en	In 1983, two separate research groups led by Robert Gallo and Luc Montagnier declared that a novel retrovirus may have been infecting people with AIDS, and published their findings in the same issue of the journal Science.
sw	Mnamo 1983, vikundi viwili tofauti vya watafiti vilivyoongozwa na Robert Gallo na Luc Montagnier bila kutegemeana vilitangaza kuwa retrovirusi mpya ilikuwa ikiwaambukiza wagonjwa wa UKIMWI, hivyo wakachapisha matokeo yao katika jarida la Science.

en	In the early days, the CDC did not have an official name for the disease, often referring to it by way of the diseases that were associated with it, for example, lymphadenopathy, the disease after which the discoverers of HIV originally named the virus.
sw	Katika siku za kwanza, kituo hicho hakikuwa na jina rasmi la ugonjwa huu, mara nyingi wakitumia majina ya magonjwa mengine yaliyohusishwa nao, kwa mfano, limfadenopathi, jina ambalo baadaye wavumbuzi wa VVU waliviita virusi hivi.

en	The chance of quitting is improved with social support, engagement in a smoking cessation program, and the use of medications such as nicotine replacement therapy, bupropion, or varenicline.
sw	Uwezekano wa kukoma huendelezwa kwa usaidizi wa kijamii, kuhusika katika mpango wa kukomesha uvutaji na kutumia tiba kama vile tiba ya kubadili nikotini, bupropion au varenicline.

en	Both strains of the tuberculosis bacteria share a common ancestor, which could have infected humans even before the Neolithic Revolution.
sw	Wote Matatizo ya bakteria kifua kikuu kushiriki babu ya kawaida, ambayo ingeweza kuambukizwa binadamu kama mapema kama Mapinduzi Neolithic.

en	Products with 60% to 95% alcohol by volume are effective antiseptics.
sw	Michanganyiko huwa na asilimia 60-95 za alikoholi.

en	Hermann Brehmer opened the first TB sanatorium in 1859 in Görbersdorf (now Sokołowsko) in Silesia.
sw	Hermann Brehmer kufunguliwa kwanza TB sanatorium katika  1859 katika  Sokołowsko, Poland.

en	An alternative view holds that unsafe medical practices in Africa after World War II, such as unsterile reuse of single-use syringes during mass vaccination, antibiotic and anti-malaria treatment campaigns, were the initial vector that allowed the virus to adapt to humans and spread.
sw	Maoni mengine yanadokeza kuwa hatua zisizo salama za uuguzi barani Afrika katika miaka ya baada ya Vita vya pili vya dunia, kama vile kutumia tena na tena sindano zisizosafishwa kuchanja umati, antibayotiki na kampeni dhidi ya malaria ndizo njia za kwanza zilizoruhusu virusi hivyo kujibadilisha vikiwa ndani ya wanadamu kisha kuenea.

en	In this group of people, it decreases the risk of heart failure and death if used 15 hours per day and may improve people's ability to exercise.
sw	Katika kundi hili la watu, hupunguza hatari ya moyo kushindwa kufanya kazi na kifo iwapo ikitumia saa 15 kwa siku na inaweza kuongeza uwezo wa watu kufanya mazoezi.

en	A recombinant immunoblot assay is used to verify the immunoassay and the viral load is determined by an HCV RNA polymerase chain reaction.
sw	Uchanganuzi wa recombinant immunoblot inathibitisha immunoassay, na mmenyuko wa HCV RNA polimeresi huamua ukali.

en	IGRAs may increase sensitivity when used in addition to the skin test, but may be less sensitive than the skin test when used alone.
sw	IGRAs inaweza kuongeza usikivu wakati kutumika kwa kuongeza mtihani ngozi lakini inaweza kuwa chini zaidi kuliko mtihani nyeti ngozi wakati kutumika peke yake..

en	In 1854, Florence Nightingale left for the Crimean War, where triage was used to separate seriously wounded soldiers from the non-life-threatening conditions.
sw	Mwaka wa 1854, Florence Nightingale alikwenda kwenye Vita vya Crimea.

en	The Mantoux tuberculin skin test is often used to screen people at high risk for TB.
sw	[[Mantoux mithani |Mantoux tuberculin ngozi mithani mara nyingi hutumika kwa watu screen katika hatari kubwa ya TB.

en	Typically, these must occur over several decades before symptoms develop.
sw	Kwa kawaida, uhatarisho huu lazima utokee miongo mingi kabla ya dalili kutokea.

en	Typically, this is followed by a prolonged period with no symptoms.
sw	Kwa kawaida, hali hii hufuatwa na kipindi kirefu kisicho na dalili.

en	HAART and appropriate prevention of opportunistic infections reduces the death rate by 80%, and raises the life expectancy for a newly diagnosed young adult to 20–50 years.
sw	KKNKN na uzuiaji mwafaka wa Maambukizi nyemelezi hupunguza kima cha vifo kwa 80% na kuongeza matarajio ya urefu wa maisha hadi miaka 20-50 kwa mtu mzima wa kimo aliyetambuliwa na maambukizi karibuni.

en	People with COPD who are underweight can improve their breathing muscle strength by increasing their calorie intake.
sw	Watu walio na ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa walio na uzani wa chini wanaweza kuboresha nguvu za misuli ya kupumua kwa kuongeza kiwango cha kalori.

en	Active TB is best treated with combinations of several antibiotics to reduce the risk of the bacteria developing antibiotic resistance.
sw	kutibu ya sioonekana TB kawaida inaajiri antibiotic moja,  wakati kazi ugonjwa wa Kifua Kikuu ni bora kutibiwa na mchanganyiko wa kiuvijasumu kadhaa ili kupunguza hatari ya bakteria kuendeleza upinzani antibiotiki.

en	Stage III: Advanced symptoms, which may include unexplained chronic diarrhea for longer than a month, severe bacterial infections including tuberculosis of the lung, and a CD4 count of less than 350/µl
sw	Awamu ya III: Dalili kuu zinazoweza kujumuisha hali ya kuharishaya muda mrefu isiyo na kisababishi maalum kwa zaidi ya mwezi mmoja, maambukizi makali ya bakteria ikiwa ni pamoja na tiibii ya mapafu na pia kiwango cha seli za CD4 cha chini ya 350/uL.

en	However, they are affected by M. szulgai, M. marinum, and M. kansasii.
sw	Hata hivyo wao walioathirika na M. szulgai, M. marinum na M.

en	Although it was not effective, it was later successfully adapted as a screening test for the presence of pre-symptomatic tuberculosis.
sw	Wakati ilikuwa si ufanisi, baadaye mafanikio ilichukuliwa kama mtihani uchunguzi kwa ajili ya uwepo wa kifua kikuu mbele ya dalili.

en	Some feel the evidence of benefits is limited, while others view the evidence of benefit as established.
sw	Wengine huhisi kuwa ushahidi wa manufaa ni mdogo ilhali wengine huona ushahidi wa manufaa kuwa uliopo.

en	No benefit has been found in those with other health problems.
sw	Hakuna manufaa yaliyopatikana kwa wale walio na matatizo mengine ya kiafya.

en	While transmission rates of HIV during vaginal intercourse are low under regular circumstances, they are increased manyfold if one of the partners suffers from a sexually transmitted infection causing genital ulcers.
sw	Ingawa viwango vya uambukizaji wakati wa ngono ya kupitia uke viko chini katika hali ya kawaida, kuna ongezeko kubwa iwapo mmoja wa wapenzi hao ana ugonjwa wa zinaa unaosababisha vidonda vya viungo vya uzazi.

en	It is estimated that 3% of all disability is related to COPD.
sw	Inakadiriwa kuwa asilimia 3 ya ulemavu wote inahusiana na ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa.

en	This hematogenous transmission can also spread infection to more distant sites, such as peripheral lymph nodes, the kidneys, the brain, and the bones.
sw	maambukizi haya ya hematogenous yanaweza pia kusambaza maambukizi kwa maeneo ya mbali zaidi, kama vile nodiya limfu ya pembeni, mafigo, ubongo na mifupa.

en	The evidence to support this practice over people simply taking their medications independently is of poor quality.
sw	ushahidi wa kuunga mkono kitendo hiki juu ya watu tu kutumia dawa zao kwa kujitegemea ni maskini.

en	This additional expenditure also leaves less income to spend on education and other personal or family investment.
sw	Matumizi hayo ya ziada pia hupelekea kiwango kidogo zaidi cha mapato ya kutumia katika elimu au uwekezaji wa kibinafsi au wa kifamilia.

en	This risk is particularly high if someone deficient in alpha 1-antitrypsin also smokes.
sw	Hatari hii iko juu zaidi hasa iwapo mtu aliye na upungufu wa kinza tripsini ya alfa ya 1 pia ni mvutaji.

en	In 2010, an estimated 68% (22.9 million) of all HIV cases and 66% of all deaths (1.2 million) occurred in this region.
sw	Katika mwaka wa 2010, kadirio la 68% (milioni 22.9 ) la visa vyote vya VVU na 66% ya vifo (milioni 1.2 ) vilitokea katika eneo hili.

en	It is located in Kenya's capital, Nairobi.
sw	Ofisi za KEMRI ziko Mbagathi Road, Nairobi.

