributed along the beach front leading to a change in the habitat as sea grasses and corals in the shallows may be buried or deprived of light and nutrients. === Humanmade erosion and accretion === Coastal areas settled by man inevitably become subject to the effects of human-made structures and processes. Over long periods of time, these influences may substantially alter the shape of the coastline, and the character of the beach. ==== Destruction of flora ==== Beachfront flora plays a major role in stabilizing the foredunes and preventing beach head erosion and inland movement of dunes. If flora with network root systems (creepers, grasses, and palms) are able to become established, they provide an effective coastal defense as they trap sand particles and rainwater and enrich the surface layer of the dunes, allowing other plant species to become established. They also protect the berm from erosion by high winds, freak waves and subsiding floodwaters. Over long periods of time, well-stabilized foreshore areas will tend to accrete, while unstabilized foreshores will tend to erode, leading to substantial changes in the shape of the coastline. These changes usually occur over periods of many years. Freak wave events such as tsunami, tidal waves, and storm surges may substantially alter the shape, profile and location of a beach within hours. Destruction of flora on the berm by the use of herbicides, excessive pedestrian or vehicle traffic, or disruption to freshwater flows may lead to erosion of the berm and dunes. While the destruction of flora may be a gradual process that is imperceptible to regular beach users, it often becomes immediately apparent after storms associated with high winds and freak wave events that can rapidly move large volumes of exposed and unstable sand, depositing them further inland, or carrying them out into the permanent water forming offshore bars, lagoons or increasing the area of the beach exposed at low tide. Large and rapid movements of exposed sand can bury and smother flora in adjacent areas, aggravating the loss of habitat for fauna, and enlarging the area of instability. If there is an adequate supply of sand, and weather conditions do not allow vegetation to recover and stabilize the sediment, wind-blown sand can continue to advance, engulfing and permanently altering downwind landscapes. Sediment moved by waves or receding floodwaters can be deposited in coastal shallows, engulfing reed beds and changing the character of underwater flora and fauna in the coastal shallows. Burning or clearance of vegetation on the land adjacent to the beach head, for farming and residential development, changes the surface wind patterns, and exposes the surface of the beach to wind erosion. Farming and residential development are also commonly associated with changes in local surface water flows. If these flows are concentrated in stormwater drains emptying onto the beach head, they may erode the beach creating a lagoon or delta. Dense vegetation tends to absorb rainfall reducing the speed of runoff and releasing it over longer periods of time. Destruction by burning or clearance of the natural vegetation tends to increase the speed and erosive power of runoff from rainfall. This runoff will tend to carry more silt and organic matter from the land onto the beach and into the sea. If the flow is constant, runoff from cleared land arriving at the beach head will tend to deposit this material into the sand changing its color, odor and fauna. ==== Creation of beach access points ==== The concentration of pedestrian and vehicular traffic accessing the beach for recreational purposes may cause increased erosion at the access points if measures are not taken to stabilize the beach surface above high-water mark. Recognition of the dangers of loss of beach front flora has caused many local authorities responsible for managing coastal areas to restrict beach access points by physical structures or legal sanctions, and fence off foredunes in an effort to protect the flora. These measures are often associated with the construction of structures at these access points to allow traffic to pass over or through the dunes without causing further damage. ==== Concentration of runoff ==== Beaches provide a filter for runoff from the coastal plain. If the runoff is naturally dispersed along the beach, water borne silt and organic matter will be retained on the land and will feed the flora in the coastal area. Runoff that is dispersed along the beach will tend to percolate through the beach and may emerge from the beach at low tide. The retention of the freshwater may also help to maintain underground water reserves and will resist salt water incursion. If the surface flow of the runoff is diverted and concentrated by drains that create constant flows over the beach above the sea or river level, the beach will be eroded and ultimately form an inlet unless longshore flows deposit sediments to repair the breach. Once eroded, an inlet may allow tidal inflows of salt water to pollute areas inland from the beach and may also affect the quality of underground water supplies and the height of the water table. ==== Deprivation of runoff ==== Some flora naturally occurring on the beach head requires freshwater runoff from the land. Diversion of freshwater runoff into drains may deprive these plants of their water supplies and allow sea water incursion, increasing the saltiness of the groundwater. Species that are not able to survive in salt water may die and be replaced by mangroves or other species adapted to salty environments. ==== Inappropriate beach nourishment ==== Beach nourishment is the importing and deposition of sand or other sediments in an effort to restore a beach that has been damaged by erosion. Beach nourishment often involves excavation of sediments from riverbeds or sand quarries. This excavated sediment may be substantially different in size and appearance to the naturally occurring beach sand. In extreme cases, beach nourishment may involve placement of large pebbles or rocks in an effort to permanently restore a shoreline subject to constant erosion and loss of foreshore. This is often required where the flow of new sediment caused by the longshore current has been disrupted by construction of harbors, breakwaters, causeways or boat ramps, creating new current flows that scour the sand from behind these structures and deprive the beach of restorative sediments. If the causes of the erosion are not addressed, beach nourishment can become a necessary and permanent feature of beach maintenance. During beach nourishment activities, care must be taken to place new sediments so that the new sediments compact and stabilize before aggressive wave or wind action can erode them. Material that is concentrated too far down the beach may form a temporary groyne that will encourage scouring behind it. Sediments that are too fine or too light may be eroded before they have compacted or been integrated into the established vegetation. Foreign unwashed sediments may introduce flora or fauna that are not usually found in that locality. Brighton Beach, on the south coast of England, is a shingle beach that has been nourished with very large pebbles in an effort to withstand the erosion of the upper area of the beach. These large pebbles made the beach unwelcoming for pedestrians for a period of time until natural processes integrated the naturally occurring shingle into the pebble base. == Use for recreation == === History === Even in Roman times, wealthy people spent their free time on the coast. They also built large villa complexes with bathing facilities (so-called maritime villas) in particularly beautiful locations. Excavations of Roman architecture can still be found today, for example on the Amalfi Coast near Naples and in Barcola in Trieste.The development of the beach as a popular leisure resort from the mid-19th century was the first manifestation of what is now the global tourist industry. The first seaside resorts were opened in the 18th century for the aristocracy, who began to frequent the seaside as well as the then fashionable spa towns, for recreation and health. One of the earliest such seaside resorts, was Scarborough in Yorkshire during the 1720s; it had been a fashionable spa town since a stream of acidic water was discovered running from one of the cliffs to the south of the town in the 17th century. The first rolling bathing machines were introduced by 1735. The opening of the resort in Brighton and its reception of royal patronage from King George IV, extended the seaside as a resort for health and pleasure to the much larger London market, and the beach became a centre for upper-class pleasure and frivolity. This trend was praised and artistically elevated by the new romantic ideal of the picturesque landscape; Jane Austen's unfinished novel Sanditon is an example of that. Later, Queen Victoria's long-standing patronage of the Isle of Wight and Ramsgate in Kent ensured that a seaside residence was considered as a highly fashionable possession for those wealthy enough to afford more than one home. ==== Seaside resorts for the working class ==== The extension of this form of leisure to the middle and working classes began with the development of the railways in the 1840s, which offered cheap fares to fast-growing resort towns. In particular, the completion of a branch line to the small seaside town of Blackpool from Poulton led to a sustained economic and demographic boom. A sudden influx of visitors, arriving by rail, led entrepreneurs to build accommodation and create new attractions, leading to more visitors and a rapid cycle of growth throughout the 1850s and 1860s.The growth was intensified by the practice among the Lancashire cotton mill owners of closing the factories for a week every year to service and repair machinery. These became known as wakes weeks. Each town's mills would close for a different week, allowing Blackpool to manage a steady and reliable stream of visitors over a prolonged period in the summer. A prominent feature of the resort was the promenade and the pleasure piers, where an eclectic variety of performances vied for the people's attention. In 1863, the North Pier in Blackpool was completed, rapidly becoming a centre of attraction for upper class visitors. Central Pier was completed in 1868, with a theatre and a large open-air dance floor.Many of the popular beach resorts were equipped with bathing machines, because even the all-covering beachwear of the period was considered immodest. By the end of the century the English coastline had over 100 large resort towns, some with populations exceeding 50,000. ==== Expansion around the world ==== The development of the seaside resort abroad was stimulated by the well-developed English love of the beach. The French Riviera alongside the Mediterranean had already become a popular destination for the British upper class by the end of the 18th century. In 1864, the first railway to Nice was completed, making the Riviera accessible to visitors from all over Europe. By 1874, residents of foreign enclaves in Nice, most of whom were British, numbered 25,000. The coastline became renowned for attracting the royalty of Europe, including Queen Victoria and King Edward VII.Continental European attitudes towards gambling and nakedness tended to be more lax than in Britain, so British and French entrepreneurs were quick to exploit the possibilities. In 1863, Charles III, Prince of Monaco, and François Blanc, a French businessman, arranged for steamships and carriages to take visitors from Nice to Monaco, where large luxury hotels, gardens and casinos were built. The place was renamed Monte Carlo. Commercial sea bathing spread to the United States and parts of the British Empire by the end of the 19th century. The first public beach in the United States was Revere Beach, which opened in 1896. During that same time, Henry Flagler developed the Florida East Coast Railway, which linked the coastal sea resorts developing at St. Augustine, FL and Miami Beach, FL, to winter travelers from the northern United States and Canada on the East Coast Railway. By the early 20th century surfing was developed in Hawaii and Australia; it spread to southern California by the early 1960s. By the 1970s cheap and affordable air travel led to the growth of a truly global tourism market which benefited areas such as the Mediterranean, Australia, South Africa, and the coastal Sun Belt regions of the United States. === Today === Beaches can be popular on warm sunny days. In the Victorian era, many popular beach resorts were equipped with bathing machines because even the all-covering beachwear of the period was considered immodest. This social standard still prevails in many Muslim countries. At the other end of the spectrum are topfree beaches and nude beaches where clothing is optional or not allowed. In most countries social norms are significantly different on a beach in hot weather, compared to adjacent areas where similar behavior might not be tolerated and might even be prosecuted. In more than thirty countries in Europe, South Africa, New Zealand, Canada, Costa Rica, South America and the Caribbean, the best recreational beaches are awarded Blue Flag status, based on such criteria as water quality and safety provision. Subsequent loss of this status can have a severe effect on tourism revenues. Beaches are often dumping grounds for waste and litter, necessitating the use of beach cleaners and other cleanup projects. More significantly, many beaches are a discharge zone for untreated sewage in most underdeveloped countries; even in developed countries beach closure is an occasional circumstance due to sanitary sewer overflow. In these cases of marine discharge, waterborne disease from fecal pathogens and contamination of certain marine species are a frequent outcome. === Artificial beaches === Some beaches are artificial; they are either permanent or temporary (For examples, see Copenhagen, Hong Kong, Manila, Monaco, Nottingham, Paris, Rotterdam, Singapore, Tianjin, and Toronto). The soothing qualities of a beach and the pleasant environment offered to the beachgoer are replicated in artificial beaches, such as ""beach style"" pools with zero-depth entry and wave pools that recreate the natural waves pounding upon a beach. In a zero-depth entry pool, the bottom surface slopes gradually from above water down to depth. Another approach involves so-called urban beaches, a form of public park becoming common in large cities. Urban beaches attempt to mimic natural beaches with fountains that imitate surf and mask city noises, and in some cases can be used as a play park. Beach nourishment involves pumping sand onto beaches to improve their health. Beach nourishment is common for major beach cities around the world; however the beaches that have been nourished can still appear quite natural and often many visitors are unaware of the works undertaken to support the health of the beach. Such beaches are often not recognized by consumers as artificial. A famous example of beach nourishment came with the replenishment of Waikīkī Beach in Honolulu, Hawaii, where sand from Manhattan Beach, California was transported via ship and barge throughout most of the 20th century in order to combat Waikiki's erosion problems. The Surfrider Foundation has debated the merits of artificial reefs with members torn between their desire to support natural coastal environments and opportunities to enhance the quality of surfing waves. Similar debates surround beach nourishment and snow cannon in sensitive environments. === Restrictions on access === Public access to beaches is restricted in some parts of the world. For example, most beaches on the Jersey Shore are restricted to people who can purchase beach tags. Many beaches in Indonesia, both private and public, require admission fees. Some beaches also restrict dogs for some periods of the year. ==== Private beaches ==== Private beaches may belong to owners of abutting land, or neighborhood associations. Signs are usually posted the entrance. A permit or special use occasion event may be granted upon executing the proper channels to legally obtain one. In some places, such as Florida, it is not always clear which parts of a beach are public or private. ==== Public beaches ==== The first public beach in the United States opened on 12 July 1896, in the town of Revere, Massachusetts, with over 45,000 people attending on the opening day. The beach was run bay the Metropolitan Parks Commission and the new beach had a bandstand, public bathhouses, shade pavilions, and lined by a broad boulevard that ran along the beach.Public access to beaches is protected by law in the U.S. state of Oregon, thanks to a 1967 state law, the Oregon Beach Bill, which guaranteed public access from the Columbia River to the California state line, ""so that the public may have the free and uninterrupted use"". Public access to beaches in Hawaii (other than those owned by the U.S. federal government) is also protected by state law. == Access design == Beach access is an important consideration where substantial numbers of pedestrians or vehicles require access to the beach. Allowing random access across delicate foredunes is seldom considered good practice as it is likely to lead to destruction of flora and consequent erosion of the fore dunes. A well-designed beach access should: provide a durable surface able to withstand the traffic flow; aesthetically complement the surrounding structures and natural landforms; be located in an area that is convenient for users and consistent with safe traffic flows; be scaled to match the traffic flow (i.e. wide and strong enough to safely carry the size and quantity of pedestrians and vehicles intended to use it); be maintained appropriately; and be signed and lit to discourage beach users from creating