en	A number of different antibiotics may be used including amoxicillin, doxycycline and azithromycin; whether one is better than the others is unclear.
sw	Antibiotiki tofauti zinaweza kutumiwa zikiwemo: amoxicillin, doxycycline au azithromycin si bayana iwapo moja ni bora kuliko zingine.

en	Certain medications, such as corticosteroids and infliximab (an anti-αTNF monoclonal antibody), are other important risk factors, especially in the developed world.
sw	Baadhi ya dawa, kama vile corticosteroids na infliximab (an anti-αTNF monoclonal antibody) kuwa inazidi muhimu hatari, hasa katika  nchi zilizoendelea.

en	Among these, the Aeras Global TB Vaccine Foundation received a gift of more than $280 million (US) from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation to develop and license an improved vaccine against tuberculosis for use in high burden countries.
sw	Kati ya hayo, Aeras TB Duniani Chanjo Foundation alipokea zawadi ya zaidi ya $ 280,000,000 (Marekani) kutoka kwa Bill na Melinda Gates Foundation kuendeleza na leseni ya chanjo dhidi ya kifua kikuu bora kwa ajili ya matumizi katika nchi mzigo mkubwa.

en	There is some evidence that vitamin A supplementation in children with an HIV infection reduces mortality and improves growth.
sw	Kuna ushahidi mdogo kuwa nyongeza ya vitamini A kwa watoto hupunguza vifo na kuboresha ukuaji.

en	In those with a severe exacerbation, antibiotics improve outcomes.
sw	Kwa wale walio na maumivu zaidi makali, antibiotiki huboresha matokeo.

en	The disease also has large economic impacts.
sw	Ugonjwa huu pia unasababisha madhara ya kiuchumi ambayo ni makubwa, hasa kwa nchi maskini.

en	At the household level, AIDS causes both loss of income and increased spending on healthcare.
sw	Katika kiwango cha familia, UKIMWI husababisha upungufu wa mapato na pia ongezeko la matumizi katika huduma za afya.

en	Unsafe medical injections play a role in HIV spread in sub-Saharan Africa.
sw	Sindano za tiba zisizo salama huchangia pakubwa katika kueneza UKIMWI katika eneo la Kusini kwa Sahara.

en	Slightly over half the infected population are women and 2.1 million are children.
sw	Zaidi ya nusu ni wanawake na milioni 2.6 ni watoto chini ya miaka 15.

en	The World Health Organization estimates the risk of transmission as a result of a medical injection in Africa at 1.2%.
sw	Shirika la Afya Duniani linakadiria hatari ya kuambukizwa kupitia sindano hizo barani Afrika kuwa 1.2%.

en	For surveillance purposes, the AIDS diagnosis still stands even if, after treatment, the CD4+ T cell count rises to above 200 per µL of blood or other AIDS-defining illnesses are cured.
sw	Kwa sababu za kiuchunguzi, utambuzi wa UKIMWI hubakia iwapo baada ya matibabu kiwango cha seli za CD4+ T kitapanda zaidi ya 200 kwa kila µL ya damu au iwapo maradhi mengine yanayoashiria UKIMWI yataponywa.

en	There is a risk from mucosal exposures to blood, but this risk is low, and there is no risk if blood exposure occurs on intact skin.
sw	Kuna hatari kutoka kwa mfichuo wa kamasi hadi kwa damu; ingawa kiwango cha hatari hii ni ndogo, na hakuna hatari yoyote kama damu ikigusa ngozi isiyokuwa na jeraha.

en	Effective dust control can be achieved by improving ventilation, using water sprays and by using mining techniques that minimize dust generation.
sw	Uzuiaji bora wa vumbi unaweza kutimizwa kwa kuboresha upitaji wa hewa, kutumia vinyunyizio vya maji na kutumia mbinu za uchimbaji migodi zinazothibiti utengenezaji wa vumbi.

en	When used with inhaled steroids they increase the risk of pneumonia.
sw	Zikitumiwa pamoja na steroidi za kupumuliwa ndani, huongeza hatari ya nimonia.

en	AIDSinfo – Information on HIV/AIDS treatment, prevention, and research, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
sw	AIDSinfo – HIV/AIDS Treatment Information, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

en	The photo was displayed in Life, was the winner of the World Press Photo, and acquired worldwide notoriety after being used in a United Colors of Benetton advertising campaign in 1992.
sw	Picha hiyo iliyochapishwa na gazeti hilo ilishinda tuzo la World Press Photo, kisha kupata umaarufu ulimwenguni kote baada ya kutumiwa na United Colors of Benetton katika kampeni ya utangazaji ya mwaka 1992.

en	Long-term antibiotics, specifically those from the macrolide class such as erythromycin, reduce the frequency of exacerbations in those who have two or more a year.
sw	Antibiotiki za muda mrefu, hasa za kundi la macrolide kama vileazithromycin, hupunguza kiwango cha kutokea kwa maumivu Zaidi kwa wale wanaokuwa nayo mara mbili au Zaidi kwa mwaka.

en	These were followed with pictures by Matthew Baillie in 1789 and descriptions of the destructive nature of the condition.
sw	Michoro hii ilifuatwa na picha za Matthew Baillie katika mwaka wa 1789 na maelezo ya hali ya uharibifu wa ugonjwa huo.

en	The recommended treatment of new-onset pulmonary tuberculosis, as of 2010, is six months of a combination of antibiotics containing rifampicin, isoniazid, pyrazinamide, and ethambutol for the first two months, and only rifampicin and isoniazid for the last four months.
sw	Matibabu ya kifua kikuu ilipendekeza mpya-mwanzo ya mapafu, kama wa 2010, ni miezi sita ya macho ya antibiotiki zenye rifampicin, isoniazidi, pyrazinamide na ethambutol kwa miezi miwili ya kwanza, na tu rifampicin na isoniazidi pyrazinamide, na ethambutol.

en	The risk is greater in those who are poor, although whether this is due to poverty itself or other risk factors associated with poverty, such as air pollution and malnutrition, is not clear.
sw	Hatari huwa kubwa zaidi katika watu masikini, ingawa si bayana iwapo hii ni kutokana na umasikini wenyewe au athari zingine hatari zinazohusiana na umasikini, kama vile uchafuzi wa hewa na utapia mlo.i Kuna ushahidi mdogo kuwa watu wenye ugonjwa wa pumu na matatizo ya njia za pumzi wako katika hatari ya juu zaidi ya kuathiriwa na ugonjwa sugu wa mapafu yaliyofungana.

en	Modern treatments were developed during the second half of the 20th century.
sw	Matibabu ya kisasa yalianzishwa katika nusu ya pili ya karne ya 21.

en	The initial cases were a cluster of injecting drug users and homosexual men with no known cause of impaired immunity who showed symptoms of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (PCP), a rare opportunistic infection that was known to occur in people with very compromised immune systems.
sw	Matukio ya kwanza yalikuwa katika kikundi kidogo cha waraibu wa dawa za kudungia na wanaume shoga wasiokuwa na visababishi bayana vya udhaifu wa kingamwili na walioonyesha dalili za numonia ya Pneumocystis carinii, maambukizi nyemelezi yanayotokea kwa nadra na maarufu katika watu wenye kingamwili dhaifu sana.

en	This commonly includes a combination of a short-acting inhaled beta agonist and anticholinergic.
sw	Hii mara nyingi hujumuisha mchanganyiko agonisti ya beta ya muda mfupi iliyopumuliwa ndani na kinza kikolini.

en	Two main approaches are used to attempt to improve the efficacy of available vaccines.
sw	Mbili mbinu kuu ni kuwa kutumika kujaribu kuboresha ufanisi wa chanjo zinapatikana.

en	Roughly one-quarter of the world's population has been infected with M. tuberculosis, with new infections occurring in about 1% of the population each year.
sw	Takribani theluthi moja ya idadi ya watu duniani imekuwa kuambukizwa na M. kifua kikuu, na maambukizi mapya ya kutokea kwa kiwango cha moja kwa pili kwa kiwango cha kimataifa.

en	Best of the Web.
sw	Kinga ni bora kuliko tiba.

en	The destruction of the connective tissue of the lungs leads to emphysema, which then contributes to the poor airflow, and finally, poor absorption and release of respiratory gases.
sw	Kuharibiwa kwa tishu unganishi za mapafu ndio unaopelekea emfisema, ambayo kisha huchangia upitaji duni wa hewa, na hatimaye, ufyonzaji na uachiliaji duni wa gesi za kupumua.

en	This contributes to the inability to breathe out fully.
sw	Hii huchangia kushindwa kupumua nje kikamilifu.

en	A tuberculosis classification system developed by the American Thoracic Society is used primarily in public health programs.
sw	[[mfumo  wa kifua kikuu] uainishaji maendeleo na  Jamii ya Marekani Thoracic  hutumiwa hasa katika mipango ya afya ya umma.

en	In the United States approximately 6.3% of the adult population, totaling approximately 15 million people, have been diagnosed with COPD.
sw	Marekani, takriban asilimia 6.3 ya watu wazima, ambayo ni takriban watu milioni 15  wamepatikana kuwa na ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa.

en	HCV RNA can be detected by PCR typically one to two weeks after infection, while antibodies can take substantially longer to form and thus be detected.
sw	Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) inagundua HCV RNA wiki mmoja au mbili baada ya kuambukizwa, wakati vikinga mwili huchukua muda mrefu kutengenezwa na kuonekana.

en	AIDS stigma exists around the world in a variety of ways, including ostracism, rejection, discrimination and avoidance of HIV-infected people; compulsory HIV testing without prior consent or protection of confidentiality; violence against HIV-infected individuals or people who are perceived to be infected with HIV; and the quarantine of HIV-infected individuals.
sw	Unyanyapaa dhidi ya watu walio na UKIMWI zipo kote ulimwenguni kwa namna mbalimbali, zikiwemo kutengwa, kukataliwa na jamii, ubaguzi na kuepuka watu walioambukizwa VVU, kulazimishwa kupimwa VVU bila idhini au ulinzi wa usiri, vurugu dhidi ya watu walioambukizwa au waliodhaniwa kuambukizwa VVU; na karantini ya watu waliombukizwa VVU.

en	Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is defined as an HIV infection with either a CD4+ T cell count below 200 cells per µL or the occurrence of specific diseases associated with HIV infection.
sw	Ukosefu wa Kinga Mwilini (UKIMWI) hufasiliwa kwa msingi wa kiwango cha seli za CD4 + cha chini ya seli 200 kwa kila µL au kutokea kwa magonjwa maalumu yanayohusiana na maambukizi ya VVU.

en	Both the American and European guidelines recommend partly basing treatment recommendations on the FEV1.
sw	Miongozo yote ya Amerika na Europa ilipendekeza kwa kiasi kwa msingi wa mapendekezo ya kupumulia kulicho lazimishwa.

en	Albert Calmette and Camille Guérin achieved the first genuine success in immunization against tuberculosis in 1906, using attenuated bovine-strain tuberculosis.
sw	Albert Calmette na Camille Guérin mafanikio ya kwanza ya kweli mafanikio katika utoaji wa chanjo dhidi ya kifua kikuu katika 1906. kwa kutumia mnachuja ya ngombe kufikika kifua kikuu.

en	Annual influenza vaccinations in those with COPD reduce exacerbations, hospitalizations and death.
sw	Chanjo za influenza za mwaka kwa walio na ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa hupunguza maumivu zaidi, kulazwa hospitalini na kifo.

en	Anthrax is an infection caused by the bacterium Bacillus anthracis.
sw	Inasababishwa na bakteria bacthus anthracis.

en	It is estimated that nearly half of prison inmates share unsterilized tattooing equipment.
sw	Karibu nusu ya wafungwa wanatumia kwa pamoja vifaa vya kujichora ambavyo sio visafi.

en	A chest X-ray and complete blood count may be useful to exclude other conditions at the time of diagnosis.
sw	Eksirei ya kifua na kipimo kamili cha damu vinaweza kuwa muhimu katika kutenga magonjwa mengine wakati wa utambuzi.

en	Globally, as of 2010, COPD is estimated to result in economic costs of $2.1 trillion, half of which occurring in the developing world.
sw	Ulimwenguni kote, Kufikia mwaka wa 2010, ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za pumzi umekadiriwa kusababisha gharama ya kiuchumi ya dola trilioni 2.1  ambayo nusu yake hutokea katika nchi zinazostawi.

en	By 1978, the prevalence of HIV-1 among homosexual male residents of New York City and San Francisco was estimated at 5%, suggesting that several thousand individuals in the country had been infected.
sw	Kufikia mwaka 1978, maambukizi ya VVU-1 katika mashoga wenyeji wa New York na San Francisco yalikadiriwa kuwa 5%, kuonyesha kuwa maelfu ya watu nchini Marekani tayari walikuwa wameambukizwa.

en	"In 1815 one in four deaths in England was due to ""consumption""."
sw	"Katika 1815, moja katika vifo nne nchini Uingereza ni kutokana na ""matumizi""."

en	Universal precautions within the health care environment are believed to be effective in decreasing the risk of HIV.
sw	Hadhari za jumla katika mandhari ya utunzaji wa afya zinaaminika kufaulu kupunguza hatari ya VVU.

en	Programs such as the Revised National Tuberculosis Control Program are working to reduce TB levels among people receiving public health care.
sw	Mipango kama vile  Programu ya Taifa ya Kifua Kikuu  karatasi ya kufikiria tena ni kusaidia kupunguza viwango vya TB miongoni mwa watu wanaopata huduma ya afya ya umma.

en	Of this total an estimated $1.9 trillion are direct costs such as medical care, while $0.2 trillion are indirect costs such as missed work.
sw	Kwa idadi hii, takriban dola trilioni 1.9  ni gharama za moja kwa moja kama vile matibabu, ilhali dola trilioni 0.2  ni gharama zisizo za moja kwa moja kama vile kazi ambayo haikufanywa.

en	Respiratory infections such as pneumonia do not appear to increase the risk of COPD, at least in adults.
sw	Maambukizi ya njia za pumzi kama vile nimonia hayaonekani kuongeza hatari ya ugonjwa sugu wa mapafu yaliyofungana, angalau katika watu wazima.

en	HIV-1 is the virus that was originally discovered (and initially referred to also as LAV or HTLV-III).
sw	VVU-1 ni virusi vilivyotambulika kwanza (na ambavyo mwanzoni vilijulikana pia kama LAV au HTLV-III).

en	The economic costs of hepatitis C are significant both to the individual and to society.
sw	Gharama za kiuchumi za homa ya nyongo C ni muhimu kwa mtu binafsi na kwa jamii kijumla.

en	A person with active but untreated tuberculosis may infect 10–15 (or more) other people per year.
sw	Mtu aliye na kifua kikuu hai, lakini hajatibiwa anaweza kuambukiza 10-15 (au zaidi) watu wengine kwa mwaka.

en	Adverse effects with these treatments were common, with half of people getting flu-like symptoms and a third experiencing emotional problems.
sw	Madhara kwa matibabu ni ya kawaida, nusu ya watu wanaotibiwa hupata dalili kama homa ya mafua, na theluthi ya watu hupata matatizo ya mhemuko.

en	Symbolic AIDS stigma—the use of HIV/AIDS to express attitudes toward the social groups or lifestyles perceived to be associated with the disease.
sw	Unyanyapaa wa kiishara wa UKIMWI -kutumia VVU/UKIMWI kuonyesha mitazamo fulani dhidi ya vikundi vya jamii au mitindo ya maisha inayohusishwa na ugonjwa huu.

en	Positive results obtained by antibody or PCR testing are confirmed either by a different antibody or by PCR.
sw	Matokeo chanya yanayopatikana kwa kupima MAP au zindiko huthibitishwa kwa zindiko au MAP tofauti.

en	Several new long-acting agents are under development.
sw	Ajenti kadhaa za muda mrefu zinaendelea kutengenezwa.

en	The oldest unambiguously detected M. tuberculosis gives evidence of the disease in the remains of bison in Wyoming dated to around 17,000 years ago.
sw	Mwanzo zisizo na utata kutambua ya M. kifua kikuu inahusisha ushahidi wa ugonjwa huo katika mabaki ya bison tarehe na takriban 17,000 miaka iliyopita.

en	25 million people may have COPD if currently undiagnosed cases are included.
sw	Watu milioni 25 wanaweza kuwa na ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa visa visivyotambuliwa vikiongezwa.

en	In Europe, COPD represents 3% of healthcare spending.
sw	Kule Ulaya, Ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa unawakilisha asilimia 3 ya gharama za afya.

en	It was called bacille Calmette–Guérin (BCG).
sw	Ilikuwa inaitwa (bacillus of Calmette and Guérin) (BCG).

en	Personal-care items such as razors, toothbrushes, and manicuring or pedicuring equipment can be contaminated with blood.
sw	Vifaa vya maangalizi binafsi kama vile mashine ya kunyolea, mswaki, na mashine ya kukata kucha yanaweza kuwa na damu.

en	In those with HIV, the risk of developing active TB increases to nearly 10% a year.
sw	Katika wale wanaoishi na H.I.V, hatari ya kupatwa na TB hai inaongezeka hadi 10% karibu mwaka.

en	Courtesy AIDS stigma—stigmatization of people connected to the issue of HIV/AIDS or HIV-positive people.
sw	Unyanyapaa wa kihisani wa UKIMWI- Unyanyapaa dhidi ya watu wanaohusishwa na suala la VVU/UKIMWI au watu walio na VVU.

en	This practice may be cost effective in some areas of the world.
sw	Hii inaweza kuwa ya bei nafuu katika maeneo fulani ulimwenguni.

en	Globally, as of 2010, COPD affected approximately 329 million people (4.8% of the population).
sw	Kote ulimwenguni kufikia mwaka wa 2010, ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa uliathiri takriban watu milioni 329  (asilimi 4.8 ya ya watu wote) na hutokea sana kwa wanaume kuliko wanawake.

en	Some religious organizations have claimed that prayer can cure HIV/AIDS.
sw	Mashirika mengine ya dini yamedai kuwa maombi yanatosha kutibu VVU/UKIMWI.

en	People believed this was caused by the original person with TB draining the life from the other family members.
sw	Watu waliamini hii kulitokana na mtu awali na TB kuondoa maji  maisha kutoka kwa wanachama wengine wa familia.