their own alternative crossings that may be more destructive to the beachhead. === Concrete ramp or steps === A concrete ramp should follow the natural profile of the beach to prevent it from changing the normal flow of waves, longshore currents, water and wind. A ramp that is below the beach profile will tend to become buried and cease to provide a good surface for vehicular traffic. A ramp or stair that protrudes above the beach profile will tend to disrupt longshore currents creating deposits in front of the ramp, and scouring behind. Concrete ramps are the most expensive vehicular beach accesses to construct requiring use of a quick-drying concrete or a cofferdam to protect them from tidal water during the concrete curing process. Concrete is favored where traffic flows are heavy and access is required by vehicles that are not adapted to soft sand (e.g. road registered passenger vehicles and boat trailers). Concrete stairs are commonly favored on beaches adjacent to population centers where beach users may arrive on the beach in street shoes, or where the foreshore roadway is substantially higher than the beach head and a ramp would be too steep for safe use by pedestrians. A composite stair ramp may incorporate a central or side stair with one or more ramps allowing pedestrians to lead buggies or small boat dollies onto the beach without the aid of a powered vehicle or winch. Concrete ramps and steps should be maintained to prevent a buildup of moss or algae that may make their wet surfaces slippery and dangerous to pedestrians and vehicles. === Corduroy (beach ladder) === A corduroy road or beach ladder (or board and chain) is an array of planks (usually hardwood or treated timber) laid close together and perpendicular to the direction of traffic flow, and secured at each end by a chain or cable to form a pathway or ramp over the sand dune. Corduroys are cheap and easy to construct and quick to deploy or relocate. They are commonly used for pedestrian access paths and light duty vehicular access ways. They naturally conform to the shape of the underlying beach or dune profile, and adjust well to moderate erosion, especially longshore drift. However, they can cease to be an effective access surface if they become buried or undermined by erosion by surface runoff coming from the beach head. If the corduroy is not wide enough for vehicles using it, the sediment on either side may be displaced creating a spoon drain that accelerates surface runoff and can quickly lead to serious erosion. Significant erosion of the sediment beside and under the corduroy can render it completely ineffective and make it dangerous to pedestrian users who may fall between the planks. === Fabric ramp === Fabric ramps are commonly employed by the military for temporary purposes where the underlying sediment is stable and hard enough to support the weight of the traffic. A sheet of porous fabric is laid over the sand to stabilize the surface and prevent vehicles from bogging. Fabric Ramps usually cease to be useful after one tidal cycle as they are easily washed away, or buried in sediment. === Foliage ramp === A foliage ramp is formed by planting resilient species of hardy plants such as grasses over a well-formed sediment ramp. The plants may be supported while they become established by placement of layers of mesh, netting, or coarse organic material such as vines or branches. This type of ramp is ideally suited for intermittent use by vehicles with a low wheel loading such as dune buggies or agricultural vehicles with large tyres. A foliage ramp should require minimal maintenance if initially formed to follow the beach profile, and not overused. === Gravel ramp === A gravel ramp is formed by excavating the underlying loose sediment and filling the excavation with layers of gravel of graduated sizes as defined by John Loudon McAdam. The gravel is compacted to form a solid surface according to the needs of the traffic. Gravel ramps are less expensive to construct than concrete ramps and are able to carry heavy road traffic provided the excavation is deep enough to reach solid subsoil. Gravel ramps are subject to erosion by water. If the edges are retained with boards or walls and the profile matches the surrounding beach profile, a gravel ramp may become more stable as finer sediments are deposited by percolating water. == Longest beaches == Amongst the world's longest beaches are: Eighty Mile Beach (220 kilometres [140 mi]) in north-west Australia; Praia do Cassino (212 kilometres [132 mi]) in Brazil; Padre Island beach (about 182 kilometres [113 mi]) in Gulf of Mexico, Texas. Ninety Mile Beach, Victoria (151 kilometres [94 mi]) in Victoria, Australia; Cox's Bazar, Bangladesh (150 kilometres [93 mi] unbroken); Playa Novillera beach (about 90 kilometres [56 mi]) in Mexico. 90 Mile Beach in New Zealand (88 kilometres [55 mi]); Fraser Island beach (about 65 kilometres [40 mi]) in Queensland, Australia; Troia-Sines Beach (63 kilometres [39 mi]) in Portugal; the Jersey Shore, 204 km/127 miles; and Long Beach, Washington (which is about 40 kilometres [25 mi]). == Wildlife == A beach is an unstable environment that exposes plants and animals to changeable and potentially harsh conditions. Some animals burrow into the sand and feed on material deposited by the waves. Crabs, insects and shorebirds feed on these beach dwellers. The endangered piping plover and some tern species rely on beaches for nesting. Sea turtles also bury their eggs in ocean beaches. Seagrasses and other beach plants grow on undisturbed areas of the beach and dunes. Ocean beaches are habitats with organisms adapted to salt spray, tidal overwash, and shifting sands. Some of these organisms are found only on beaches. Examples of these beach organisms in the southeast US include plants like sea oats, sea rocket, beach elder, beach morning glory (Ipomoea pes-caprae), and beach peanut, and animals such as mole crabs (Hippoidea), coquina clams (Donax), ghost crabs, and white beach tiger beetles. == See also == == References == == Works cited == Andrews, Robert (2002). The Rough Guide to Britain. Rough Guides. ISBN 978-1-85828-881-9. == Further reading == Bascom, W. 1980. Waves and Beaches. Anchor Press/Doubleday, Garden City, New York. 366 p. Schwartz, Maurice L. (1982). The Encyclopedia of Beaches and Coastal Environments: Volume 15 of Encyclopedia of earth sciences. Virginia: Hutchinson Ross Pub. Co. pp. 940. ISBN 0879332131. == External links == Coping with beach erosion – UNESCO" Tourist_attractions,Canopy walkway,"Canopy walkways – also called canopy walks, treetop walks or treetop walkways – provide pedestrian access to a forest canopy. Early walkways consisted of bridges between trees in the canopy of a forest; mostly linked up with platforms inside or around the trees. They were originally intended as access to the upper regions of ancient forests for scientists conducting canopy research. Eventually, because they provided only limited, one-dimensional access to the trees, they were abandoned for canopy cranes. Today they serve as ecotourism attractions in places such as Dhlinza Forest, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, Taman Negara National Park, Malaysia, Sedim River, Kulim, Nyungwe National Park, Rwanda and Kakum National Park, Ghana. == Australia == Canopy or treetop walkways are especially popular attractions in Australia. They can be found in most states and a variety of environments. === Tasmania === The Tahune AirWalk is located in state forest near Geeveston in southern Tasmania. Opened in 2001 it consists of a 619-metre-long elevated walkway incorporating a 37-metre-high observation tower and a cantilever 50 metres above the Huon River. Other activities at the complex include zip-line hang gliding. === Victoria === The Otway Fly claims to be the longest and highest 'steel canopy walk' in the world, It is 600 metres long with a maximum height of 47 metres. Located on freehold land in the Otway Range in western Victoria, the walk traverses mixed species forest with trees such as Myrtle beech and Mountain ash, the tallest hardwood species in the world. The mid story environment includes an abundance of soft tree ferns and other smaller trees. The Otway Fly also offers zip-line tours where customers can glide 30 metres above the floor of the rainforest. The walkway was built in 2003 for $6.5 million and features a raised walking platform as well as a cantilever over Young's Creek and a 47 metre tall 'spiral tower' viewing platform that takes the person into the upper canopy. It was originally operated by MFS Living and Leisure before being sold in 2011 to Merlin Entertainments, one of the world's largest operators of tourist attractions. Victoria also boasts the Donna Buang Rainforest Gallery. Located east of Melbourne at Cement Creek on the slopes of Mount Donna Buang, it consists of a 350-metre-long metal walkway elevated one metre above ground level plus a cantilever platform 15 metres above the ground which allows canopy level views of the cool temperate rainforest. While there is interpretive signage, the Rainforest Gallery is unstaffed and entry is free. In 2018 a small, 120-metre-long, 10-metre-high, canopy walkway opened at the seaside resort town of Lorne as part of Live Wire Park, a mainly zip line oriented business. Unlike other canopy walkways in the state which are in rainforest, this one traverses scenic, open coastal woodland. === New South Wales === The Illawarra Fly Treetop Adventure includes a 500-metre-long steel walkway up to 30 metres above the ground and a 45-metre-high tower with views over the nearby Tasman Sea. The facility also includes zip-line tours. Built in 2008 for a cost of $6.5 million, like the Ottway Fly it was initially operated by MFS Living and Leisure until 2011 when it was sold to Merlin Entertainments. The Skywalk at Dorrigo National Park is a short, 70-metre-long canopy walk that leads over the edge of an escarpment to a point 21 metres above the forest. === Queensland === The Mamu Tropical Skywalk is located near Innisfail in the north of the state. Owned by the Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service, it was opened in 2008. It features a 350-metre-long elevated walkway that makes its way through tropical rainforest 15 metres above the ground and includes a 37-metre-high observation tower. The Tree Top Walk, was the first canopy walkway constructed in Australia. It can be found in Lamington National Park at O'Reilly's Rainforest Retreat, in southern Queensland. Built in 1988, it is 180 metres in length and constructed using 9 small suspension bridges. At its highest point it reaches 34 metres above ground level.Tamborine Rainforest Skywalk is a 1.5 km walk with 300 metres on bridges and a cantilever extension over the forest. It opened in 2009.The Daintree Discovery Centre Aerial Walkway in far north Queensland traverses tropical rainforest at 11 metres above the ground. It leads to a five-level, 23-metre-high observation tower. === Western Australia === Valley of the Giants Treetop Walk near Denmark in southern Western Australia is 620 metres long and includes sections up to 40 metres above the ground. It is owned by the state government's Department of Parks and Wildlife. == Brunei == The Ulu Temburong National Park features an especially high (60 metres) forest canopy walkway that connects a series of treehouses. It is accessed by longboat. == Costa Rica == The Sky Walk is a walk above the canopy of the trees of the Monteverde Cloud Forest. Sky Walk features a combination of suspension bridges and trails with heights exceeding the treetops. Sky Walk is part is part of a larger forest tourism complex that includes walking tracks, a pulsed gondola and ziplines. == Germany == The Baumwipfelpfad in Neuschonau, Bavaria is a 1,300-metre-long walkway between 8 and 25 metres above the forest floor. It ends with a spiral climb up a 44-metre-high wooden dome.The Baumwipfelpfad Harz (also Baumwipfelpfad Bad Harzburg) (de) is an educational and treetop path in the Harz Mountains in the area of the town of Bad Harzburg in the district of Goslar, Lower Saxony. The treetop path can be reached via an entry crown that spirals upwards over a length of around 300 meters. The construction costs amounted to approx. 4.6 million euros and the construction project was carried out from November 2014 to March 2015. The treetop path was put into operation on 8 May 2015. The Baumwipfelpfad – Saarschleife in Mettlach, Saarland is a 1,250-metre-long walkway reaching up to 23 meters above the ground. The observation tower at the end of the path reaches a height of 43 meters. The ""Baumkronenpfad"" at Hainich National Park. Only a 10 km drive away you can discover the Canopy Walkway at the UNESCO World Natural Heritage Hainich National Park. Walk in the tree tops up to 24 meters in height or climb the viewer tower with 44 meters. Insights into the biospheres offer the National park exhibition and the latest milestone the ""Root hole"". Nature lovers can hike and bike 18 trails and 3 cycle trails in untouched nature. www.baumkronen-pfad.de == Ghana == The Kakum Canopy Walkway extends for more than 300 metres and includes a viewing platform and seven bridges up to 35 metres above the forest floor. == Malaysia == The Danum Valley Canopy Walkway, located in Sabah, Malaysian Borneo gives visitors views of spectacular tropical rainforest from a 300-metre-long, 27-metre-high canopy walkway. The Sungai Sedim Treetop Walkway located in Kedah, is 925 meters long. == New Zealand == Located on the rugged West Coast of the South Island of New Zealand, the West Coast Treetop Walk traverses rimu forest and was built by Australian eco-tourism company Canopy01 in 2012. It comprises a 450-metre-long elevated steel walkway and cantilever at heights up to 25 metres above the forest floor with a 47-metre-high viewing tower. At Rotorua on the North Island, Rotorua Canopy Tours operate zipline tours that incorporate sections of canopy walkway. == Nigeria == The country has the largest land mass in west Africa. It has 3 canopy walkways sited in Lagos and Cross river states. The longest Canopy walkway in Africa is at Lekki Conservation Centre which is a project sponsored by Chevron but managed and supervised by The Nigerian Conservation Foundation. The walkway is 401 metres long transversing the unique nature reserve, 22.5 metres high, the canopy walkway was handed over to the Nigerian Conservation Foundation by the Lagos state government 23-12-2015. == Peru == The Inkaterra Canopy Walkway in the Peruvian Amazon is a 344-metre-long system of seven hanging bridges, six treetop observation platforms and two 29-metre-tall towers. == Samoa == At Falealupo, a village in Samoa situated at the west end of Savai'i island is the short Falealupo Rainforest Canopy Aerial Walkway which is up to 40 metres above the ground and passes through Banyan trees. It was built in 1997 and is part of a project to protect the rainforest and generate income for the local community through tourism. == Singapore == The Southern Ridges Forest Walk is a 1.3 km elevated metal walkway soaring as high as 18 meters above the ground, on level with the treetops. One of the most impressive sections of the Southern Ridges Walk. About halfway through, the walk returns to earth for a moment, paralleling Preston Road and its ""black and white"" bungalows originally built for the officers of the British army and now much favored by wealthy expats in Singapore. The Southern Ridges Canopy Walk is a 280 m elevated metal walkway similar to the forest walk, somewhat shorter but among higher trees and closer to the trees as well.The HSBC Treetop Walk is a 250-metre suspension bridge connecting the two highest points in MacRitchie – Bukit Pierce and Bukit Kalang. At the highest point, the bridge hangs 25 metres from the forest floor.The SPH Walk of Giants in the Singapore Botanic Gardens is a 260 m long elevated boardwalk with a maximum height from the ground of 8 m. It leads the visitor through a collection of trees which, can grow up to at least 60m in height, some up to 80 m. == United Kingdom == The 200-metre-long Treetop Walkway is at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew in London. It opened in 2008 and is not a forest walkway, but rather gives views over a mostly open park. It claims to give visitors an insight into forest canopies and the birds, insects and fungi that live there. Near the walkway is a unique tunnel allowing visitors to learn about tree roots before they climb to the walkway. == Thailand == The 400-metre-long Canopy Walkway at Queen Sirikit Botanic Garden in Mae Rim District, Chiang Mai Province opened in 2015. == United States == === Florida === Myakka River State Park in Southwest Florida hosts North America's first canopy walkway, which runs 100 feet among oak and palm trees.Discovery Island in Bay Lake at Walt Disney World operated from 1974 to 1999 and featured a canopy walkway in the Avian Way attraction. In 2017 it was dilapidated but still largely intact. === Georgia === The Kendeda Canopy Walk in the Atlanta Botanical Garden is a more recent variation that provides visitors with the ability to move through a 180-metre-long (600 ft) the Storza Woods section of urban forest at an elevation of 12 metres (40 ft). The walkway construction is a somewhat unusual reverse suspension design. It opened in 2010 and cost $55 million to build. === Michigan === The 426-meter-long (1,400-foot) Whiting Forest of Dow Gardens canopy walk overlooks 54 acres of forest trails, ponds, meadows, and an apple orchard. Located in mid-Michigan, the canopy walk is currently the longest in the United States of America, with the highest point being 12 meters (40 feet) above the ground. It opened in the fall of 2018 with an investment of $20 million. == References ==" Tourist_attractions,Doors Open Days,"Doors Open Days (also known as Open House or Open Days in some communities) provide free access to buildings not normally open to the public. The first Doors Open Day took place in France in 1984, and the concept has spread to other places in Europe (see European Heritage Days), North America, Australia and elsewhere. Doors Open Days promotes architecture and heritage sites to a wider audience within and beyond the country's borders. It is an opportunity to discover hidden architectural gems and to see behind doors that are rarely open to the public for free. Open Doors Days trace their origin to the 1990 Door Open Day held as part of Glasgow's year as European City of Culture. == Heritage Open Days in England == Heritage Open Days established in 1994 celebrate English architecture and culture allowing visitors free access to historical landmarks that are either not usually open to the public, or would normally charge an entrance fee. === List of Doors Open events in England === Open House London == Doors open days in Scotland == Doors Open Days is organised by the Scottish Civic Trust. Alongside Scottish Archaeology Month, the open days form Scotland's contribution to European Heritage Days. This joint initiative between the Council of Europe and the European Union aims to give people a greater understanding of each other through sharing and exploring cultural heritage. 