en	Most people infected with HIV develop specific antibodies (i.e. seroconvert) within three to twelve weeks after the initial infection.
sw	Watu wengi walioambukizwa VVU huzalisha zindiko maalum (yaani kuzalisha zindiko mpya) katika wiki 3 hadi 12 tangu maambukizi ya kwanza.

en	However, the difficult culture process for this slow-growing organism can take two to six weeks for blood or sputum culture.
sw	Hata hivyo, ni vigumu kwa utamaduni mchakato huu viumbe polepole-kukua wanaweza kuchukua 2-6 wiki kwa ajili ya damu au utamaduni makohozi.

en	HIV is the cause of the spectrum of disease known as HIV/AIDS.
sw	VVU ndivyo kisababishi cha mkusanyiko wa magonjwa yanayojulikana kijumla kama VVU/UKIMWI.

en	The National Institute for Health and Care Excellence criteria additionally require a FEV1 less than 80% of predicted.
sw	Vigezo vya Taasisi ya Kitaifa ya Ubora wa Matibabu pia huhitaji kiasi cha hewa inayopumuliwa nje kwa lazima1 cha chini ya asilimia 80 ya kilichobashiriwa.

en	Directly observed therapy, i.e., having a health care provider watch the person take their medications, is recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO) in an effort to reduce the number of people not appropriately taking antibiotics.
sw	Moja kwa moja aliona tiba, yaani kuwa na huduma ya afya mtoa kuangalia mtu kuchukua dawa zao, ni ilipendekeza na WHO katika jitihada za kupunguza idadi ya watu si ipasavyo kuchukua antibiotiki.

en	Some people may benefit from long-term oxygen therapy or lung transplantation.
sw	Baadhi ya watu wanaweza kunufaika na matibabu ya oksijeni ya muda mrefu au kupandikiza mapafu.

en	"The term ""chronic bronchitis"" came into use in 1808 while the term ""COPD"" is believed to have first been used in 1965."
sw	Jina bronkitisi sugu lilianza kutumika mwaka wa 1808 ilhali jina ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa huaminika  kutumika kwa mara ya kwanza mwaka wa 1965.

en	UK: National Health Service.
sw	National Health Service.

en	A number of potential candidates are currently in phase I and II clinical trials.
sw	idadi ya wagombea uwezekano ni sasa katika majaribio ya awamu ya I na II  kliniki .

en	Half of infants born with HIV die before two years of age without treatment.
sw	Wasipotibiwa, nusu ya watoto wachanga wanaozaliwa na VVU hufa kabla ya miaka miwili.

en	A comparison of the genes of M. tuberculosis complex (MTBC) in humans to MTBC in animals suggests humans did not acquire MTBC from animals during animal domestication, as researchers previously believed.
sw	kulinganisha genes  ya M. kifua kikuu tata (MTBC) kwa binadamu kwa MTBC katika wanyama unaonyesha binadamu hakuwa kupata MTBC kutoka kwa wanyama wakati wa kufuga wanyama kama ilivyoaminika hapo nyuma.

en	There is no evidence that breastfeeding spreads HCV; however, to be cautious, an infected mother is advised to avoid breastfeeding if her nipples are cracked and bleeding, or if her viral loads are high.
sw	Hakuna ushahidi wowote unaosema mtoto akinyonyeshwa maziwa ataambukizwa HCV; lakini, mama aliyeathiriwa hatakiwi amnyonyeshe mtoto kama chuchu zake zina mpasuko au zinavuja, au kama ana kiwango kikubwa cha virusi.

en	The modified British Medical Research Council questionnaire or the COPD assessment test (CAT) are simple questionnaires that may be used to determine the severity of symptoms.
sw	Hojaji iliyofanyiwa mabadiliko ya Shirika la Utafiti wa Afya la Ulaya au jaribio la ukadiriaji wa ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa mapafu ni hojaji rahisi ambazo zinaweza kuamua ukali wa dalili.

en	People with this disseminated TB have a high fatality rate even with treatment (about 30%).
sw	Watu wenye TB hii  huwa na  kiwango cha juu cha vifo hata kwa matibabu (takriban 30%).

en	In areas of the world where alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency is common, people with COPD (particularly those below the age of 45 and with emphysema affecting the lower parts of the lungs) should be considered for testing.
sw	Katika sehemu za dunia ambapo ukosefu wa alfa 1-kinza tripsini hupatikana sana, watu walio na ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa mapafu (hasa walio chini ya umri wa miaka 45 na emfisema inayoathiri sehemu za chini za mapafu) wanapaswa kuzingatiwa kupimwa.

en	Hepatitis is acute if it resolves within six months, and chronic if it lasts longer than six months.
sw	Homa ya ini ni kali wakati inapodumu chini ya miezi sita na sugu wakati unapozidi miezi sita.

en	A chest X-ray and multiple sputum cultures for acid-fast bacilli are typically part of the initial evaluation.
sw	kifua X-ray na  nyingi sputum utamadumi kwa bacilli asidi haraka ni kawaida sehemu ya tathmini ya awali.

en	Diagnosis of primary HIV before seroconversion is done by measuring HIV-RNA or p24 antigen.
sw	Utambuzi wa VVU vya kimsingi hufanywa kabla ya kuzalishwa kwa zindiko mpya kwa kupima RNA ya VVU au antijeni ya p24.

en	Cold temperatures may also play a role, with exacerbations occurring more commonly in winter.
sw	Hali ya baridi ya hewa pia inaweza kuchangia, huku maumivu zaidi yakitokea zaidi majira ya baridi.

en	Life expectancy has fallen in the worst-affected countries due to HIV/AIDS; for example, in 2006 it was estimated that it had dropped from 65 to 35 years in Botswana.
sw	Kiwango cha matarajio ya urefu wa maisha kimepungua katika nchi zilizoathirika zaidi kutokana na VVU; kwa mfano, mwaka wa 2006, ilikadiriwa kuwa kiwango hiki kilipungua kutoka miaka 65 hadi 35 nchini Botswana.

en	AIDS was first recognized by the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in 1981 and its cause—HIV infection—was identified in the early part of the decade.
sw	UKIMWI ulitambuliwa mara ya kwanza na Vituo vya Kuzuia na Kudhibiti Magonjwa huko Marekani mwaka 1981, ilhali kisababishi chake - VVU - kilitambuliwa mwanzoni mwa muongo huo nchini huko.

en	Intensive Care.
sw	Intensive Care.

en	Long-term treatment with steroid tablets is associated with significant side effects.
sw	Matibabu ya muda mrefu na tembe za steroidi huhusiana na madhara makubwa.

en	Until recently, it was reported that Nightingale reduced mortality from 40% to 2% on the battlefield.
sw	Nightingale aliweza kupunguza viwango vya kifo kutoka 40% hadi 2% kwa kujenga dhana ya utunzaji mkubwa.

en	In people coinfected with M. tuberculosis and HIV, the risk of reactivation increases to 10% per year.
sw	Katika watu kuambukiza pamoja na M. kifua kikuu na VVU, hatari ya muathiriko inaongezeka hadi 10% kwa mwaka.

en	In 2011, there were approximately 730,000 hospitalizations in the United States for COPD.
sw	Katika mwaka wa 2011, takriban watu 730,000 walilazwa hospitalini kutokana na ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa.

en	Application of a vaginal gel containing tenofovir (a reverse transcriptase inhibitor) immediately before sex seems to reduce infection rates by approximately 40% among African women.
sw	Kutumia mafuta ya ukeni yanaliyo na tenofovir muda mfupi kabla ya ngono hukisiwa kupunguza viwango vya maambukizi kwa takriban 40% miongoni mwa wanawake wa Kiafrika.

en	Early treatments included garlic, cinnamon and ipecac, among others.
sw	Matibabu ya kitambo yalikuwa kitunguu saumu, mdalasini na ipecac, miongoni mwa mengine.

en	The closest relative of HIV-2 is SIV(smm), a virus of the sooty mangabey (Cercocebus atys atys), an Old World monkey living in coastal West Africa (from southern Senegal to western Ivory Coast).
sw	Virusi vinavyohusiana kwa karibu na VVU-2 ni VSVU(smm) ambavyo ni virusi vya mangabi mwenye masizi (Cercocebus atys atys), tumbili wa kale anayeishi Afrika Magharibi (kutoka kusini mwa Senegali hadi magharibi mwa Côte d'Ivoire).

en	In primary TB disease (some 1–5% of cases), this occurs soon after the initial infection.
sw	Katika ugonjwa wa TB ya msingi (baadhi 1-5% ya kesi), hii hutokea mara baada ya maambukizi ya awali.

en	In England, an estimated 0.84 million people (of 50 million) have a diagnosis of COPD; this translates into approximately one person in 59 receiving a diagnosis of COPD at some point in their lives.
sw	Uingereza, karibu watu milioni 0.84 (kati ya milioni 50&nbsp) wamepatikana kuwa na ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa; hii ni takriban mtu mmoja kwa kila watu 59 wanaofanyiwa utambuzi wa ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa wakati fulani maishani mwao.

en	It is thought that several transmissions of the virus from individual to individual in quick succession are necessary to allow it enough time to mutate into HIV.
sw	Inadhaniwa kuwa maambukizi kadhaa ya virusi hivyo kutoka kwa mtu hadi mwingine katika mfululizo wa haraka huhitajika ili vipate wakati unaotosha kubadilika na kuwa VVU.