49 countries across Europe take part annually, in September. During Glasgow's year as European City of Culture in 1990, organisers ran an Open Doors event, an event credited with popularizing the Doors Open concept and spreading it to other countries. Its popularity encouraged other areas to take part the following year and were coordinated by the Scottish Civic Trust. Doors Open Days now take place throughout Scotland thanks to a dedicated team of area coordinators. These coordinators work for a mixture of organisations: local councils, civic trusts, heritage organisations and archaeological trusts. Scotland is one of the few participating countries where events take place every weekend in September, with different areas choosing their own dates. More than 900 buildings now take part. In 2008, over 225,000 visits were made generating £2 million for the Scottish economy. It is estimated that 5,000 or more volunteers give their time to run activities and open doors for members of the public. Doors Open Days was supported in 2009 by Homecoming Scotland 2009, a year-long initiative that marked the 250th anniversary of the birth of Scotland's national poet, Robert Burns. It was funded by the Scottish Government and part financed by the European Union through the European Regional Development Fund. Its aim was to engage Scots at home, as well as motivate people of Scottish descent and those who simply love Scotland, to take part in an inspirational celebration of Scottish culture and heritage. == Open house in Australia == Open House events are organised in Australia in partnership with Open House Worldwide. The first Open House event took place in Melbourne in 2008. This was followed by Brisbane in 2010, and Adelaide and Perth in 2012. == Canada == Doors Open Canada began in 2000. === List of Doors Open events in Canada === Doors Open Newfoundland and Labrador Doors Open Ottawa Doors Open Toronto Doors Open Saskatoon == United States == === List of Doors Open events in the U.S. === Doors Open Baltimore, first weekend in October Doors Open Buffalo Open House Chicago Open House New York Doors Open Milwaukee Doors Open Minneapolis Doors Open Pittsburgh, first weekend in October Doors Open Rhode Island Passport DC, embassy open houses in Washington, D.C., in May. == See also == Brisbane Open House Open House Brno Tourism in Scotland == Notes == == External links == Open House Worldwide" Tourist_attractions,Honeypot (tourism),"A honeypot site is a location attractive to tourists who, due to their numbers, place pressure on the environment and local people.Honeypots are often used by cities or countries to manage their tourism industry. The use of honeypots can protect fragile land away from major cities while satisfying less discerning tourists. One such example is the construction of local parks to prevent tourists from damaging more valuable ecosystems farther from their main destination. Honeypots have the added benefit of concentrating many income-generating visitors in one place, therefore developing that area, and in turn making the area more appealing to tourists.However, honeypots can suffer from problems of overcrowding, including litter, vandalism, and strain on facilities and transport networks. Honeypots attract tourists because of parking spaces, shopping centres, parks and public toilets. The tourist shops are normally placed all over the shopping centre, which creates pressure on the whole centre to keep the place looking tidy. For example, Stratford-upon-Avon has shops that are aimed mostly at tourists. On a particular street, there were five shops that were aimed towards the locals and ten shops catering to tourists, reflecting the business opportunity that tourism presents for shopkeepers and other business people in the local economy. The once sleepy medieval village has attracted an increasing number of visitors over recent years and is a classic example of a tourist 'honeypot' . . . Ste. Enimie is one of these 'designated' places that are designed to attract people to it and therefore reduce the impact on the surrounding area. == References ==" Tourist_attractions,Imaginarium,"An imaginarium is a place devoted to the imagination. There are various types of imaginaria, centers largely devoted to stimulating and cultivating the imagination, towards scientific, artistic, commercial, recreational, or spiritual ends. == Examples == The Imaginarium Discovery Center is a children's science discovery center within the Anchorage Museum in Anchorage in the U.S. state of Alaska. The Imaginarium of South Texas is a children's museum and informal science center at Mall del Norte in Laredo, Texas. The Imaginarium Science Center is a science museum and aquarium in Fort Myers, Florida. It features science exhibits, a 3-D theatre, dinosaurs, aquarium displays, a touch tank with stingrays and more. The Imaginarium Science Centre of Devonport, Tasmania is a hands-on science museum that is part of Pandemonium: Discovery and Adventure Centre. == In popular culture == In The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus, the immortal mystic Doctor Parnassus runs a nomadic theater troupe who lure people through a mirror that shows them a world of their deepest subconscious desires, where their souls are put to the test. == References ==" Tourist_attractions,Kinshasa National Zoological Park,"The Kinshasa National Zoological Park (French: Parc Zoologique National de Kinshasa) or Kinshasa Zoological Garden (French: Jardin Zoologique de Kinshasa), also known as Kinshasa Zoo (French: zoo de Kinshasa), is an animal park located in the Gombe commune, next to the Kinshasa Grand Market (Marché Central) and the Kinshasa General Hospital in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). The zoo is home to over 500 species of animals, including mammals, reptiles, birds, fish, and amphibians, totaling more than 5,000 animals.The zoo attracts approximately 1,000 visitors and serves as an educational hub, providing practical training opportunities for children and students interested in zoological science, with nearly 4,000 students from various schools in the capital taking guided tours from December to July. == History == The Jardin Zoologique, along with the Jardin Botanique de Kinshasa, was established by Fernand De Bock, the Administrator of Léopoldville (now Kinshasa), in 1933. He christened the zoo ""Parc de Bock."" Originally located west across Ave. des Palmiers, which later became Prince Baudouin (now Ave. Kasa-Vubu), it opened on July 17, 1938, and has been managed by the Congolese Institute for the Conservation of Nature (Institut Congolais pour la Conservation de la Nature; ICCN) since its inception. The complex had an Art Deco entryway and a restaurant in the same architectural style at the far end.In June 1939, a series of animal postage stamps was issued, with the proceeds amounting to Fr.300,000 to benefit the zoo. On its fifth anniversary, the zoo held an exhibition attended by Prime Minister Hubert Pierlot and a soirée at the restaurant. In August 1954, the zoo received its first Okapi, the elusive creature discovered in the Ituri Forest in the northeastern part of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The Zoo also featured a Chimpanzee that mooched and smoked cigarettes cadged from visitors. King Baudouin of Belgium visited the zoo in May 1955 during his successful tour of the colony.By 1956, the zoo's fortunes began to decline, and controversies arose regarding the possibility of closure, with a portion of the complex being ceded to the nearby Kinshasa General Hospital. The zoo's cultural center, with a seating capacity of five hundred, served as a venue for meetings and conferences, complemented by catering from the Zoo Restaurant. Notably, in 1961, Premier Cyrille Adoula hosted his peers there after the election of the new Parliament.Over the years, the zoo underwent various transformations and rehabilitations. In 1988, the National Institute of Arts (Institut National des Arts) rehabilitated the Cultural Center.In the tumultuous periods of the First and Second Congo Wars, the zoo faced immense tribulations. The devastating effects of war led to dire conditions for the animals, as food shortages and lack of rejuvenation took a toll on their well-being. Tragically, many chimpanzees were reduced to drinking dirty water from bowls, resulting in starvation and the unfortunate demise of several animals by late 1999. In October 2009, it was announced that the French Embassy would rehabilitate the Zoo. == Main exhibits == The zoo is committed to providing a safe haven for endangered species indigenous to the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The current exhibits include pythons, cobras, rattlesnakes, vultures, crows, cattle guards, eagles, turkeys, African marabous, crowned cranes, turtles, servals, civets, hawks, horses, pigs, jackals, buffalos, monitor lizards, kites, parrots, and donkeys. The zoo also houses a variety of primates, such as chimpanzees, black crested mangabeys, malbroucks, gorillas, and yellow baboons. Moreover, the zoo features several species of crocodiles, including Nile crocodiles. The oldest residents of the zoo are Simon and Antoinette, a crocodile couple who have been living in the zoo since 1938. They reside in the grass near the muddy water of their large pond, each in their own corner. The pair arrived at the zoo five years following its establishment. == Efforts for conservation == Since the First and Second Congo Wars, the zoo has experienced a decrease in the number of animals due to environmental degradation, lack of treatment, insufficient funding, and inadequate site rejuvenation. Consequently, animals like lions, zebras, leopards, tigers, elephants, hippos, okapis, antelopes, bears, cheetahs, and giraffes have descreases. The animals currently residing in the park are in a state of destitution, with some species, like monkeys, beseeching for food from visitors by stretching out their hands when they approach the cage. The park sustains itself through self-financing obtained from the sale of tickets to visitors, with entry costing 2,500FC per adult and 2,000FC per child. This money is used to purchase food for the animals, primarily consisting of meat, vegetables, and herbs. Parenthetically, the Kinshasa National Zoological Park receives unsold food from generous restaurants and supermarkets.The workers at the park have been urging the Minister of the Environment to invest more in ensuring the conservation and continuity of the site. As of 2020, the zoo has over 129 animals, comprising approximately thirty species, according to Doctor Kazadi Fernand of the ICCN. == Rehabilitation == On July 29, 2021, the National Minister of Tourism, Modero Nsimba Matondo, launched the rehabilitation works on the site. This rehabilitation will help reconnect with the frequentation of visitors. In a city of about 17 million inhabitants, the frequency of visits is estimated at 500 visitors per week, according to the director of the zoo, Simon Dinganga tra Ndeto. == References ==" Tourist_attractions,Observation deck,"An observation deck, observation platform, or viewing platform is an elevated sightseeing platform usually situated upon a tall architectural structure, such as a skyscraper or observation tower. Observation decks are sometimes enclosed from weather, and a few may include coin-operated telescopes for viewing distant features. == List of public observation decks == == List of highest observation decks by type == == Timeline of world's highest observation decks == This is a timeline of the development of world's highest observation decks since the inauguration of the Washington Monument in 1885. === Under construction === Unknown Jeddah Tower, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. 637 m, Level 157 Unknown Goldin Finance 117, Tianjin, China. 578.7 m, Level 116 2023 (est.) Merdeka 118, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. 517.7 m , Level 117 (Spire observation level at 566 m) 2026 (est) Torre Rise, Monterrey, Mexico. 365 m, Level 83 2027 (est) Taipei Twin Towers, Taipei, Taiwan. 347 m, Level 73Approved 2025 (est.) Signature Tower Jakarta, Jakarta, Indonesia. 515.8 m, Level 111 2027 (est.) Torch Tower, Tokyo, Japan. 300 m, Level 55 2030 (est.) Millennium Tower, Frankfurt, Germany. 280 m, Level 67See also List of tallest buildings and structures in the world#World's highest observation deck == Observation deck gallery == == See also == Observation car Observation wheel == References ==" Tourist_attractions,Scenic viewpoint,"A scenic viewpoint – also called an observation point, viewpoint, viewing point, vista point, lookout, scenic overlook, etc. – is an elevated location where people can view scenery (often with binoculars) and photograph it. Scenic viewpoints may be created alongside scenic routes or mountain roads, often as simple turnouts or lay-bys where motorists can pull over onto pavement, gravel, or grass on the right-of-way. Many viewpoints are larger, having parking areas, while some (typically on larger highways) are off the road completely. Viewing points may also be found on hill or mountain tops or on rocky spurs overlooking a valley and reached via a hiking trail. They may be protected by railings to protect the public or be enhanced by a viewing tower designed to elevate visitors above the surrounding terrain or trees in order to offer panoramic views. Overlooks are frequently found in national parks, and in the U.S. along national parkways such as the Blue Ridge Parkway, which has numerous individually named overlooks for viewing the Blue Ridge Mountains and its valleys. Other overlooks are next to waterfalls, especially since mountain roads tend to follow streams. Many overlooks are accessible only by trails and wooden walkways and stairs, especially in ecologically sensitive areas. These overlooks are often wooden decks, which minimize the impact on the land by reducing the need to disturb it for construction. == History == The word viewpoint is from 1856, but it was thought to have been used as a physical sense in 1858. From time on, many scenic viewpoints have since become tourist attractions, with numerous vistas inscribed as world heritage-listed natural sites. == See also == Observation deck Observation post Stratum Pier by artist Kendall Buster == References ==" Tourist_attractions,Tourist gateway,"A tourist gateway (sometimes called a ""Tourism Gateway"" or ""Gateway City"") is a place or settlement through which tourists typically first visit on their way to a tourist attraction or tourism region. Tourist gateways may not offer significant attractions themselves. Although the term suggests that they must be passed through en route, a gateway may not be the only way to reach the tourist destination. They may be the last, largest or only settlement en route to the tourist attraction or in a tourism region, the closest in proximity to, or the first encountered within a tourism region. As such, tourist gateways are often associated with a major international or domestic airport, major road, railway station or seaport.Sometimes the terms are used in the context of information, such as websites that tourist visit in order to find out more about attractions and regions. Tourist gateways, unlike tourist destinations, may have developed a niche in their economy for the role or may have degrees of dependency on the tourist attraction or region for economic development. As such the focus of their tourism promotion is on their role in the provision of related services, such as transport, accommodation and hospitality. Sometimes these services can be in direct competition with those offered at the tourist attractions themselves. Tourist gateways may also be associated with roadside attractions and tourist traps. Often, tourist gateways are associated with a moniker such as ""Gateway to the ...""; for example, Gateway to the West. == Examples of tourist gateways == === Americas === Williams, Arizona - gateway to the Grand Canyon Iquitos, Peru - gateway to the Amazon rainforest Ushuaia, Argentina - gateway to Antarctica Green Bay and Algoma - gateways to Door County, Wisconsin === Australia === Alice Springs, Northern Territory - gateway to the Red Centre and Uluru Torquay, Victoria - gateway to the Great Ocean Road Stawell, Victoria - gateway to the Grampians National Park Karratha, Western Australia - gateway to the Pilbara Broome, Western Australia - gateway to the Kimberley Cairns, Queensland - gateway to the Great Barrier Reef Ballarat, Victoria - gateway to the Goldfields region of Victoria Bright, Victoria - gateway to the Australian Alps Devonport, Tasmania - gateway to Tasmania === Europe === Zurich - gateway to the Alps == References == == External links ==" Tourist_attractions,Tourist trap,"A tourist trap is an establishment (or group of establishments) that has been created or re-purposed with the aim of attracting tourists and their money. Tourist traps will typically provide overpriced services, entertainment, food, souvenirs and other products for tourists to purchase. Tourist trap derives from the information asymmetry between tourists and the market. == United States == In some areas, simple facilities may be a sufficient draw to entice tourists to stop. Wall Drug, in South Dakota, began its tourist trade by offering free ice water.Breezewood, Pennsylvania represents a physical tourist trap at the intersection of Interstate 70 and Interstate 76, where the two major highways are not directly connected; forcing transiting drivers off the interstate and ""into several suddenly urban blocks with traffic lights and a dense bazaar of gas stations, fast food restaurants and motels.""South of the Border is an attraction on Interstate 95 (I-95), US Highway 301 (US 301) and US 501 in Dillon, South Carolina, just south of Rowland, North Carolina. It is so named because it is just south of the border between North Carolina and South Carolina, and was the halfway point to Florida from New York in the early days of motor travel. The area is themed in tongue-in-cheek, faux-Mexican style. The rest area contains restaurants, gas stations, a video arcade, a motel, a truck stop as well as a small amusement park, a mini golf course, shopping and fireworks stores. Its mascot is Pedro, a caricature of a Mexican bandido. South of the Border is known for its roadside billboard advertisements, which begin many miles away from, and incorporates a mileage countdown to the attraction itself. The stop has since fallen on hard times as more modern hotel areas have grown along I-95. Alice's Restaurant, a restaurant in Sky Londa, California named after its founder Alice Taylor, accidentally became a tourist trap after singer Arlo Guthrie released his signature song of the same name, which was based on a totally unrelated Massachusetts restaurant established by Alice Brock. After Taylor sold the restaurant, her successors themed the restaurant after the song, adding a ""Group W bench"" for example, when they realized the confusion was good for business.A few establishments take pride in the term and embody it into their names, such as ""Da Yoopers Tourist Trap"", run by the comedy troupe Da Yoopers in Michigan’s Upper Peninsula, and ""The Tourist Trap"" at Deep Creek Lake, Maryland. == See also == Gift shop List of confidence tricks Lists of tourist attractions Overtourism Roadside attraction Tourist attraction == References ==" Tourist_attractions,Category:Tourist attractions by location, Tourist_attractions,Category:Tourist attractions by country subdivision, Tourist_attractions,Category:Defunct tourist attractions, Tourist_attractions,Category:Lists of tourist attractions, Tourist_attractions,Category:Archaeological sites,"Sites of archaeological interest, where excavations or other archaeological investigations have taken place." Tourist_attractions,Category:Arts venues, Tourist_attractions,Category:Aviation attractions, Tourist_attractions,Category:Beaches, Tourist_attractions,Category:Brothels, Tourist_attractions,Category:Bungee jumping sites, Tourist_attractions,Category:Doors Open Days, Tourist_attractions,Category:Entertainment districts, Tourist_attractions,Category:Entertainment events, Tourist_attractions,Category:Event venues, Tourist_attractions,Category:Folly buildings,"Folly buildings and structures – pavilions, pseudo-temples, and constructed ruins created in gardens and landscape parksOften designed in the neoclassical style for traditional English landscape gardens. For popular culture folly buildings, see: Novelty architecture.." Tourist_attractions,Category:Game reserves, Tourist_attractions,Category:Glass-bottomed bridges, Tourist_attractions,Category:Heraldic sites, Tourist_attractions,Category:Hiking trails, Tourist_attractions,Category:Hindu pilgrimage sites, Tourist_attractions,Category:Historic districts, Tourist_attractions,Category:Landmarks,"Originally, a landmark meant a geographic feature used by explorers and others to find their way. In modern usage, it is anything that is easily recognisable, such as a monument, building, or other structure. In American English this is extended to mean anything which might interest visitors – the British English equivalent is visitor attraction." Tourist_attractions,Category:Military attractions, Tourist_attractions,Category:Museums,"A museum is a building or institution which houses and cares for a collection of artifacts and other objects of scientific, artistic, or historical importance and makes them available for public viewing through exhibits that may be permanent or temporary. Modern museums concentrate on a particular subject or field, such as fine arts, applied arts, archaeology, anthropology, ethnology, history, cultural history, natural history, science and/or technology. Some specialize further, such as museums of modern art, local history, aviation history, agriculture, geology, etc." Tourist_attractions,Category:Nature reserves, Tourist_attractions,Category:Observation decks, Tourist_attractions,Category:Palaces,"Usage of the term ""palace"" and its equivalent in other languages varies from country to country. In some countries it is reserved for royal residences, while in others it is applied quite widely to mansions. There is a separate category for royal residences." Tourist_attractions,Category:Parks,"For science parks, research parks and technology parks: see Category:Urban planning. For Urban parks, pocket parks, parklets, municipal parks, city parks, greenway - parkways: See also Category: Urban public parks. For Regional parks, Urban open space, greenbelts: See also Category: Regional parks. For landmark gardens and landscapes open to the public: See also Category:Gardens For public botanical gardens and arboreta: See also Category: Botanical gardens For Protected areas including National parks : See also Category:Protected areas and Category:National parks" Tourist_attractions,Category:Protected areas, Tourist_attractions,Category:Pueblos, Tourist_attractions,Category:Railroad attractions, Tourist_attractions,Category:Roadside attractions,"A roadside attraction is a feature along the side of a road, that is frequently advertised with billboards to attract tourists. In general, these are places one might stop on the way to somewhere else, rather than being a final or primary destination in and of themselves." Tourist_attractions,Category:Royal residences,"This category overlaps extensively with category:Palaces, but not all royal residences are palaces and not all palaces are royal residences." Tourist_attractions,Category:Scenic routes, Tourist_attractions,Category:Scenic viewpoints, Tourist_attractions,Category:Shopping malls,"See also: Category:Shopping districts and streets, a parallel category." Tourist_attractions,Category:Show caves,"Show caves, sometimes called ""commercial caves"", are caves open for the general public without the need of special caving gear. Show caves often have paths, rails, electric lights, guided tours and often require a fee." Tourist_attractions,Category:Space-related tourist attractions,Space science and astronautics related science centers and tourist attractions. Tourist_attractions,Category:Theatres, Tourist_attractions,Category:Underground cities,"For more information, see the article Underground city." Tourist_attractions,Category:Underwater diving sites,"Underwater diving sites are specific places in bodies of water that recreational divers go to enjoy the underwater environment or are used for training purposes – Dive resorts are not dive sites, and dive sites are not dive resorts. Marine reserves, marine protected areas, lakes, and islands are generally not dive sites unless very small, with only one place used as a dive site, though they may contain dive sites. When they do they are more accurately classed as recreational diving regions. To keep the number of categories down, diving regions may be categorised with dive sites, but if a category of dive sites by country gets large it may be split into dive sites by country and dive regions by country. A terrestrial settlement is not a dive site, but may contain a dam, cave, or other water filled feature which is a dive site. The actual dive site belongs in this category. If the dive site is mentioned in an article but does not have a specific article, it may be appropriate to include in this category." Tourist_attractions,Category:Venues, Tourist_attractions,Category:Visitor centers, Tourist_attractions,Category:Waterfronts, World_Heritage_Sites,World Heritage Site,"A World Heritage Site is a landmark or area with legal protection by an international convention administered by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). World Heritage Sites are designated by UNESCO for having cultural, historical, scientific or other forms of significance. The sites are judged to contain ""cultural and natural heritage around the world considered to be of outstanding value to humanity"".To be selected, a World Heritage Site must be a somehow unique landmark which is geographically and historically identifiable and has special cultural or physical significance. For example, World Heritage Sites might be ancient ruins or historical structures, buildings, cities, deserts, forests, islands, lakes, monuments, mountains, or wilderness areas. A World Heritage Site may signify a remarkable accomplishment of humanity, and serve as evidence of our intellectual history on the planet, or it might be a place of great natural beauty. As of January 2023, a total of 1,157 World Heritage Sites (900 cultural, 218 natural, and 39 mixed properties) exist across 167 countries. With 58 selected areas, Italy is the country with the most sites on the list; China is the second with 56 sites, and Germany is the third with 51.The sites are intended for practical conservation for posterity, which otherwise would be subject to risk from human or animal trespassing, unmonitored, uncontrolled or unrestricted access, or threat from local administrative negligence. Sites are demarcated by UNESCO as protected zones. The World Heritage Sites list is maintained by the international World Heritage Program administered by the UNESCO World Heritage Committee, composed of 21 ""states parties"" that are elected by their General Assembly. The programme catalogues, names, and conserves sites of outstanding cultural or natural importance to the common culture and heritage of humanity. The programme began with the ""Convention Concerning the Protection of the World's Cultural and Natural Heritage"", which was adopted by the General Conference of UNESCO on 16 November 1972. Since then, 195 states have ratified the convention, making it one of the most widely recognised international agreements and the world's most popular cultural programme. == History == === Origin === In 1954, the government of Egypt decided to build the new Aswan High Dam, whose resulting future reservoir it would eventually inundate a large stretch of the Nile valley containing cultural treasures of ancient Egypt and ancient Nubia. In 1959, the governments of Egypt and Sudan requested UNESCO to assist them to protect and rescue the endangered monuments and sites. In 1960, the Director-General of UNESCO launched the International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia. This International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia resulted in the excavation and recording of hundreds of sites, the recovery of thousands of objects, as well as the salvage and relocation to higher ground of several important temples. The most famous of these are the temple complexes of Abu Simbel and Philae. The campaign ended in 1980 and was considered a success. To thank countries which especially contributed to the campaign's success, Egypt donated four temples; the Temple of Dendur was moved to the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City, the Temple of Debod to the Parque del Oeste in Madrid, the Temple of Taffeh to the Rijksmuseum van Oudheden in Leiden, and the Temple of Ellesyia to Museo Egizio in Turin.The project cost US$80 million (equivalent to $284.14 million in 2022), about $40 million of which was collected from 50 countries. The project's success led to other safeguarding campaigns, such as saving Venice and its lagoon in Italy, the ruins of Mohenjo-daro in Pakistan, and the Borobodur Temple Compounds in Indonesia. Together with the International Council on Monuments and Sites, UNESCO then initiated a draft convention to protect cultural heritage. === Convention and background === The convention (the signed document of international agreement) guiding the work of the World Heritage Committee was developed over a seven-year period (1965–1972). The United States initiated the idea of safeguarding places of high cultural or natural importance. A White House conference in 1965 called for a ""World Heritage Trust"" to preserve ""the world's superb natural and scenic areas and historic sites for the present and the future of the entire world citizenry"". The International Union for Conservation of Nature developed similar proposals in 1968, which were presented in 1972 at the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm. Under the World Heritage Committee, signatory countries are required to produce and submit periodic data reporting providing the committee with an overview of each participating nation's implementation of the World Heritage Convention and a 'snapshot' of current conditions at World Heritage properties.Based on the draft convention that UNESCO had initiated, a single text was eventually agreed upon by all parties, and the ""Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage"" was adopted by the General Conference of UNESCO on 16 November 1972. The Convention came into force on 17 December 1975. As of May 2023, it has been ratified by 195 states: 191 UN member states, 2 UN observer states (the Holy See and the State of Palestine), and 2 states in free association with New Zealand (the Cook Islands and Niue). Only two UN member states have not ratified the convention: Liechtenstein and Nauru. == Objectives and positive results == By assigning places as World Heritage Sites, UNESCO wants to help to pass them on to future generations. Its motivation is that ""[h]eritage is our legacy from the past, what we live with today"" and that both cultural and natural heritage are ""irreplaceable sources of life and inspiration"". UNESCO's mission with respect to World Heritage consists of eight sub targets. These include encouraging the commitment of countries and local population to World Heritage conservation in various ways, providing emergency assistance for sites in danger, offering technical assistance and professional training, and supporting States Parties' public awareness-building activities.Being listed as a World Heritage Site can positively affect the site, its environment, and interactions between them. A listed site gains international recognition and legal protection, and can obtain funds from among others the World Heritage Fund to facilitate its conservation under certain conditions. UNESCO reckons the restorations of the following four sites among its success stories: Angkor in Cambodia, the Old City of Dubrovnik in Croatia, the Wieliczka Salt Mine near Kraków in Poland, and the Ngorongoro Conservation Area in Tanzania. Additionally, the local population around a site may benefit from significantly increased tourism revenue. When there are significant interactions between people and the natural environment, these can be recognised as ""cultural landscapes"". == Nomination process == A country must first identify its significant cultural and natural sites in a document known as the Tentative List. Next, it can place sites selected from that list into a Nomination File, which is evaluated by the International Council on Monuments and Sites and the World Conservation Union. A country may not nominate sites that have not been first included on its Tentative List. The two international bodies make recommendations to the World Heritage Committee for new designations. The Committee meets once a year to determine what nominated properties to add to the World Heritage List; sometimes it defers its decision or requests more information from the country that nominated the site. There are ten selection criteria – a site must meet at least one to be included on the list. == Selection criteria == Until 2004, there were six sets of criteria for cultural heritage and four for natural heritage. In 2005, UNESCO modified these and now has one set of ten criteria. Nominated sites must be of ""outstanding universal value"" and must meet at least one of the ten criteria. === Cultural === ""To represent a masterpiece of human creative genius"" ""To exhibit an important interchange of human values, over a span of time or within a cultural area of the world, on developments in architecture or technology, monumental arts, town-planning or landscape design"" ""To bear a unique or at least exceptional testimony to a cultural tradition or to a civilization which is living, or which has disappeared"" ""To be an outstanding example of a type of building, architectural or technological ensemble or landscape which illustrates (a) significant stage(s) in human history"" ""To be an outstanding example of a traditional human settlement, land-use, or sea-use which is representative of a culture (or cultures), or human interaction with the environment especially when it has become vulnerable under the impact of irreversible change"" ""To be directly or tangibly associated with events or living traditions, with ideas, or with beliefs, with artistic and literary works of outstanding universal significance"" === Natural === ""To contain superlative natural phenomena or areas of exceptional natural beauty and aesthetic importance"" ""To be outstanding examples representing major stages of earth's history, including the record of life, significant on-going geological processes in the development of landforms, or significant geomorphic or physiographic features"" ""To be outstanding examples representing significant on-going ecological and biological processes in the evolution and development of terrestrial, fresh water, coastal and marine ecosystems and communities of plants and animals"" ""To contain the most important and significant natural habitats for in-situ conservation of biological diversity, including those containing threatened species of outstanding universal value from the point of view of science or conservation"" == Extensions and other modifications == A country may request to extend or reduce the boundaries, modify the official name, or change the selection criteria of one of its already listed sites. Any proposal for a significant boundary change or to modify the site's selection criteria must be submitted as if it were a new nomination, including first placing it on the Tentative List and then onto the Nomination File. A request for a minor boundary change, one that does not have a significant impact on the extent of the property or affect its ""outstanding universal value"", is also evaluated by the advisory bodies before being sent to the committee. Such proposals can be rejected by either the advisory bodies or the Committee if they judge it to be a significant change instead of a minor one. Proposals to change a site's official name are sent directly to the committee. == Endangerment == A site may be added to the List of World Heritage in Danger if conditions threaten the characteristics for which the landmark or area was inscribed on the World Heritage List. Such problems may involve armed conflict and war, natural disasters, pollution, poaching, or uncontrolled urbanisation or human development. This danger list is intended to increase international awareness of the threats and to encourage counteractive measures. Threats to a site can be either proven imminent threats or potential dangers that could have adverse effects on a site.The state of conservation for each site on the danger list is reviewed yearly; after this, the Committee may request additional measures, delete the property from the list if the threats have ceased or consider deletion from both the List of World Heritage in Danger and the World Heritage List. Only three sites have ever been delisted: the Arabian Oryx Sanctuary in Oman, the Dresden Elbe Valley in Germany, and the Liverpool Maritime Mercantile City in the United Kingdom. The Arabian Oryx Sanctuary was directly delisted in 2007, instead of first being put on the danger list, after the Omani government decided to reduce the protected area's size by 90 per cent. The Dresden Elbe Valley was first placed on the danger list in 2006 when the World Heritage Committee decided that plans to construct the Waldschlösschen Bridge would significantly alter the valley's landscape. In response, Dresden City Council attempted to stop the bridge's construction. However, after several court decisions allowed the building of the bridge to proceed, the valley was removed from the World Heritage List in 2009. Liverpool's World Heritage status was revoked in July 2021, following developments (Liverpool Waters and Bramley-Moore Dock Stadium) on the northern docks of the World Heritage site leading to the ""irreversible loss of attributes"" on the site.The first global assessment to quantitatively measure threats to Natural World Heritage Sites found that 63 per cent of sites have been damaged by increasing human pressures including encroaching roads, agriculture infrastructure and settlements over the last two decades. These activities endanger Natural World Heritage Sites and could compromise their unique values. Of the Natural World Heritage Sites that contain forest, 91 per cent experienced some loss since 2000. Many of them are more threatened than previously thought and require immediate conservation action.Furthermore, the destruction of cultural assets and identity-establishing sites is one of the primary goals of modern asymmetrical warfare. Therefore, terrorists, rebels and mercenary armies deliberately smash archaeological sites, sacred and secular monuments and loot libraries, archives and museums. The UN, United Nations peacekeeping and UNESCO in cooperation with Blue Shield International are active in preventing such acts. ""No strike lists"" are also created to protect cultural assets from air strikes. However, only through cooperation with the locals can the protection of World Heritage Sites, archaeological finds, exhibits and archaeological sites from destruction, looting and robbery be implemented sustainably. The founding president of Blue Shield International Karl von Habsburg summed it up with the words: ""Without the local community and without the local participants, that would be completely impossible"". == Criticism == The UNESCO-administered project has attracted criticism. This was caused by perceived under-representation of heritage sites outside Europe, disputed decisions on site selection and adverse impact of mass tourism on sites unable to manage rapid growth in visitor numbers. A large lobbying industry has grown around the awards, because World Heritage listing can significantly increase tourism returns. Site listing bids are often lengthy and costly, putting poorer countries at a disadvantage. Eritrea's efforts to promote Asmara are one example.In 2016, the Australian government was reported to have successfully lobbied for the World Heritage Site Great Barrier Reef conservation efforts to be removed from a UNESCO report titled ""World Heritage and Tourism in a Changing Climate"". The Australian government's actions, involving considerable expense for lobbying and visits for diplomats, were in response to their concern about the negative impact that an ""at risk"" label could have on tourism revenue at a previously designated UNESCO World Heritage Site. In 2021, international scientists recommended UNESCO to put the Great Barrier Reef on the endangered list, as global climate change had caused a further negative state of the corals and water quality. Again, the Australian government campaigned against this, and in July 2021, the World Heritage Committee, made up diplomatic representatives of 21 countries, ignored UNESCO's assessment, based on studies of scientists, ""that the reef was clearly in danger from climate change and so should be placed on the list."" According to environmental protection groups, this ""decision was a victory for cynical lobbying and that Australia, as custodians of the world's biggest coral reef, was now on probation.""Several listed locations, such as Casco Viejo in Panama and Hội An in Vietnam, have struggled to strike a balance between the economic benefits of catering to greatly increased visitor numbers after the recognition and preserving the original culture and local communities.Another criticism is that there is a homogeneity to these sites, which contain similar styles, visitor centres, etc., meaning that a lot of the individuality of these sites has been removed to become more attractive to tourists.UNESCO has also been criticized for alleged geographic bias, racism, and colorism in world heritage inscription. A major chunk of all world heritage inscriptions are located in regions whose populations generally have lighter skin, including Europe, East Asia, and North America. == Statistics == The World Heritage Committee has divided the world into five geographic zones which it calls regions: Africa, Arab states, Asia and the Pacific, Europe and North America, and Latin America and the Caribbean. Russia and the Caucasus states are classified as European, while Mexico and the Caribbean are classified as belonging to the Latin America and Caribbean zone. The UNESCO geographic zones also give greater emphasis on administrative, rather than geographic associations. Hence, Gough Island, located in the South Atlantic, is part of the Europe and North America region because the British government nominated the site. The table below includes a breakdown of the sites according to these zones and their classification as of January 2023: === Countries with 15 or more sites === This overview lists the 23 countries with 15 or more World Heritage Sites: == See also == GoUNESCO – initiative to promote awareness and provide tools for laypersons to engage with heritage Index of conservation articles Lists of World Heritage Sites Former UNESCO World Heritage Sites Memory of the World Programme UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists Ramsar Convention – international agreement on wetlands recognition == Footnotes == == References == === Bibliography === == External links == UNESCO World Heritage portal – Official website (in English and French) The World Heritage List – Official searchable list of all Inscribed Properties KML file of the World Heritage List – Official KML version of the list for Google Earth and NASA Worldwind UNESCO Information System on the State of Conservation of World Heritage properties – Searchable online tool with over 3,400 reports on World Heritage Sites Official overview of the World Heritage Forest Program Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage – Official 1972 Convention Text in seven languages The 1972 Convention at Law-Ref.org – Fully indexed and crosslinked with other documents Protected Planet – View all Natural World Heritage Sites in the World Database on Protected Areas World Heritage Site – Smithsonian Ocean Portal UNESCO chair in ICT to develop and promote sustainable tourism in World Heritage Sites UNESCO World Heritage Sites showcased in Google Arts & Culture" World_Heritage_Sites,Lists of World Heritage Sites,"This is a list of the lists of World Heritage Sites. A World Heritage Site is a place that is listed by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) as having special cultural or physical significance. == General lists == == Lists by continent == === Africa === === Americas === === Asia === === Europe === === Oceania === List of World Heritage Sites in Oceania (Australia, Kiribati, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, and other Pacific Islands)" World_Heritage_Sites,Organization of World Heritage Cities,"The Organization of World Heritage Cities (OWHC) is an international non-profit, non-governmental organization of 250 cities in which sites of the UNESCO World Heritage list are located. It was founded in 1993 in Fez, Morocco, during the second International Symposium of World Heritage Cities. The headquarters of the OWHC are located in Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. Altogether the 250 member cities of the OWHC have a population of more than 130 million. == History == During the first International Symposium of World Heritage Cities in Québec City in 1991, the participating 41 cities adopted the Québec City Declaration. This declaration states the desire to build a network of World Heritage Cities. At the second International Symposium of World Heritage Cities in Fez, Morocco, the OWHC was founded in 1993. 56 participating cities decided on the mission, goals and powers of the organisation. At the Founding General Assembly, the member cities elected the first Board of Directors and Secretary General. Since the first General Assembly, the member cities have been meeting every two years. Listed below are the years, locations and topics of the previous General Assemblies. 1995 Bergen (Norway): Communication between World Heritage Cities 1997 Evora (Portugal): Tourism and World Heritage – Challenges and Opportunities 1999 Santago de Compostela (Spain): Innovation in the Management of World Heritage Cities 2001 Puebla (Mexico): Prevention and Protection Measures for World Heritage Cities in Case of Disaster 2003 Rhodes (Greece) 2005 Cusco (Peru): Heritage of Humanity, Heritage with Humanity 2007 Kazan (Russian Federation): Heritage and Economics 2009 Quito (Ecuador): The revitalization of historic centres: how to involve all social actors? 2011 Sintra (Portugal): World Heritage Cities and Climate Change 2013 Oaxaca (Mexico): Heritage Cities, Sustainable Cities 2015 Arequipa (Peru): World Heritage Cities, Resilent Cities 2017 Ahmedabad (India): World Heritage cities 2017 Asmara (Eritrea): World Heritage cities, Africa's Modernest city == Organization == Any city may become a member of the OWHC if it possesses the following two characteristics. Firstly the city has to be the location of a living urban fabric of historic or contemporary interest. Its outstanding universal value has been recognized by the UNESCO and therefore has been registered in the World Heritage List. Secondly the city has to adhere to the values of the OWHC. The General Assembly is the paramount authority of the OWHC. In it the member cities are represented by their mayor. To be able to take part in the General Assembly and have the right to vote the city has to be a member in good standing (pay the annual membership fee). The General Assembly meets every two years. Special Assemblies may be called by members or the Board of Directors. At the General Assembly the mayors discuss issues concerning the mission and objectives of the OWHC and formulate relevant recommendations to the Board of Directors. The Assembly guides the activities of the Organization, studies and approves the Organization's work program and controls the financial policy of the Organization. The Board of Directors consists of eight mayors of members in good standing. It is elected by the General Assembly for two years. Directors may be elected two more times and therefore be directors for a maximum of six consecutive years. The Board of Directors meets at least once a year. Among its duties are the implementation of the requests formulated and the resolutions adopted by the General Assembly and the planning of the organizations activities according to set up priorities. Furthermore, the Board of Directors examines the financial reports, authorizes the annual budget plan, prepares budget estimates and proposes their adoption to the general assembly. The Board of Directors also draws up the organization chart, the recruiting criteria and standards for the personnel of the General Secretariat and performs any other duty that could be assigned to it by the General Assembly. It is empowered to take all the measures required for the administration of the Organization and the attainment of its objectives. The Board of Directors elects the President of the OWHC from among themselves. He is the chief executive officer of the OWHC and is tasked with the supervision, administration and management of the affairs of the Organization. He represents the OWHC at the national and international levels and binds the Organization in official acts. The General Secretariat is headed by the Secretary General who is appointed by the General Assembly for a four-year term. He oversees the execution of mandates by the members, the day-to-day administration and personnel management and hiring. He also coordinates the activities of the OWHC, prepares the budget and the financial reports and ensures that the decisions of the Board of Directors and those of the members taken at the General Assembly are carried out. The General Secretariat is supported in its duties by seven Regional Secretariats. They are groupings of cities that share cultural, linguistic or geographical affinities and/or have the same concerns and needs. Every member city of the OWHC is allowed to be part of one or more regions. The members of one region have to choose a city from among themselves as domicile for the Regional Secretariat, choose a Regional Coordinator and meet at least once a year. They serve as a link between the member cities of their particular region and the General Secretariat. The seven Regional Secretariats are Regensburg (Germany) for the North-West European Region Budapest (Hungary) for the Central and Eastern European Region Córdoba (Spain) for the South-European and Mediterranean Region Valparaiso (Chile) for the Latinamerican and Caribbean Region Kazan (Russian Federation) for the Euro-Asian Region Tunis (Tunisia) for Africa and the Middle East Gyeongju (South Korea) for the Asia-Pacific RegionTo support the General Secretariat the Regional Secretariats assist in producing documents intended for members, data collection and the organization of relevant events. They aim to make it possible for each member to participate more extensively in the activities of the Organization, to foster communication and the exchange of information amongst themselves and to promote the development of the Organization and its presence and influence. To accomplish those aims the Regional Secretariats organize activities intended to promote the Organization's values and objectives. The OWHC has five official languages: English, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Arabic. Of those English, French and Spanish are working languages. == Goals == During the founding of the OWHC in 1993 the member cities defined the goals and mission the Organization should have in the future. At the fourth General Assembly in Evora (Portugal) in 1997 the OWHC confirmed the Organization's association with the UNESCO and their joint efforts regarding World Heritage Cities in the UNESCO-OWHC agreement. The OWHC aims for the implementation