en	AIDS stigma has been further divided into the following three categories:
sw	Unyanyapaa dhidi ya watu wanaoishi na UKIMWI, umegawanywa zaidi katika vikundi vitatu kama ifuatavyo:

en	Many resource-poor places as of 2011 have access to only sputum microscopy.
sw	Wengi raslimali maeneo kama ya 2011 bado tu kupata hadubini makohozi.

en	Based on these criteria treatment is effective in more than 95% of people during the first year.
sw	Kulingana na kigezo hiki, matibabu huwa mwafaka kwa zaidi ya 95% ya watu katika mwaka wa kwanza.

en	Infections appear to be the cause of 50 to 75% of cases, with bacteria in 30%, viruses in 23%, and both in 25%.
sw	Maambukizi huonekana kuwa kisababishi cha asilimia 50 hadi 70 ya visa, huku bakteria ikichangia asilimia 25, virusi asilimia 25 na zote mbili asilimia 25.

en	They also used Kaposi's sarcoma and opportunistic infections, the name by which a task force had been set up in 1981.
sw	"Wavumbuzi pia walitumia ""Sakoma ya Kaposi na Maambukizi nyemelezi"", jina lililokuwa la kikosi cha kiutendaji kilichoanzishwa mwaka wa 1981."

en	The World Health Organization (WHO), the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, and the U.S. government are subsidizing a fast-acting diagnostic tuberculosis test for use in low- and middle-income countries as of 2012.
sw	Shirika la Afya Duniani  na Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation ni kutoa ruzuku mpya haraka-kaimu uchunguzi mtihani kwa ajili ya matumizi katika nchi chini na kipato cha kati.

en	Prior to 2012 sustained response occurs in about 40–50% in people with HCV genotype 1 given 48 weeks of treatment.
sw	Majibu endelevu ni kadiri asilimia 40-50 kwa watu wenye HCV genotype 1 kwa muda wa wiki 48 ya matibabu.

en	These fires are a method of cooking and heating for nearly 3 billion people, with their health effects being greater among women due to greater exposure.
sw	Mioto hii ni mbinu ya kupikia na kupasha moto kwa takriban watu bilioni 3 athari zake za kiafya zikiwa juu katika wanawake kutokana na uhatarisho zaidi.

en	"These are collectively denoted as ""extrapulmonary tuberculosis""."
sw	"Kifua kikuu kinachotokea nje ya viungo vya kupumua kinaitwa ""extrapulmonary tuberculosis""."

en	Attempts over 5 years lead to success in nearly 40% of people.
sw	Mara nyingi majaribio kadhaa huhitajika kabla ya kukoma kabisa kutimika.. Majaribu ya zaidi ya miaka 5 husababisha mafanikio katika takiban asilimia 40 ya watu.

en	The United States instituted universal screening in 1992 and Canada instituted universal screening in 1990.
sw	Marekani ilirasimisha uchunguzi mnamo mwaka 1992.

en	Without treatment, average survival time after infection with HIV is estimated to be 9 to 11 years, depending on the HIV subtype.
sw	Wastani wa muda wa kuishi baada ya kuambukizwa unakadiriwa kuwa kati ya miaka 9-1  bila matibabu, ikitegemea aina ya VVU.

en	Sputum may be swallowed or spat out, depending often on social and cultural factors.
sw	Makohozi yanaweza kumezwa au kutemwa kulingana na jamii na tamaduni.

en	However, in countries where incidence rates have declined dramatically (such as the United States), TB is mainly a disease of older people and the immunocompromised (risk factors are listed above).
sw	Hata hivyo, katika nchi ambapo matukio viwango zimepungua kasi ( kama vile Marekani), TB ni ugonjwa wa watu hasa wakubwa na kinga iliyoathirika.

en	The spores of anthrax are able to survive in harsh conditions for decades or even centuries.
sw	Spora au chembe za bakteria zinaweza kuishi kwa mamia ya miaka.

en	Chiron filed for several patents on the virus and its diagnosis.
sw	Chiron aliwasilisha hataza kadhaa kuhusu virusi na uchunguzi wake.

en	These infections may affect nearly every organ system.
sw	Maambukizi haya yanaweza kujumuisha kuvimba kwa tezi za mwili wote.

en	These conditions include ischemic heart disease, high blood pressure, diabetes mellitus, muscle wasting, osteoporosis, lung cancer, anxiety disorder, sexual dysfunction, and depression.
sw	Magonjwa haya ni pamoja na: ugonjwa wa moyo wenye iskemia, shinikizo la juu la damu, kisukari melitasi, kuharibika kwa misuli, osteoporosisi, saratani ya mapafu, hali ya wasiwasi na mfadhaiko.

en	The amount of sputum produced can change over hours to days.
sw	Kiasi cha makohozi yanayotolewa kinaweza kubadilika baada ya saa hadi siku kadhaa.

en	There is currently no cure, nor an effective HIV vaccine.
sw	Kwa sasa hakuna tiba au chanjo ya VVU mwafaka.

en	This is a particular problem in sub-Saharan Africa, where rates of HIV are high.
sw	Hili ni tatizo hasa katika Afrika kusini mwa Sahara , ambapo viwango vya HIV ni kubwa.

en	Measures to prevent opportunistic infections are effective in many people with HIV/AIDS.
sw	Mikakati ya kuzuia maambukizi nyemelezi hufaa watu wengi wenye VVU/UKIMWI.

en	During the chronic phase, the consequences of generalized immune activation coupled with the gradual loss of the ability of the immune system to generate new T cells appear to account for the slow decline in CD4+ T cell numbers.
sw	Katika awamu ya muda mrefu, matokeo ya uwezeshaji wa kijumla wa kingamwili ukiandamana na udhaifu wa pole pole wa uwezo wa mfumo wa kingamwili kuzalisha seli mpya za T hukisiwa kuchangia kupungua kwa pole pole kwa idadi ya seli za  CD4+ T.

en	HIV is also one of the most important risk factors for tuberculosis.
sw	VVU pia ni kipengele kikuu zaidi cha hatari ya kifua kikuu.

en	HIV-1 appears to have originated in southern Cameroon through the evolution of SIV(cpz), a simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) that infects wild chimpanzees (HIV-1 descends from the SIVcpz endemic in the chimpanzee subspecies Pan troglodytes troglodytes).
sw	VVU-1 vinaaminika kutoka kusini mwa Cameroon kupitia kugeuka kwa VSVU(cpz), (virusi vya sokwe vinavyosababisha ukosefu wa kinga mwilini) vinavyoambukiza sokwe wa mwituni (VVU-1 hutokana na mzuko wa magonjwa ya VSVUcpz katika nususpishi ya sokwe iitwayo Pan troglodytes troglodytes).

en	Crackles may also be heard over the lungs on examination with a stethoscope.
sw	Sauti pia zinaweza kusikika kwenye mapafu yanapochunguzwa kwa stethoskopu.

en	If a worker develops COPD, further lung damage can be reduced by avoiding ongoing dust exposure, for example by changing the work role.
sw	Mfanyi kazi akipata ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa, uharibikaji zaidi wa mapafu unaweza kupunguzwa kwa kuepuka kutangamana na vumbi, kwa mfano kwa kubadilisha majukumu ya kikazi.

en	CD4+ T cells in mucosal tissues remain particularly affected.
sw	Seli za CD4+ T katika tishu za ute husalia zikiwa zimeathiriwa sana.

en	At the same time, Montagnier's group isolated a virus from a person presenting with swelling of the lymph nodes of the neck and physical weakness, two characteristic symptoms of AIDS.
sw	Wakati huohuo, kikundi cha Montagnier kilitambua virusi kutoka kwa mgonjwa aliyekuwa na uvimbe wa tezi za limfu kwenye shingo na udhaifu wa mwili ambazo ni dalili mbili bainifu za UKIMWI.

en	Stage IV or AIDS: severe symptoms, which include toxoplasmosis of the brain, candidiasis of the esophagus, trachea, bronchi, or lungs, and Kaposi's sarcoma.
sw	Awamu ya IV ya UKIMWI: dalili kali zinazojumuisha toksoplasmosi ya ubongo, ukungu wa umio, trakea,  bronkasi au mapafu na  sakoma ya Kaposi.

en	"It is commonly described as: ""my breathing requires effort,"" ""I feel out of breath,"" or ""I can't get enough air in."" Different terms, however, may be used in different cultures."
sw	"Kwa kawaida watu hueleza tatizo hili kwa kusema: ""kupumua kwangu kunahitaji juhudi kuu,"" ""Najihisi nimekosa pumzi,"" au "" sipati pumzi za kutosha""."

en	"Life magazine said the photo became the one image ""most powerfully identified with the HIV/AIDS epidemic."""
sw	LIFE magazine ilisema kuwa picha hiyo ilikuja kufahamika kama picha maarufu zaidi kuwahi kuhusishwa na janga la UKIMWI/VVU.