of the World Heritage Convention (Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage adopted by the UNESCO in 1972). It encourages cooperation and exchange of information and expertise among its member cities on both regional and international levels. The OWHC works in close collaboration with other organizations pursuing similar goals while promoting action likely to support the efforts of cities located in developing countries. It assists members to adapt and improve their management methods in relation to the specific requirements of having a site inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List. Moreover, the organization ensures better links between research undertaken by specialists and the needs of the local managements. In addition the Organization intends to help develop a sense of solidarity among its member cities and to sensitize the populations to heritage values and their protection. == Tasks and projects == The OWHC organizes meetings on international and regional levels. In addition to the biennial General Assemblies there are World Congresses, conferences, seminars and workshops. All those meetings deal with the challenges in the realm of management and strategies pertaining to the preservation and development of historic cities. To accomplish its goals the OWHC additionally offers various activities, programs and projects which aim to promote and support the maintenance, recognition and development of world heritage. Current projects include Youth on the Trail of World Heritage, City2City, The Jean-Paul-L’Allier Prize for Heritage, an International Video Production Competition, the Solidarity day of World Heritage Cities, Mayors&Heritage and Case Studies. == Member cities == === Africa === Agadez ( Niger) Cidade Velha ( Cape Verde) Dakar ( Senegal) Grand-Bassam ( Côte d'Ivoire) Harar Jugol ( Ethiopia) Island of Mozambique ( Mozambique) Kashusha ( Democratic Republic of the Congo) Lamu ( Kenya) Mombasa ( Kenya) Saint-Louis ( Senegal) Timbuktu ( Mali) Zanzibar ( Tanzania) === Arab states === Aleppo ( Syria) Algiers ( Algeria) Cairo ( Egypt) Damascus ( Syria) Erbil ( Iraq) Essaouira ( Morocco) Fez ( Morocco) Ghadames ( Libya) Ghardaïa ( Algeria) Jeddah ( Saudi Arabia) Kairouan ( Tunisia) Marrakesh ( Morocco) Meknes ( Morocco) Muharraq ( Bahrain) Rabat ( Morocco) Sana'a ( Yemen) Shibam ( Yemen) Sousse ( Tunisia) Tétouan ( Morocco) Tunis ( Tunisia) Zabid ( Yemen) === Asia and the Pacific === Ahmedabad ( India) Akko ( Israel) Aktau ( Kazakhstan, observer) Amer ( India) Andong ( South Korea) Anuradhapura ( Sri Lanka) Bam ( Iran) Bergama ( Turkey) Bhaktapur ( Nepal) Boeun ( South Korea) Bursa ( Turkey) Buyeo County ( South Korea) Chengde ( China) Denpasar ( Indonesia) Diyarbakir ( Turkey) Dujiangyan ( China) Galle ( Sri Lanka) George Town ( Malaysia) Gianyar ( Indonesia) Gochang County ( South Korea) Gongju ( South Korea) Goris City ( Armenia, observer) Gwangju ( South Korea) Gyeongju ( South Korea) Haenam ( South Korea) Hapcheon County ( South Korea) Hoi An ( Vietnam) Hué ( Vietnam) Hwasun County ( South Korea) Icherisheher ( Azerbaijan) Istanbul ( Turkey) Iksan ( South Korea) Jerusalem ( Israel) Jongno-Gu ( South Korea) Kandy ( Sri Lanka) Karangasem ( Indonesia, observer) Kathmandu ( Nepal) Khiva ( Uzbekistan) Konya ( Turkey) Kyoto ( Japan) Lalitpur (Patan) ( Nepal) Levuka ( Fiji) Lijiang ( China) Luang Prabang ( Laos) Macao ( China) Melaka ( Malaysia) Miagao ( Philippines) Nara ( Japan) Pyay ( Myanmar, observer) Safranbolu ( Turkey) Selçuk ( Turkey) Seongbuk ( South Korea) Singapore ( Singapore) Surakarta ( Indonesia, observer) Suwon ( South Korea) Suzhou ( China) Tel-Aviv-Yafo ( Israel) Turkistan ( Kazakhstan) Vigan ( Philippines) Yangsan ( South Korea) Yazd ( Iran) Yeongju ( South Korea) Yerevan ( Armenia, observer) === Europe === Alcalá de Henares ( Spain) Amsterdam ( Netherlands) Angra do Heroísmo ( Portugal) Aranjuez ( Spain) Augsburg ( Germany) Avila ( Spain) Baeza ( Spain) Bamberg ( Germany) Banská Štiavnica ( Slovakia) Bardejov ( Slovakia) Bath ( United Kingdom) Beemster ( Netherlands) Bergen ( Norway) Berlin ( Germany) Bern ( Switzerland) Bernau ( Germany) Biertan ( Romania) Bolgar ( Russia) Bordeaux ( France) Brugge ( Belgium) Brussels ( Belgium) Budapest ( Hungary) Cáceres ( Spain) Carcassonne ( France) Český Krumlov ( Czech Republic) Chorá of Patmos ( Greece) Coimbra ( Portugal) Córdoba ( Spain) Cuenca ( Spain) Derbent ( Russia) Dessau ( Germany) Dubrovnik ( Croatia) Edinburgh ( United Kingdom) Ejmiatsin ( Armenia) Elvas ( Portugal) Évora ( Portugal) Fontainebleau ( France) Granada ( Spain) Graz ( Austria) Guimarães ( Portugal) Hamburg ( Germany) Ibiza ( Spain) Istanbul ( Turkey) Karlskrona ( Sweden) Kazan ( Russia) Kolding ( Denmark) Kotor ( Montenegro) Kraków ( Poland) Kutná Hora ( Czech Republic) L'viv ( Ukraine) Le Havre ( France) Lübeck ( Germany) Luxembourg ( Luxembourg) Lyon ( France) Mérida ( Spain) Modena ( Italy) Mont-Saint-Michel ( France) Moscow ( Russia) Mostar ( Bosnia and Herzegovina) Nancy ( France) Naumburg ( Germany) Nessebar ( Bulgaria) Notodden ( Norway) Novgorod ( Russia) Ohrid ( Macedonia) Oporto ( Portugal) Oviedo ( Spain) Padula ( Italy) Palazzolo Acreide ( Italy) Paris ( France) Potsdam ( Germany) Prague ( Czech Republic) Provins ( France) Quedlinburg ( Germany) Rauma ( Finland) Regensburg ( Germany) Rhodes ( Greece) Riga ( Latvia) Roros ( Norway) Rotterdam ( Netherlands) Saint Petersburg ( Russia) Salamanca ( Spain) Salzburg ( Austria) San Cristóbal de La Laguna ( Spain) San Gimignano ( Italy) Santiago de Compostela ( Spain) Segovia ( Spain) Sighisoara ( Romania) Sintra ( Portugal) Split ( Croatia) Stockholm ( Sweden) Stralsund ( Germany) Strasbourg ( France) Suzdal ( Russia) Tallinn ( Estonia) Tarragona ( Spain) Telč ( Czech Republic) Telford ( United Kingdom) Tinn ( Norway) Toledo ( Spain) Torun ( Poland) Trebíc ( Czech Republic) Trogir ( Croatia) Úbeda ( Spain) Urbino ( Italy) Valletta ( Malta) Vatican City ( Holy See) Vienna ( Austria) Vilnius ( Lithuania) Vinje ( Norway) Visby ( Sweden) Warsaw ( Poland) Wismar ( Germany) Yaroslavl ( Russia) Zamość ( Poland) === Americas === Arequipa ( Peru) Belo Horizonte ( Brazil) Brasilia ( Brazil) Bridgetown ( Barbados) Camaguey ( Cuba) Campeche ( Mexico) Cartagena ( Colombia) Colonia del Sacramento ( Uruguay) Coro ( Venezuela) Cuenca ( Ecuador) Cuernavaca ( Mexico) Cuzco ( Peru) Diamantina ( Brazil) Fray Bentos ( Uruguay) Guadalajara ( Mexico) Guanajuato ( Mexico) Havana ( Cuba) Lima ( Peru) Lunenburg ( Canada) Mexico City ( Mexico) Morelia ( Mexico) Oaxaca ( Mexico) Olinda ( Brazil) Ouro Preto ( Brazil) Panama ( Panama) Philadelphia ( United States) Potosí ( Bolivia) Puebla ( Mexico) Quebec ( Canada) Querétaro ( Mexico) Quito ( Ecuador) Rimac ( Peru) Rio de Janeiro ( Brazil) Salvador de Bahia ( Brazil) San Antonio ( United States) San Miguel de Allende ( Mexico) San Pablo Villa de Mitla ( Mexico) Santa Cruz de Mompox ( Colombia) São Luís ( Brazil) St George's ( Bermuda) Sucre ( Bolivia) Tlacotalpan ( Mexico) Trinidad ( Cuba) Trujillo ( Peru, observer) Valparaíso ( Chile) Willemstad ( Curaçao) Xochimilco ( Mexico) Zacatecas ( Mexico) == See also == List of micro-regional organizations == References == http://www.ovpm.org/ https://web.archive.org/web/20160305044101/http://www.ovpm.org/sites/ovpm/files/documents/general_by-laws.pdf == Links == Cities" World_Heritage_Sites,World Heritage Sites by country,"As of January 2023, there are a total of 1,157 World Heritage Sites located across 167 countries, of which 900 are cultural, 218 are natural and 39 are mixed properties. The countries have been divided by the World Heritage Committee into five geographic zones: Africa, Arab States, Asia and the Pacific, Europe and North America, and Latin America and the Caribbean. With 58 selected areas, Italy is the country with the most sites on the list.Of the 195 state parties of the World Heritage Convention, 28 have no properties inscribed on the World Heritage List: The Bahamas, Bhutan, Brunei, Burundi, Comoros, Cook Islands, Djibouti, Equatorial Guinea, Eswatini, Grenada, Guinea-Bissau, Guyana, Kuwait, Liberia, Maldives, Monaco, Niue, Rwanda, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Samoa, São Tomé and Príncipe, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Sudan, Timor-Leste, Tonga, Trinidad and Tobago, and Tuvalu. == List of countries with World Heritage Sites == == Countries with major concentrations of World Heritage Sites == This overview lists the 32 countries with 10 or more World Heritage Sites: == See also == Index of conservation articles Lists of World Heritage Sites Former UNESCO World Heritage Sites List of World Heritage in Danger List of World Heritage Sites by year of inscription World Heritage Earthen Architecture Programme § Sites == Notes == == References == == External links == UNESCO World Heritage Sites – Official website List of UNESCO World Heritage Sites – Official website World Heritage Site – World Heritage Details website 360° panophotography – The World Heritage List in pano-photography and virtual tours VRheritage.org – Documentation of World Heritage Sites UNESCO World Heritage List – Complete list with links and map of all sites whc.unesco.org – The Official World Heritage List in Google Earth (en français) whc.kmz – The World Heritage List in Google Earth (en français) Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage at Law-Ref.org – Fully indexed and crosslinked with other documents Organization of World Heritage Cities – Dealing with urban sites only" World_Heritage_Sites,International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia,"The International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia was the relocation of 22 monuments in Lower Nubia, in Southern Egypt and northern Sudan, between 1960 and 1980. The success of the project, in particular the creation of a coalition of 50 countries behind the project, led to the creation of the World Heritage Convention in 1972, and thus to the modern system of World Heritage Sites.The project began as a result of the building of the Aswan Dam, at the Nile's first cataract (shallow rapids), a location which defined the traditional boundary of Ancient Egypt and Nubia. The building of the dam was to result in the creation of Lake Nasser, which would submerge the banks of the Nile along its entire 479 km (298 mi) length south of the dam – flooding the entire area of historical Lower Nubia. Vittorino Veronese, director general of UNESCO described it in 1960: ""It is not easy to choose between a heritage of the past and the present well-being of a people, living in need in the shadow of one of history's most splendid legacies, it is not easy to choose between temples and crops.""It was described in the UNESCO Courier as ""the greatest archaeological rescue operation of all time"".In April 1979, the monuments were inscribed on the World Heritage List as the Nubian Monuments from Abu Simbel to Philae, as one of the second group of properties added to the list (the first 12 had been added in 1978). == Overview == In 1959, an international donations campaign was launched by Egypt and Sudan to save the monuments of Lower Nubia: the southernmost relics of the Ancient Egyptian civilization were under threat from the impending creation of Lake Nasser, that was about to result from the construction of the Aswan High Dam.The number of relocated monuments have been stated as 22 or 24 depending on how an individual site is defined. Only one archaeological site in Lower Nubia, Qasr Ibrim, remains in its original location and above water; previously a cliff-top settlement, it was transformed into an island. The relocated sites can be grouped as follows: Two temple groups moved nearby to nearly identical sites Eleven temples rebuilt and grouped in three oases overlooking Lake Nasser Seven temples placed in two museums Five sent to Western museums as ""grants-in-return"" for technical and financial assistanceThe list of relocated monuments is as follows: === Historical images, monuments in situ === == Description and contributions == === Abu Simbel === One scheme to save the Abu Simbel temples was based on an idea by William MacQuitty to build a clear freshwater dam around the temples, with the water inside kept at the same height as the Nile. There were to be underwater viewing chambers. In 1962 the idea was made into a proposal by architects Jane Drew and Maxwell Fry and civil engineer Ove Arup. They considered that raising the temples ignored the effect of erosion of the sandstone by desert winds. However, the proposal, though acknowledged to be extremely elegant, was rejected.The salvage of the Abu Simbel temples began in 1964 by a multinational team of archeologists, engineers and skilled heavy equipment operators working together under the UNESCO banner; it cost some US$40 million at the time (equal to $300 million in 2017 dollars). Between 1964 and 1968, the entire site was carefully cut into large blocks (up to 30 tons, averaging 20 tons), dismantled, lifted and reassembled in a new location 65 metres higher and 200 metres back from the river, in one of the greatest challenges of archaeological engineering in history. Some structures were even saved from under the waters of Lake Nasser. === Philae === In 1902, the Aswan Low Dam was completed on the Nile River by the British. This threatened to submerge many ancient landmarks, including the temple complex of Philae. The height of the dam was raised twice, from 1907 to 1912 and from 1929 to 1934, and the island of Philae was nearly always flooded. In fact, the only times that the complex was not underwater was when the dam's sluices were open from July to October. During this period it was proposed that the temples be relocated, piece by piece, to nearby islands, such as Bigeh or Elephantine. However, the temples' foundations and other architectural supporting structures were strengthened instead. Although the buildings were physically secure, the island's attractive vegetation and the colors of the temples' reliefs were washed away. Also, the bricks of the Philae temples soon became encrusted with silt and other debris carried by the Nile. With each inundation the situation worsened and in the 1960s the island was submerged up to a third of the buildings all year round.The work began in 1972, and in 1974 a large coffer dam was built, constructed of two rows of steel plates between which a 1 million cubic metres (35 million cubic feet) of sand was tipped. Any water that seeped through was pumped away. Next the monuments were cleaned and measured, by using photogrammetry, a method that enables the exact reconstruction of the original size of the building blocks that were used by the ancients. Then every building was dismantled into about 40,000 units from 2 to 25 tons, and then transported to the nearby Island of Agilkia, situated on higher ground some 500 metres (1,600 ft) away. Foundations of the Philae monuments were ready on Agilkia by April 1977, and the transfer itself took place between 1977 and 1980. === Individual Egyptian campaigns === In addition to participating directly in the high profile salvage operations of Abu Simbel and Philae, the Egyptian Antiquities Organization carried out the rescue of many smaller temples and monuments alone using their own financial and technical means. As early as 1960 Egypt had started to rescue the temples of Taffa, Debod and Qertassi, followed by Dakka and Maharraqa in 1961 and Dendur in 1962. The temples of Wadi es-Sebua and Beit el Wali and the rock tomb of Pennut at Aniba were moved in 1964 with the support of a US grant, whilst the subsequent re-erection was carried out with Egyptian resources. The Temple of Derr was rescued in 1965, and the temples of Gerf Husein, the chapel of Abu Oda (cut out of rock), the chapels of Qasr Ibrim (the rest of which has remained in situ), and many rock inscriptions and drawings, were also saved. === West German operation at Kalabsha === Early in the campaign, the West German authorities offered to dismantle and re-erect the Temple of Kalabsha, the largest temple in all of Lower Nubia, with costs paid by West Germany. Germany's interest in making a significant contribution stemmed from its Egyptological heritage, including Lepsius' milestone work Denkmäler aus Ägypten und Äthiopien, as more specifically the work of Franz Christian Gau who had documented Kalabsha as early as 1819. === French operation at Amada === In addition to the work of French archaeologists at Abu Simbel, the French government provided significant technical and financial support for the removal of the Temple of Amada. Amada was considered ""one of the most distinctive and best preserved examples of the art of the 18th dynasty."" === Wider archaeological campaign === Given the impending flooding of a wide area, Egypt and Sudan encouraged archaeological teams from across the world to carry out work as broadly as possible. Approximately 40 teams from across the world came to the region, to explore an area of approximately 500 km in length.In addition to the relocation operations, many countries participated in excavation and preservation work. Some of this work took place at the CEDAE (Centre d'Étude et de Documentation sur l'Ancienne Égypte, in English the Documentation and Study Centre for the History of the Art and Civilization of Ancient Egypt), founded in Cairo in 1955 to coordinate the academic efforts: Egypt: Five campaigns by the University of Cairo at Aniba. One campaign by the University of Alexandria at Gebel Adda. Eight excavation campaigns by the Antiquities Service on various sites. Three campaigns by the Antiquities Service for cutting out rock drawings. Removal of eight monuments, work in two others, dismantling of the front part of the temple of Amada and financial contribution to the work for saving this temple and those of Wadi es-Sebua, Beit el-Wali and Aniba. Sudan: Since 1960, successive expeditions by the Antiquities Service, led by a Unesco expert, for a general survey of Sudanese Nubia; excavations at some of the most important sites.Argentina: Three archaeological campaigns in the Sudan by the National University of La Plata Austria: Six archaeological campaigns in Egypt by the University of Vienna, in Egypt. Sending of an epigraphist to the CEDAE. Belgium: Sending of three experts to the CEDAE. Photogrammetric and epigraphic records of five monuments in the Sudan. Contribution to the cost of transferring the temple of Semna, Sudan. Canada: One archaeological campaign in Egypt by the Royal Ontario Museum Czechoslovakia: Five expeditions in Egypt by the Institute of Classical Archaeology of Charles University Denmark, Finland, Norway, Sweden: Four campaigns in Sudan by a joint mission. Finland alone: General surveying to the south of Gemai (near Wadi Halfa in Sudan). France: Six campaigns in Egypt by the Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale. Two campaigns in Egypt by the University of Strasbourg. Photogrammetric study. Sending of nine experts to the CEDAE. Removal and reconstruction of the Temple of Amada, together with Egypt. Seven campaigns in Sudan by the Commission Nationale des Fouilles"". Payment of the costs involved in transferring the temple of Aksha, Sudan West Germany: Three campaigns by the German Archaeological Institute East Germany: Expeditions by the German National Academy of Sciences Leopoldina to record the rock inscriptions and drawings and the ground-plan of the ruins of Attiri, Sudan. Ghana: Three campaigns in the Sudan by the University of Ghana Hungary: One campaign in Egypt by Museum of Fine Arts (Budapest) India: One campaign in Egypt by the Archaeological Survey of India Italy: Six campaigns in Egypt by the University of Milan, as well as the sending of three experts to the CEDAE. One campaign in Egypt by the Sapienza University of Rome. Three campaigns in Egypt by Museo Egizio (Turin), including financial contribution from city and museum for cutting out of the chapel of the Temple of Ellesyia. Experimental work with sounding methods by the Fondazione Lerici. Netherlands: Two campaigns by Leyden Museum, in Egypt. Preliminary studies for saving the Island of Philae. Contribution to the cost of saving the temple of Kumna (Sudan). Poland: One campaign in Egypt and four in Sudan by the Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology University of Warsaw. Sending of four architects to the CEDAE. Spain: Four excavation campaigns and four campaigns to record and cut out rock inscriptions, in Egypt. Three excavation campaigns, in the Sudan. Switzerland: Two excavation campaigns in Egypt by the Schweizerisches Institut für Ägyptische Bauforschung und Altertumskunde in Kairo, one in co-operation with the University of Chicago, and one in co-operation with the Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale. Architectural records of a temple and leadership of the Antiquities service expedition to cut out rock inscriptions in 1964. Sending of an expert to the CEDAE by the Swiss National Science Foundation. United Kingdom: Four campaigns in Egypt and two in Sudan by the Egypt Exploration Society. Two campaigns by the Egypt Exploration Society and the University of London for the general survey of Nubia. Sending of two experts to the CEDAE. Sending of an epigraphist (in co-operation with Brown University). Contribution to the dismantling of the temple of Buhen. United States: In Egypt: Four campaigns by the University of Chicago in Egypt, including one in co-operation with the Swiss Institute of Architectural Research. Complete surveying and recording of a temple by the University of Chicago. Four campaigns by Yale and Pennsylvania Universities. Pre-history research on the Abu Simbel site by Columbia University. Four campaigns by Yale University. Sending of an epigraphist by Brown University (Provi-dence) in collaboration with the Egypt Exploration Society. Four campaigns by the Museum of New Mexico (pre-history survey). Four campaigns by the American Research Centre. Contribution by the United States Government for saving the temples of Beit el- Wali, Wadi es-Sebua and Aniba. In Sudan: Three excavation campaigns by the University of Chicago. One pre-history survey campaign by Columbia University. Three pre-history survey campaigns by the Museum of New Mexico. Two excavation campaigns and one architectural survey campaign by the University of California. Sending of an epigraphist by Brown University (Providence). Three pre-history investigation campaigns by the University of Colorado Museum. Contribution by the United States Government for the transfer and re-erection of the temple of Buhen. Soviet Union: One survey and excavation campaign, in Egypt. General surveying and recording of rock inscriptions, in Egypt. Yugoslavia: Sending of two architects to the CEDAE. Removal of Christian wall paintings (two experts), in Egypt. Removal of Christian wall paintings (two experts), in the Sudan. === Financial contributions === The table below summarizes the contributions towards the project by the global coalition of nations. The vast majority of these contributions funded the operations at Abu Simbel and Philae. == Timeline == A timeline of the key dates of the campaign is shown below: == World Heritage Site == In April 1979, the monuments were inscribed on the World Heritage List as the ""Nubian Monuments from Abu Simbel to Philae"". The inscribed area includes ten sites, five of which were relocated (all south of the city of Aswan), and five of which remain in their original position (near to the city of Aswan):Relocated sites, south of the Aswan Low Dam Abu Simbel New Amada New Wadi Sebua New Kalabsha Philae temple complex (Agilkia Island)Sites in their original location, north of the Aswan Low Dam – although these five sites are grouped within the ""Nubian Monuments from Abu Simbel to Philae"", they are neither Nubian, nor between Abu Simbel and Philae Qubbet el-Hawa (Old and Middle Kingdom Tombs) Ruins of town of Elephantine Stone quarries and Unfinished obelisk, Aswan Monastery of St. Simeon, Aswan Fatimid Cemetery of Aswan == Gallery == == Bibliography == === UNESCO publications === A Common trust: the preservation of the ancient monuments of Nubia, 1960, UNESCO CUA.60/D.22/A Save the treasures of Nubia: UNESCO launches a world appeal, 1960, UNESCO Courier Abu Simbel: now or never, 1961, UNESCO Courier Nubia's sands reveal their last secrets, 1964, UNESCO Courier Victory in Nubia: the greatest archaeological rescue operation of all time, 1980, UNESCO Courier Säve-Söderbergh, Torgny (1987). Temples and Tombs of Ancient Nubia: The International Rescue Campaign at Abu Simbel, Philae and Other Sites. Thames and Hudson. ISBN 978-92-3-102383-5. Retrieved 12 October 2022. Success stories, 2019, UNESCO === Other publications === Desroches-Noblecourt, Christiane (1993). La Grande Nubiade ou Le parcours d'une égyptologue. Le Livre de poche (in French). Stock. ISBN 978-2-253-06366-7. Retrieved 11 November 2022. Larson, J.A. (2006). Lost Nubia: A Centennial Exhibit of Photographs from the 1905-1907 Egyptian Expedition of the University of Chicago (PDF). Oriental Institute Museum publications. Oriental Institute. ISBN 978-1-885923-45-5. Retrieved 11 November 2022. Zurinaga Fernández-Toribio, Salomé (6 January 2017). ""Rescue Archaeology and Spanish Journalism: The Abu Simbel Operation"". AP: Online Journal in Public Archaeology. JAS Arqueologia. 3: 46. doi:10.23914/ap.v3i0.29. ISSN 2171-6315. Allais, Lucia (2012). ""The Design of the Nubian Desert: Monuments, Mobility, and the Space of Global Culture"". Governing by Design: Architecture, Economy, and Politics in the Twentieth Century. The Aggregate Architectural History Collaborative. University of Pittsburgh Press. pp. 179ff. ISBN 978-0-8229-7789-6. Retrieved 12 October 2022. See also: [1] == See also == Tabqa Dam#Rescue excavations in the Lake Assad region == References == == External links == Video on YouTube Video on YouTube Video on YouTube" World_Heritage_Sites,Kakum National Park,"Kakum National Park, located in the coastal environs of the Central Region of Ghana, covers an area of 375 square kilometres (145 sq mi). Established in 1931 as a reserve, it was gazetted as a national park only in 1992 after an initial survey of avifauna was conducted. The area is covered with tropical forest. The uniqueness of this park lies in the fact that it was established at the initiative of the local people and not by the State Department of wildlife who are responsible for wildlife preservation in Ghana. It is one of only 3 locations in Africa with a canopy walkway, which is 350 metres (1,150 ft) long and connects seven tree tops which provides access to the forest.The most notable endangered species of fauna in the park are Diana monkey, giant bongo antelope, yellow-backed duiker and African elephant. It is also an Important Bird Area recognized by the Bird Life International with the bird area fully overlapping the park area. The bird inventory confirmed 266 species in the park, including eight species of global conservation concern. One of these species of concern is the white-breasted guineafowl. Nine species of hornbill and the grey parrot have been recorded. And it also has more than 600 butterflies as well, and a new species was discovered in 1993. As of 2012, the densest population of forest elephants in Ghana is located in Kakum.The Museums and Monuments Board of the Republic of Ghana has proposed that UNESCO declare the park a natural World Heritage Site under criteria vii and x. The submission made in 2000 is listed under the tentative List of World Heritage Sites. == History == In 1931, the area drained by the headwater catchment of the Kakum River was declared a forest reserve and managed by the Forestry Division. During this period, logging operations were prevalent, particularly of the mahogany (Khaya ivorensis) tree species. The logging operations continued till 1989 when the management of the reserve was transferred to the Wildlife Department.A Feasibility Study and Preliminary 5-year Management Plan for the development of Kakum National Park as an ecotourism destination were developed in 1990 under a project conducted for the United Nations Development Program (Dudley 1990). The Feasibility Study included preliminary biodiversity assessments of the flora and fauna of Kakum Forest Reserve and adjoining Assin-Attandanso Forest Reserve, and an elephant population survey (Dudley 1990; Dudley, Mensah-Ntiamoah,& Kpelle 1992; Dudley 1995). The Feasibility Study and Preliminary 5-year Management Plan were developed in a collaborative and consultative process involving a consulting biologist, forestry officials, wildlife officials, local communities, Ghanaian universities, regional government officials, and other key stakeholders (Dudley 1992). It must be recognized that one, Mr. Ebenezer Kwasi Agbley, the then Central Regional Manager for Ghana Tourist Board gave birth to this dream under a program he initiated and implemented - Tourism Development Scheme for Central Region (TODSCER)which was expanded and became CENTRAL REGION DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM under a later created Commission - Central Region Development Commission(CECECOM). He showcased the TODSCER program in America and drew a number of sponsoring institutions both bilateral and multi-lateral from the donor community for the project to its maturity. The project later brought on board Game & Wildlife to manage and maintain the Park. In 1992, the Wildlife Department gazetted Kakum to be a park under the Wildlife Reserves Regulations (Ll 1525) as the Kakum Conservation Area including the Assin Attandanso Forest Reserve. After a survey of the faunal richness of the conservation area, it was split into the Kakum National Park and the Assin Attandanso Forest Reserve during the same year. The split was justified with the argument that Cape Coast and 33 other towns and villages continue to need timber from the forest and potable water provided by the Kakum River. == Geography == The Kakum River originates within the park, and hence the park is named after the river. Its tributaries which flow through the park are Obuo, Kakum, Afia, Sukuma, Nemimi, Aboabo and Ajuesu. It is located 33 kilometres (21 mi) north of Cape Coast and Elmina near the small village of Abrafo. It is easily accessible by taxis from the town center, and through organized tour buses. The park's welcome center contains a restaurant, lodge, picnic area, camping area, and a wildlife education center. The park is surrounded by 33 villages and also agricultural lands where food crops and coco are grown. The park lies within an elevation range of 135–250 metres (443–820 ft). It is part of the Guineo-Congolian region under IUCN Category II. The reserve which borders this park is the Assin Attandanso Resource Reserve (game production reserve). Its habitat consists mainly of moist evergreen forest and also seasonal dry semi-deciduous forest. The habitat is formed of 90% forest area, 36% artificial terrestrial landscape while the remaining area has not been categorised. The park area receives an annual average rainfall of 1380 mm. == Flora == The dominant vegetation type in Kakum is the wet forest. Other vegetation types encountered in the park include swamp forests (permanent and periodic) and riverine forests. Also reported are the Boval vegetation of Hildegardia barteri-Polycarpaea tenuifolia community found in exposed granite rocks and in shallow soils. 105 species of vascular plants consisting of 57 trees, 10 shrubs, 9 climbers, 17 herbs and 12 grasses are reported from the park. Epiphytic plants are also reported to grow on the trees and shrubs are orchids and ferns and also figs.Logging operations were prevalent in the park between 1975 and 1989. It is, however, noted that the logged areas have regenerated secondary forest consisting of a thick green mantle and vine tangles. This does not extend over the entire park, as much of the dense forest still remains conserved.Specifically IUCN identified list of flora are listed below under subheadings of Moist forests, Swamp forest, Periodic swamp forest, Riverine forest and Boval vegetation. Moist forests Swamp forests Riverine forest (Edaphic forest)Pseudospondias microcarpa Ceiba pentandra Xylopia spp Uapaca guineensisBoval vegetationSansevieria liberica Commelina spp Hildegardia barteri (bloom as red flowers during Christmas) Elaeophorbia grandifolia Sterculia tragacantha Ceiba pathandra Albizia ferruginea Ricinodendron heudelotii == Fauna == The park contains rare animals, including forest elephants, forest buffalo, civet and cats. Two hundred forest elephants (Loxodonta cyclotis), potto (Perodicticus potto), Demidoff's galago (Galago demidovii), African civet (Viverra civetta), two-spotted palm civet (Nandinia binotata), leopard (Panthera pardus), bongo (Tragelaphus euryceros), many species of duikers (small antelopes), red river hog (Potamochoerus porcus pictus), giant forest hog (Hylochoerus meinertzhageni), long-tailed pangolin (Manis tetradactyla), white-belied pangolin (Manis tricuspis), giant pangolin (Manis gigantea), many species of forest squirrels, North African crested porcupine (Hystrix cristata), dwarf crocodile (Osteolamus tetraspis), monitor lizards, Home's hinged tortoise, serrated tortoise and many other fauna are reported from the park.Primates in the park include the Colobus vellerosus (VU), Procolobus verus (LR/nt), and Cercopithecus diana roloway (CR).The initial Feasibility Study for the establishment of Kakum National Park included a preliminary biodiversity survey of the fauna of the Kakum Forest Reserve and adjoining Assin-Attandanso Forest Reserve, and a survey of the area's resident African Forest Elephant population. The elephant population size in 1990 was estimated on the basis of spoor data to be 100-150 individuals (Dudley, Mensah-Ntiamoah, & Kpelle 1992). === Avifauna === The Bird Life International included the park area under its list of Bird Life Areas in Ghana in 2002 under the criteria A1, A2, A3. The species recorded are 266 and the species though identified but yet to be confirmed are 56. All the species are resident and most of them are under the Least Concern categorization. The globally threatened species listed under the Near Threatened category are: green-tailed bristlebill (Bleda eximius), red-fronted antpecker (Parmoptila rubrifrons), rufous-winged illadopsis (Illadopsis rufescens) and copper-tailed glossy-starling (Lamprotornis cupreocauda). The Vulnerable species identified are white-breasted guineafowl (Agelastes meleagrides), brown-cheeked hornbill (Bycanistes cylindricus), yellow-casqued hornbill (Ceratogymna elata) and yellow-bearded greenbul (Criniger olivaceus). == Special features == A particular feature is the Komfo Boateng's Shrine, a circular rock near Aboabo, of approximately 100 metres (330 ft) diameter with Bovine flora of Ceiba pathandra, Albizia furruginea and Ricinodendron heudelotii. The park has a long series of hanging bridges known as the Kakum Canopy Walkway at the forest canopy level to provide access to the forest, which is a unique feature in the entire African continent. At 40 m (130 ft) height, the visitor can approach the limits and view plants and animals from a vantage point that would otherwise be inaccessible to people. The canopy walkway passes over 7 bridges and runs over a length of 330 m (1,080 ft). Some of the tree canopies are more than 50 metres (160 ft) in height. Built with wire rope, aluminium ladders, wooden planks, it is secured by a series of netting for safety purposes. An additional viewing platform that will allow visitors to climb into the canopy without braving the canopy walkway is currently under construction. The Canopy Walkway was built by two Canadian engineers