en	Although the virus may have been present in the United States as early as 1966, the vast majority of infections occurring outside sub-Saharan Africa (including the U.S.) can be traced back to a single unknown individual who became infected with HIV in Haiti and then brought the infection to the United States at some time around 1969.
sw	Kuna uwezekano kuwa virusi hivyo vilikuwemo huko Marekani mwaka 1966,lakini maambukizi mengi yanayotokea nje ya Kusini kwa Sahara yanaweza kufuatiliwa hadi kwa mtu mmoja aliyeambukizwa na VVU katika nchi ya Haiti na kisha kuyapeleka maambukizi hayo nchini Marekani takriban mwaka 1969.

en	Other types of smoke, such as, marijuana, cigar, and water-pipe smoke, also confer a risk.
sw	Aina zingine za moshi kama vile bangi, sigara na shisha pia zina athari.

en	During primary infection, the level of HIV may reach several million virus particles per milliliter of blood.
sw	Katika kipindi cha kwanza cha maambukizi, kiwango cha VVU kinaweza kufika milioni kadhaa za chembe za virusi kwa kila mililita ya damu.

en	These tests, however, are not routinely recommended, as they rarely alter how a person is treated.
sw	Vipimo hivi, hata hivyo, si mara kwa mara ilipendekeza, kama wao mara chache kubadilisha jinsi mtu ni kutibiwa.

en	In the mid-1970s, Harvey J. Alter, Chief of the Infectious Disease Section in the Department of Transfusion Medicine at the National Institutes of Health, and his research team demonstrated how most post-transfusion hepatitis cases were not due to hepatitis A or B viruses.
sw	Katika miaka ya 1970 katikati, Harvey J. Alter, Mkuu wa Sehemu ya Magonjwa ya Maambukizi katika Idara ya Madawa ya Kujidunga kwa mishii katika Taasisi ya Kitaifa ya Afya, na timu yake ya utafiti walionyesha kuwa kesi nyingi za utoaji  wa baada-damu ya homanyongohazikutokana na viruzi vya homanyongoA au B. Licha ya ugunduzi huu, jitihada za utafiti wa kimataifa za kutambua virusi zilishindiana kwa miaka kumi ifuatayo.

en	This severe form of TB disease, most common in young children and those with HIV, is called miliary tuberculosis.
sw	Aian hii kali ya ugonjwa wa TB hupatika kawaida zaidi kwa watoto wachanga na wale wanaoishi na VVU, inaitwa kifua kikuu military .

en	Risk of cancer appears to increase once the CD4 count is below 500/μL.
sw	Hatari ya saratani huonekana kuongezeka ikiwa kiwango cha CD4 kitashuka chini ya 500/uL.

en	In some professions, the risks have been estimated as equivalent to that of one-half to two packs of cigarettes a day.
sw	Katika kazi zingine, hatari imekadiriwa kuwa sawa na pakiti nusu hadi mbili za sigara kila siku.

en	Those with obstructed airflow may have wheezing or decreased sounds with air entry on examination of the chest with a stethoscope.
sw	Watu walio na njia za pumzi zilizofungana wanaweza kuwa na kukorota au sauti ndogo pumzi inapoingia mapafuni, wanapochunguzwa kwa stethoskopu.

en	They provide some relief of symptoms for four to six hours.
sw	Hizi hupunguza ukali wa  dalili kwa saa nne hadi sita.

en	This has resulted in improvements in the lung function of their populations.
sw	Hii imepelekea kuboresha utendakazi wa mapafu wa watu wao.

en	The greatest reduction in air flow occurs when breathing out, as the pressure in the chest is compressing the airways at this time.
sw	Upunguaji mkubwa wa kupita kwa hewa hutokea wakati wa kupumua nje kwa sababu shinikizo ndani mwa kifua linabana njia za hewa wakati huu.

en	People giving or receiving tattoos, piercings, and scarification are theoretically at risk of infection but no confirmed cases have been documented.
sw	Watu wanaochanja au kuchanjwa chale, chale za mwili na kutia kovu hudhaniwa kuwa katika hatari ya kuambukizwa, ingawa hakuna visa vilivyothibitishwa ambavyo vimenakiliwa.

en	Fewer than 20% of exacerbations require hospital admission.
sw	Chini ya asilimia 20 ya maumivu zaidi huhitaji kulazwa hospitalini.

en	"At one point the CDC coined the phrase ""the 4H disease"", for the syndrome seemed to affect heroin users, homosexuals, hemophiliacs, and Haitians."
sw	"Wakati mmoja, Kituo cha Kudhibiti na Kuzuia Magonjwa kiliunda msemo ""ugonjwa wa 4H"", kwani sindromu hii ilionekana kuwaathiri watu wa Haiti, mashoga (homosexuals), wenye hemofilia na watumiaji wa heroini."

en	Some experts fear that a lower perception of vulnerability among circumcised men may cause more sexual risk-taking behavior, thus negating its preventive effects.
sw	Baadhi ya wataalamu wanahofia kuwa dhana ya kiwango cha chini cha hatari miongoni mwa wanaume waliotahiriwa inaweza kupelekea mienendo hatari zaidi, hivyo wanapinga faida ya mbinu hii katika kukinga.

en	HIV/AIDS is considered a pandemic—a disease outbreak which is present over a large area and is actively spreading.
sw	UKIMWI huchukuliwa kama janga — yaani mlipuko wa ugonjwa katika eneo kubwa, na ambao ungali unaenea.

en	When the Medical Research Council formed in Britain in 1913, it initially focused on tuberculosis research.
sw	Wakati Medical Council Utafiti iliundwa katika Uingereza katika 1913, lengo yake ya awali ilikuwa kifua kikuu utafiti.

en	M. microti is also rare and is seen almost only in immunodeficient people, although its prevalence may be significantly underestimated.
sw	M. microti pia ni adimu na inawaathiri zaidi watu wenye upungufu wa kingamwili, ingawa ugonjwa huu unaweza kuwa umeenea zaidi kuliko inavyofikiriwa

en	Viral Hepatitis at the Centers for Disease Control
sw	Virusi Hepatitis katika vituo kwa ajili ya Udhibiti wa Magonjwa

en	In low-income countries, the risk of female-to-male transmission is estimated as 0.38% per act, and of male-to-female transmission as 0.30% per act; the equivalent estimates for high-income countries are 0.04% per act for female-to-male transmission, and 0.08% per act for male-to-female transmission.
sw	Kuhusu ngono zembe baina ya watu wa jinsia tofauti, makadirio ya hatari ya kusambazwa kwa VVU kwa kila kitendo cha ngono yanaonekana kuwa zaidi kwa mara 10 katika mataifa yasiyostawi kuliko mataifa yaliyostawi.Katika mataifa yasiyostawi, hatari ya usambazaji wa mwanamke hadi mwanamume imekadiriwa kuwa 0.38% kwa kila kitendo, huku usambazaji wa mwanamume hadi mwanamke ukiwa 0.30%; makadirio mbadala katika mataifa yaliyostawi ni 0.04% kwa kila kitendo katika usambazaji wa mwanamke hadi mwanamume, na 0.08% kwa kila kitendo katika maambukizi ya mwanamume hadi mwanamke.

en	A good CD8+ T cell response has been linked to slower disease progression and a better prognosis, though it does not eliminate the virus.
sw	Mwitikio bora wa seli za CD8+ T umehusishwa na kupungua kwa mwendo wa ugonjwa na pia prognosi bora zaidi, ingawa mwitikio huu hauondoi virusi.

en	The global numbers are expected to continue increasing as risk factors remain common and the population continues to get older.
sw	Idadi za kimataifa zinatarajiwa kuendelea kuongezeka visababishi vya hatari vinapoendelea kutokea sana na watu wakiendelea kuzeeka.

en	A working lexicon for the tele-intensive care unit: We need to define tele-intensive care unit to grow and understand it (PDF).
sw	A working lexicon for the tele-intensive care unit: We need to define tele-intensive care unit to grow and understand it.

en	It resulted in about 1 million deaths in 2016, down from a peak of 1.9 million in 2005.
sw	Hali hii ilisababisha karibu vifo milioni 1.8 mwaka 2010 ikilinganishwa na milioni 3.1 katika mwaka 2001.

en	Critical Care.
sw	Critical Care.

en	When one member of a family died from the disease, the other infected members would lose their health slowly.
sw	Wakati mmoja wa familia walikufa kutokana na hilo, wanachama wengine walioambukizwa bila kupoteza afya yao polepole.

en	A number of groups, including the Stop TB Partnership, the South African Tuberculosis Vaccine Initiative, and the Aeras Global TB Vaccine Foundation, are involved with research.
sw	Idadi ya makundi, ikiwa ni pamoja na  Ushirikiano Stop TB , ] Afrika Kifua Initiative Chanjo, na the  Aeras TB Duniani Foundation Chanjo , wanahusika na utafiti.

en	India had the largest total incidence, with an estimated 2.0 million new cases.
sw	India ilikuwa kubwa jumla ya matukio, na wastani wa kesi 2.0 milioni mpya.

en	During acute exacerbations, many require oxygen therapy; the use of high concentrations of oxygen without taking into account a person's oxygen saturations may lead to increased levels of carbon dioxide and worsened outcomes.
sw	Wakati wa maumivu Zaidi makali, wengi huhitaji tiba ya oksijeni; utumizi wa viwango vikubwa vya oksijeni bila kuzingatia viwango vya mtu vya oksijeni unaweza kusababisha ongezeko la dioksidi ya kaboni na matokeo mabaya.

en	The increase in the developing world between 1970 and the 2000s is believed to be related to increasing rates of smoking in this region, an increasing population and an aging population due to fewer deaths from other causes such as infectious diseases.
sw	Ongezeko katika nchi zinazostawi kati ya mwaka wa 1970 na miaka ya 2000 inaaminika kuhusiana na viwango vinavyoongezeka vya uvutaji katika eneo hili, ongezeko la idadi ya watu na watu wanaozeeka kutokana na kupungua kwa vifo kutoka kwa visababishi vingine kama vile magonjwa ya kuambukiza.

en	US: National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health.
sw	National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health.

en	If treatment is started late in the infection, prognosis is not as good: for example, if treatment is begun following the diagnosis of AIDS, life expectancy is ~10–40 years.
sw	Matibabu huwa hayafaulu yanapoanzishwa yakiwa yamechelewa katika prognosi, kwa mfano, matibabu yakianzishwa kufuatia utambuzi katika kiwango cha UKIMWI, matarajio ya urefu wa maisha huwa miaka~10–40.

en	The topic of religion and AIDS has become highly controversial, primarily because some religious authorities have publicly declared their opposition to the use of condoms.
sw	Mada kuhusu dini na UKIMWI imekuwa ikikumbwa na utata mwingi katika miaka thelathini iliyopita, hasa kwa sababu baadhi ya viongozi wa dini wametangaza hadharani kwamba wanapinga utumiaji kondomu.

en	Nebulization may be easier for those who are more unwell.
sw	Kinebulishi kinaweza kuwa rahisi kwa walio wagonjwa zaidi.

en	The BCG vaccine has limitations, and research to develop new TB vaccines is ongoing.
sw	Chanjo ya BCG ina mapungufu, na utafiti wa kuendeleza chanjo ya TB mpya ni unaoendelea.

en	Pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) with a daily dose of the medications tenofovir, with or without emtricitabine, is effective in people at high risk including men who have sex with men, couples where one is HIV-positive, and young heterosexuals in Africa.
sw	Proflaksisi ya kabla ya hatari pamoja na kipimo cha kila siku cha dawa ya tenofovir (ikiwa na au bila emtricitabine) ni mwafaka kwa vikundi fulani, ikijumuisha: mashoga, wachumba wa wenye VVU na vijana wa Afrika wanaovutiwa na watu wa jinsia tofauti.

en	Gallo claimed a virus which his group had isolated from a person with AIDS was strikingly similar in shape to other human T-lymphotropic viruses (HTLVs) that his group had been the first to isolate.
sw	Gallo alidai kuwa virusi vilivyokuwa vimetambuliwa kwa mara ya kwanza na kikundi chake kilikuwa sawa katika umbo na virusi vya binadamu vya limfotrophia-T. Kikundi cha Gallo kiliviita virusi hivi HTLV-III.

en	In the general press the term GRID, which stood for gay-related immune deficiency, had been coined.
sw	"Katika vyombo vikuu vya habari liliundwa neno ""GRID"" (lililosimamia ""gay-related immune deficiency"", yaani ""ukosefu wa kinga uliohusishwa na mashoga""."

en	The only measures that have been shown to reduce mortality are smoking cessation and supplemental oxygen.
sw	Hatua pekee zilizodhibitishwa kuweza kupunguza vifo ni kusitisha uvutaji na oksijeni ya kuongeza.

en	However, he had been diagnosed as HIV-positive in 1987.
sw	Hata hivyo, Mercury alikuwa ametambuliwa kuwa na ugonjwa huo mwaka 1987.

en	The overall effect in relation to smoking, however, is believed to be small.
sw	Hata hivyo, athari ya kijumla ya uchafuzi huu ikilinganishwa na uvutaji inaaminika kuwa ndogo.

en	In 15–20% of active cases, the infection spreads outside the lungs, causing other kinds of TB.
sw	Kadri ya 15-20% ya madhara yanayoletwa na ugonjwa yanaletwa na maambukizi yanayoenea nje ya viungo vya kupumua, na husababisha aina nyingine ya kifua kikuu.

en	This response is accompanied by a marked drop in the number of circulating CD4+ T cells.
sw	Mwitikio huu huandamana na kiwango kikubwa cha kushuka kwa idadi ya seli za CD4+ T zinazozunguka.

en	Proponents of this dating link the HIV epidemic with the emergence of colonialism and growth of large colonial African cities, leading to social changes, including a higher degree of sexual promiscuity, the spread of prostitution, and the accompanying high frequency of genital ulcer diseases (such as syphilis) in nascent colonial cities.
sw	Wanaotaja kipindi hicho maalumu huhusisha mzuko wa janga la VVU na kuibuka kwa ukoloni na ukuaji wa miji mikubwa ya kikoloni ya Afrika, huku ukisababisha mabadiliko ya jamii pamoja na kiwango kikubwa cha uasherati, uenezi wa ukahaba na matukio mengi ya vidonda vya viungo vya uzazi (kama vile kaswende) katika miji iliyochipuka.

en	A number of developed countries have successfully improved outdoor air quality through regulations.
sw	Baadhi ya nchi zilizostawi zimefanikiwa katika kudumisha ubora wa nje kupitia kanuni.

en	IDSA/AASLD.
sw	Athari nje ya ini

en	If tuberculosis recurs, testing to determine which antibiotics it is sensitive to is important before determining treatment.
sw	Kama kifua kikuu kurudia, kupima na kuamua ambayo antibiotiki ni nyeti ni muhimu kabla ya kuamua matibabu.

en	A person with fully susceptible MTB may develop secondary (acquired) resistance during therapy because of inadequate treatment, not taking the prescribed regimen appropriately (lack of compliance), or using low-quality medication.
sw	Mtu aliye na TB kikamilifu wanahusika inaweza kuendeleza sekondari (alipewa) upinzani wakati wa tiba kwa sababu ya tiba za kutosha, si kuchukua regimen eda ipasavyo (ukosefu wa kufuata), au kwa kutumia chini quality dawa.

en	Liver biopsies are used to determine the degree of liver damage present; however, there are risks from the procedure.
sw	Biopsi za ini zinaweza kuamua kiwango cha uharibifu wa ini, lakini kuna hatari kutokana na utaratibu huo.

en	The vaccine is usually effective against three or four types of influenza.
sw	Chanjo hii husaidia dhidi ya aina tatu au nne za influenza.

en	A small group of individuals continue to dispute the connection between HIV and AIDS, the existence of HIV itself, or the validity of HIV testing and treatment methods.
sw	Kikundi kidogo cha watu kingali kinakana uhusiano wa VVU na UKIMWI,  uwepo wa VVU au ubora wa vipimo vya VVU na njia za matibabu.

en	For the time being, insecticide-treated mosquito nets and insecticide sprays are used to prevent the spread of malaria, as are antimalarial drugs – particularly to vulnerable people such as pregnant women and young children.
sw	Kati ya shughuli muhimu za WHO ni progframu za kupambana na magonjwa yanayoathiri watu wengi kama vile Malaria, Ukimwi au SARS.

en	During 2008 in the United States approximately 1.2 million people were living with HIV, resulting in about 17,500 deaths.
sw	Mwaka wa 2008 nchini Marekani, takriban watu milioni 1.2 walikuwa wakiishi na VVU, hivyo kupelekea takriban vifo 17,500.

en	It contains living bacteria, and thus can spread the infection.
sw	Ni aina ya bakteria hai, na hivyo inaweza kueneza maambukizi.

en	Many people with more advanced COPD breathe through pursed lips and this action can improve shortness of breath in some.
sw	Watu wengi walio na ugonjwa sugu wa mapafu yaliyofungana ulioendelea hupumua kupitia midomo iliyofunguka kidogo na hatua hii inaweza kuboresha kupumua katika baadhi ya watu.

en	Operation INFEKTION was a worldwide Soviet active measures operation to spread the claim that the United States had created HIV/AIDS.
sw	Urusi ulianzisha Operesheni INFEKTION, uhamasisho wa ulimwengu mzima kueneza habari kuwa VVU/UKIMWI ulitengenezwa na Marekani.

en	Genotype 1 is also the most common in South America and Europe.
sw	Genotype 1 ndio inayojulikana zaidi katika nchi za Amerika ya Kusini na Ulaya.

en	The risk of reactivation increases with immunosuppression, such as that caused by infection with HIV.
sw	hatari ya kuongezeka kwa muathiriko immunosuppression, kama vile kuwa husababishwa na maambukizi ya VVU.

en	The two major types are β2 agonists and anticholinergics; both exist in long-acting and short-acting forms.
sw	Kuna aina mbili kuu, β2 agonists na kinza kikolini;  ambazo huwa katika aina ya muda mrefu na ile ya muda mfupi.

en	There is some evidence to suggest that female condoms may provide an equivalent level of protection.
sw	Kuna ushahidi mdogo unaoonyesha kuwa kondomu za wanawake una kiwango sawa cha kinga.

en	In those with advanced disease, palliative care may reduce symptoms, with morphine improving the feelings of shortness of breath.
sw	kwa walio na ugonjwa uliokithiri, utunzajia wa kutuliza unaweza kupunguza dalili, na morphine kukabiliana na hisia za upungufu wa pumzi.

en	Tuberculosis has been present in humans since ancient times.
sw	Kifua kikuu kimekuwepo kwa binadamu tangu zamani sana.