from Vancouver with the assistance of five (5) Ghanaians - the latter (staff of Ghana Heritage Conservation Trust- managers of the Kakum National Park Visitor Centre)have been maintaining the facility ever since. The original concept for establishment of a canopy walkway at this location was the inspiration of Joseph Dudley, a conservation biologist recruited by Conservation International who coordinated the drafting of the Feasibility Study and Preliminary 5-year Management Plan for the development of Kakum National Park as an ecotourism destination under a project conducted for the United Nations Development Program (Dudley 1990). The Park can now boast of a Tree House which sits about 20metres from the forest floor in the trees in the Secondary Forest. This facility which houses close to 25 people provides an adventurous opportunity for campers to especially at night experience forest life. Due to the thickness of the rainforest, a number of the fauna (genets, leopards, etc.) are active in the night searching for prey to feed on. The Tree House thus provide a close proximity to the wildlife of Kakum. A trained Tour Guide is always on hand to take campers on the night hikes as well as sharing Folklore of the Kakum Forest by a bonfire. It is an intriguing adventure. == Threats and conservation == The threats faced in the park which are being addressed relate to poaching; visible proof has been recorded in the form of ""camps, empty matchboxes, pieces of rubber tyres, used carbide, gunshots and cartridges""), hunting, land encroachments and chainsaw operation. Human-wildlife conflicts around the park are due to park elephants damaging the agricultural crops of the farmers. To prevent raids by elephants during the cropping season on the agricultural fields, farmers have adopted the practice of building pepper fences around their lands to protect their farms.The park is administered by the Wildlife Department of Ghana. Under the direction of Conservation International and with funding support from USAID, Kakum is considered the best protected forest in Ghana. As a result, it is now a major tourist spot. Though poaching is still prevalent, the management practice of involving local communities to share the benefits of the park would yield positive results. In the park, gamekeepers are specially trained in the medical and cultural significance of the local foliage. == Tourism == Kakum is Ghana's first protected area which has received major support for visitor facilities. The visitor centre opened on Earth Day 1997 and the park received the Global Tourism for Tomorrow Award the following year. Tourism numbers have increased over the years: 2,000 in 1992; 27,000 in 1996; over 70,000 tourists in 1999; and it attracted 135,870 visitors during 2009. == Gallery == == References == Dudley, J.P. (1995) Forest elephant conservation in West African rainforest fragments. Nature et Faune 11(2): 8-21. United Nations Food & Agriculture Organization, Accra. Dudley, J.P., A.Y. Mensah-Ntiamoah, and D.G. Kpelle. (1992) Forest elephants in a rainforest fragment: preliminary findings from a wildlife conservation project in southern Ghana. African Journal of Ecology 30: 116–126. Dudley, J.P. (1992) Community Involvement in Kakum and Assin-Attandanso Forest Reserves, Ghana. In The Conservation Atlas of Tropical Forests, Vol. II: AFRICA (J.A. Sayer, C.S. Harcourt, and N.M. Collins, eds.). World Conservation Monitoring Center, Cambridge U.K. Dudley, J.P. (1990) Kakum and Assin-Attandanso Wildlife Reserves Project: UNDP – Central Region Development Project. International Science and Technology Institute, Washington, D.C. Prince Edem Kumanya (2017) Site Manager of Kakum == External links == Media related to Kakum National Park at Wikimedia Commons Kakum National Park Official Website Travel information from Conservation International. Photo Gallery of Kakum National Forest's Canopy Walk" World_Heritage_Sites,World Heritage Memory Net,"World Heritage Memory Net (WHMNet), a partnership project with UNESCO World Heritage Centre, is a global digital library of cultural, historical, and heritage multimedia collections related to the current 962 UNESCO World Heritage Sites of 157 State Parties. Of these 962 sites, 745 are cultural sites, 188 natural, and 29 mixed and 38 of the total 962 are in danger. WHMNet was officially launched April 29, 2011, and can be thought of as “the world’s heritage at your fingertips.”The guiding conceptual principle for the development of the World Heritage Memory Net is to construct a framework that allows users to easily see, explore, discover, and visually experience the 936 Heritage Sites first, and then dig in for more detailed and descriptive information about each Site, as graphically shown on the home page. It is directed by Ching-chih Chen, currently of Global Connection and Collaboration, a nonprofit and tax-exempt 501(c)(3) organization; prior to July 2010, Chen directed this project for three years at Simmons College until she became Professor Emeritus. The goal of WHMNet is to provide an online library of material related to the 962 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, and to provide universal access to a worldwide audience. WHMNet provides multimedia and multilingual content and retrieval, videos, timeline, map, as well as links to major resources, such as OCLC, Wikipedia, Internet Archive, Million Books, Google Scholar and Google Books. All of the collections are available in at least 6 official UN languages: Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish. As of 2012, up to 103 languages are supported by WHMNet, as available. == History == Directed by Ching-chih Chen of the US nonprofit and tax-exempt 501(c)(3) organization, Global Connection and Collaboration, Inc., and supported until August 2010 by the NSF/International Digital Library Program (IDLP) as a part of her Global Memory Net, WHMNet is the result of a multi-year Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) signed in November 2006 between the World Heritage Centre and Simmons College, Boston, Massachusetts, USA under the leadership of Chen, who was then information technology Professor at Simmons Graduate School of Library and Information Science. The WHMNet project, which began in July 2007, benefits greatly from Chen's GMNet, an online global image library and gateway to cultural, historical, and heritage images around the world, created with a multi-year grant from the International Digital Library Programme of the US National Science Foundation (NSF). WHMNet leverages GMNet's innovative integrated multimedia content retrieval system (i-M-C-S) with further system development. Chen became Professor Emeritus of Simmons College in June, 2010 and NSF grant ended in August 2010. Since September 2010 to the present, WHMNet has been supported by GlobalCC until its completion. The goal is to bring an immersive, seamless, multimedia experience in a multilingual website to citizens, researchers, scholars and students of the world. The former World Heritage Centre Director and current UNESCO Assistant Director-General for Culture, Francesco Bandarin, has stated that the project offers ""great potential to enhance the humanities for universal access and enrichment through the use of emerging technologies."" It exposes the world's cultural, natural, and mixed wonders as well as educates global citizens to the dangers of losing these properties through war and environmental factors. It also serves to better promote intercultural understanding during this troubled time. == Collections == WHMNet is a fast, efficient, cutting-edge, online knowledge base which provides universal access to multilingual, multimedia and multiformat resources from museums, archives, libraries, and world bibliographic and Web resources, and includes photographs, videos, 360° Panophotographies, audio clips, and documents. Currently the WHMNet Collection has more than 40,000 images, 27 video tours, many more video documentaries from available sources, and access to more than 250 360° Panophotographies courtesy of Tito Dupret of patrimonium-mundi.org. Detailed descriptive information is presented in multilingual format in at least 6 UNESCO official languages (Arabic Chinese, English, French, Russian, and Spanish) and in many additional languages when available. In total, 103 world languages are represented. Multilingual multimedia collections of the 936 UNESCO World Heritage Sites are accessible by: Geographical regions - such as Africa, Asia, Europe, etc. Within each region by country or areas Within each country or area, alphabetically by the name of the World Heritage Site Alphabetically by World Heritage Site category: Cultural, Natural, Mixed, In Danger Timeline, listing type of site, name of site, and a popup with information, an image, and a link to the main page for that World Heritage SiteIn addition to basic demographic information and descriptions, each site page includes a sliding image gallery of up to 75 images, and a link to the main image gallery of up to 250 images per site. Further bibliographic information and still images (photographs) of each site are available for both traditional and content-based image retrieval, and when videos, audio clips as well as 360° Panophotographies are available, they are also provided. In addition to WHMNet's own image resources and UNESCO/WHC's images (approximately 5% of the total, used with permission), relevant open source images are identified, selected, and provided. These include those from websites such as Wikimedia Commons and Flickr. Video sources from WHC's partner, NHK World Heritage 100 series, are linked, as well as 360° Panophotographies of some sites. === Linked Data === WHMNet links to outside data sources to provide more additional information resources to the user. These resources include OCLC, Internet Archive, Million Books, Google Scholar and Google Books, Wikipedia, and Flickr. == WHM Lecture Series == WHMNet and GMNet have been widely exposed through numerous invited, keynote and plenary speaking engagements in over a dozen countries. Beginning in January 2011, a specific lecture series has started entitled World Cultural Heritage is One Click Away: Lecture Series. This series of talks has been given in many locations in Taiwan; the National Agricultural Library in Silver Springs, MD; through a Digital Video Conference to the U.S. Embassy in Tashkent, Uzbekistan; ACRL/IRC Convention in Washington, DC; and many others. == Related Projects == • National Tsing Hua University Memory Net (Launched on April 23, 2011, NTHU Memory Net was developed jointly by NTHU and Global Connection and Collaboration to create an online multimedia and multilingual knowledge base celebrating Tsing Hua's Centennial Anniversary. NTHU Memory Net is based on the same conceptual framework and uses the i-M-C-S system which was developed for GMNet, and enhanced for WHMNet. • Global Memory Net (World Heritage Memory Net's system is modified and expanded from that of GMNet) • PROJECT EMPEROR-I (1985–1994) == See also == History portal Society portal World portal == References == == Further reading == ""Exploring Your Amazing World Heritage at A Simple Click of the Mouse"", Ching-chih Chen's keynote speech delivered at the ACRL/IRC Meeting at the American Library Association Meeting in Washington DC, June 26, 2010. UNESCO World Heritage Center. (2007). “World Heritage Memory Net” is coming soon! News and Events in UNESCO.org. Retrieved from https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/326" World_Heritage_Sites,List of World Heritage Sites by year of inscription,"This is a list of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites around the world by year of inscription, selected during the annual sessions of the World Heritage Committee. The first World Heritage Site in the list is the Galápagos Islands. The 24th session in 2000 inscribed the most with 61 entries, while the 13th session in 1989 only inscribed seven sites.(F) denotes a country's first inscription. == 1978 (2nd session) == 12 sites (8 cultural, 4 natural)Host: United States == 1979 (3rd session) == 45 sites (34 cultural, 8 natural, 3 mixed)Host: Egypt == 1980 (4th session) == 27 sites (22 cultural, 5 natural)Host: France == 1981 (5th session) == 26 sites (15 cultural, 9 natural, 2 mixed)Host: Australia == 1982 (6th session) == 24 sites (17 cultural, 5 natural, 2 mixed)Host: France == 1983 (7th session) == 29 sites (19 cultural, 9 natural, 1 mixed)Host: Italy == 1984 (8th session) == 22 sites (15 cultural, 7 natural)Host: Argentina == 1985 (9th session) == 30 sites (25 cultural, 4 natural, 1 mixed)Host: France == 1986 (10th session) == 29 sites (23 cultural, 5 natural, 1 mixed)Host: France == 1987 (11th session) == 41 sites (32 cultural, 7 natural, 2 mixed)Host: France == 1988 (12th session) == 27 sites (19 cultural, 5 natural, 3 mixed)Host: Brazil == 1989 (13th session) == 7 sites (4 cultural, 2 natural, 1 mixed)Host: France == 1990 (14th session) == 16 sites (11 cultural, 2 natural, 3 mixed)Host: Canada == 1991 (15th session) == 22 sites (16 cultural, 6 natural)Host: Tunisia == 1992 (16th session) == 20 sites (16 cultural, 4 natural)Host: United States == 1993 (17th session) == 33 sites (29 cultural, 4 natural)Host: Colombia == 1994 (18th session) == 29 sites (21 cultural, 8 natural)Host: Thailand == 1995 (19th session) == 29 sites (23 cultural, 6 natural)Host: Germany == 1996 (20th session) == 37 sites (30 cultural, 5 natural, 2 mixed)Host: Mexico == 1997 (21st session) == 46 sites (38 cultural, 7 natural, 1 mixed)Host: Italy == 1998 (22nd session) == 30 sites (27 cultural, 3 natural)Host: Japan == 1999 (23rd session) == 48 sites (35 cultural, 11 natural, 2 mixed)Host: Morocco == 2000 (24th session) == 61 sites (50 cultural, 10 natural, 1 mixed)Host: Australia == 2001 (25th session) == 31 sites (25 cultural, 6 natural)Host: Finland == 2002 (26th session) == 9 sites (8 cultural, 1 mixed)Host: Hungary == 2003 (27th session) == 24 sites (19 cultural, 5 natural)Host: France == 2004 (28th session) == 34 sites (29 cultural, 5 natural)Host: China == 2005 (29th session) == 24 sites (17 cultural, 7 natural)Host: South Africa == 2006 (30th session) == 18 sites (16 cultural, 2 natural)Host: Lithuania == 2007 (31st session) == 22 sites (16 cultural, 4 natural, 2 mixed)Host: New Zealand == 2008 (32nd session) == 27 sites (19 cultural, 8 natural)Host: Canada == 2009 (33rd session) == 13 sites (11 cultural, 2 natural)Host: Spain == 2010 (34th session) == 21 sites (15 cultural, 5 natural, 1 mixed)Host: Brazil == 2011 (35th session) == 25 sites (21 cultural, 3 natural, 1 mixed)Host: France == 2012 (36th session) == 26 sites (20 cultural, 5 natural, 1 mixed)Host: Russia == 2013 (37th session) == 19 sites (14 cultural, 5 natural)Host: Cambodia == 2014 (38th session) == 26 sites (22 cultural, 3 natural, 1 mixed)Host: Qatar == 2015 (39th session) == 24 sites (23 cultural, 1 mixed)Host: Germany == 2016 (40th session) == 21 sites (12 cultural, 6 natural, 3 mixed)Host: Turkey == 2017 (41st session) == 21 sites (18 cultural, 3 natural)Host: Poland == 2018 (42nd session) == 19 sites (13 cultural, 3 natural, 3 mixed)Host: Bahrain == 2019 (43rd session) == 29 sites (24 cultural, 4 natural, 1 mixed)Host: Azerbaijan == 2021 (44th session) == The 44th session was originally scheduled for 2020 but postponed to 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Thus, the World Heritage Committee voted on both 2020 and 2021 nominations.34 sites (29 cultural, 5 natural)Host: China == 2023 (18th extraordinary session) == At its 18th extraordinary session, the World Heritage Committee added three sites under an emergency procedure to both the World Heritage List and the List of World Heritage in Danger.3 sites (3 cultural)Host: France == 2023 (45th session) == The 45th session was originally scheduled to be held from 19 June to 30 June, 2022, in Kazan, Russia, but was postponed indefinitely due to the Russian invasion of Ukraine. The World Heritage Committee then rescheduled the 45th session to 10-25 September 2023 in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, and will vote on 2022 and 2023 nominations. == See also == Former UNESCO World Heritage Sites List of World Heritage in Danger Lists of World Heritage Sites World Heritage Sites by country == References == == External links == UNESCO World Heritage portal – Official website (in English and French) The World Heritage List – Official searchable list of all Inscribed Properties New Inscribed Properties – List of new Inscribed Properties. Also lists nominated sites prior to an upcoming session of the World Heritage Committee." World_Heritage_Sites,Category:World Heritage Sites by continent, World_Heritage_Sites,Category:World Heritage Sites by country, World_Heritage_Sites,Category:Lists of World Heritage Sites, World_Heritage_Sites,Category:Former World Heritage Sites, World_Heritage_Sites,Category:International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia,"Articles relating to the International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia (1960-1980). The relocation of 22 monuments in Lower Nubia, in Southern Egypt and northern Sudan, between 1960 and 1980. The success of the project, in particular the creation of a coalition of 50 countries behind the project, led to the creation of the World Heritage Convention in 1972, and thus to the modern system of World Heritage Sites." World_Heritage_Sites,Category:Seven Wonders of the Ancient World,"Articles relating to the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, a list of remarkable constructions of classical antiquity given by various authors in guidebooks or poems popular among ancient Hellenic tourists." World_Heritage_Sites,Category:World Heritage Sites in Danger, World_Heritage_Sites,Category:World Heritage Tentative List,"World Heritage Site Tentative List, see § Nomination process"