en	Although most HIV-1 infected individuals have a detectable viral load and in the absence of treatment will eventually progress to AIDS, a small proportion (about 5%) retain high levels of CD4+ T cells (T helper cells) without antiretroviral therapy for more than five years.
sw	Ingawa watu wengi walioambukizwa VVU-1 wana kiwango cha virusi kinachoweza kutambulika, na ambacho bila matibabu kitaendelea na kuwa UKIMWI, idadi ndogo (5%) huwa na kiwango kikubwa cha seli za CD4+(seli saidizi za T) bila matibabu ya kudhibiti virusi kwa zaidi ya miaka 5.

en	Extrapulmonary TB occurs more commonly in people with a weakened immune system and young children.
sw	Extrapulmonary TB hutokea zaidi kwa wagonjwa   wenye upungufu wa kingamwili na watoto wadogo.

en	Social distancing, also called physical distancing, is a set of non-pharmaceutical interventions or measures taken to prevent the spread of a contagious disease by maintaining a physical distance between people and reducing the number of times people come into close contact with each other.
sw	Umbali kimwili (kwa Kiingereza: social distancing au physical distancing) ni ushauri wa kulinda afya unaotumika ili kudumisha umbali kati ya watu wakati wa maambukizo.

en	Silica dust and fiberglass dust exposure can also lead to COPD, with the risk unrelated to that for silicosis.
sw	Uhatarisho wa vumbi yasilika pia unaweza kusababisha ugonjwa sugu wa mapafu yaliyofungana, na hatari isiyohusiana na ile ya silikosisi.

en	Rates per 100,000 people in different areas of the world were: globally 178, Africa 332, the Americas 36, Eastern Mediterranean 173, Europe 63, Southeast Asia 278, and Western Pacific 139 in 2010.
sw	Viwango kila watu 100,000 katika maeneo mbalimbali ya dunia ambapo: Kimataifa 178, 332 Kusini, Amerika 36, Bahari ya Mashariki 173, Ulaya 63, Asia ya Kusini 278, na 139 Pacific Magharibi katika 2010   Nchini Canada na Australia, kifua kikuu ni mara nyingi zaidi ya kawaida kati ya  Watu wa asili,hasa katika maeneo ya kijijini.Katika Marekani watu wa asili  kuwa vifo vya mara tano zaidi kutoka TB.

en	MTB can withstand weak disinfectants and survive in a dry state for weeks.
sw	MTB inaweza kuhimili kemikali dhaifu na hivi vimelea vinaweza kuishi katika   sehemu kavu kwa wiki moja.

en	Both types of agent appear to reduce the risk of acute exacerbations by 15–25%.
sw	Aina zote mbili za ajenti huonekana kupunguza hatari za maumivu makali zaidi kwa asilimia 15-25.

en	After about two weeks of effective treatment, subjects with nonresistant active infections generally do not remain contagious to others.
sw	Baada ya wiki mbili ya matibabu ya ufanisi, masomo na maambukizi kutokana-upinzani maambukizi kwa ujumla hayazidi kuenea kwa wengine.

en	"People with emphysema have been known as ""pink puffers"" or ""type A"" due to their frequent pink complexion, fast respiratory rate and pursed lips, and people with chronic bronchitis have been referred to as ""blue bloaters"" or ""type B"" due to the often bluish color of the skin and lips from low oxygen levels and their swollen ankles."
sw	"Walio na emfisema wamejulikana kama ""wapumua waridi"" au ""aina A"" kutokana na rangi yao ya waridi ya uso, kiwango cha haraka cha kupumua na midomo iliyofungwa, na watu walio na bronkitisi sugu wameitwa ""blota za bluu"" au ""aina B"" kutokana na rangi ya bluu kwenye ngozi na midomo mara kwa mara kutokana na viwango vya chini vya oksijeni na kuvimba kwa tindi za miguu."

en	An analysis of arterial blood is used to determine the need for oxygen; this is recommended in those with an FEV1 less than 35% predicted, those with a peripheral oxygen saturation less than 92%, and those with symptoms of congestive heart failure.
sw	uchanganuzi wa damu ya ateri hutumiwa kutambua hitaji la oksijen; hii inapendekezwa kwa walio na upumuji wa nje wa kulazimishwa1 chini ya asilimia 35 iliyobashiriwa, wale walio na kiwango cha oksijeni ya pembezoni chini ya asilimia 92 na walio na dalili za kusongamana na moyo kukosa kufanya kazi kwa moyo.

en	Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole prophylaxis between four and six weeks of age, and ceasing breastfeeding of infants born to HIV-positive mothers, is recommended in resource-limited settings.
sw	Kinga ya Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole kati ya wiki 4-6 na kukoma kunyonyesha watoto waliozaliwa na mama mwenye VVU hupendekezwa katika sehemu zenye upungufu wa raslimali.

en	Limitations in the implementation and enforcement of stringent standard precautions in public and private medical and dental facilities are known to be the primary cause of the spread of HCV in Egypt, the country with highest rate of infection in the world.
sw	Hali mbaya ya hospitali au za kliniki za madaktari wa meno ndio sababu kubwa za maambukizi ya HCV nchini Misri, ni nchi yenye kiasi kikubwa cha maambukizi duniani.

en	Appropriate preventive measures reduced the rate of these infections by 50% between 1992 and 1997.
sw	Mikakati mwafaka ya kinga imepunguza kiwango cha maambukizi kwa 50% katika miaka 1992-1997.

en	During the acute phase, HIV-induced cell lysis and killing of infected cells by CD8+ T cells accounts for CD4+ T cell depletion, although apoptosis may also be a factor.
sw	Katika awamu kali, lisisi ya seli inayosababishwa na VVU, na pia kuangamizwa kwa seli za T angamizi huchangia katika kuharibiwa kwa seli za CD4+ T, ingawa apoptosi pia inaweza kuchangia hali hii.

en	In those who have had a recent exacerbation, pulmonary rehabilitation appears to improve the overall quality of life and the ability to exercise.
sw	kwa wale ambao wamekuwa na maumivu zaidi  hivi karibuni,kurudisha mapafu katika hali ya kawaida huonekana kuendeleza ubora wa maisha kwa jumla na uwezo wa kufanya mazoezi, na kupunguza vifo.

en	Silicosis increases the risk about 30-fold.
sw	Kwa Silicosis kuongeza hatari kuhusu mara 30.

en	However, most infections with M. tuberculosis do not cause TB disease, and 90–95% of infections remain asymptomatic.
sw	Hata hivyo, wengi maambukizi na M. kifua kikuu wala kusababisha ugonjwa wa Kifua Kikuu,  na 90-95% ya maambukizi ya kubaki bila dalili.

en	"About 25% of people may not have any symptoms (i.e. they remain ""asymptomatic"")."
sw	"Kadri ya 25% ya watu hawana dalili yoyote (yaani, wao hawaonyeshi ""dalili"")  Wakati mwingine, wagonjwa."

en	Although Richard Morton established the pulmonary form associated with tubercles as a pathology in 1689, due to the variety of its symptoms, TB was not identified as a single disease until the 1820s.
sw	Ingawa aina ya mapafu kuhusishwa na tubercles  ilianzishwa kama patholojia na Dr Richard Morton katika 1689. kutokana na aina ya dalili yake, TB ilikuwa si kutambuliwa kama ugonjwa mmoja hadi miaka ya 1820, na haikuitwa kifua kikuu mpaka 1839 na J. L. Schönlein.

en	Antiviral medications such as the neuraminidase inhibitor oseltamivir, among others, have been used to treat influenza.
sw	Dawa za kupambana na virusi kama vile kizuio cha neuraminidase oseltamivir miongoni mwa nyingine zimetumika kutibu influenza.

en	"The latter two species are classified as ""nontuberculous mycobacteria"" (NTM)."
sw	"Hizi aina mbili za mwisho zinajulikana kama ""nontuberculous mycobacteria ""(NTM)."

en	Sleep hygiene recommendations include establishing a regular sleep schedule, using naps with care, not exercising physically or mentally too close to bedtime, limiting worry, limiting exposure to light in the hours before sleep, getting out of bed if sleep does not come, not using bed for anything but sleep and avoiding alcohol as well as nicotine, caffeine, and other stimulants in the hours before bedtime, and having a peaceful, comfortable and dark sleep environment.
sw	Usafi wa kimwili ni kitendo cha kuwa safi kimwili ila si lazima usafi huo uendane na ule wa kiroho, kimatendo, kimaneno.

en	Antibody tests in children younger than 18 months are typically inaccurate, due to the continued presence of maternal antibodies.
sw	Vipimo vya zindiko kwa watoto wa umri wa chini ya miezi 18  kwa kawaida huwa kasoro kwa sababu ya uwepo endelevu wa zindiko za mama.

en	The World Health Organization (WHO) has achieved some success with improved treatment regimens, and a small decrease in case numbers.
sw	Shirika la Afya Duniani (WHO) imepata baadhi ya mafanikio mazoezi kuboresha tiba, na kupungua kwa idadi ndogo ya kesi.

en	To the naked eye, this has the texture of soft, white cheese and is termed caseous necrosis.
sw	Kwa jicho uchi, hii ina umbo la jibini laini, nyeupe na inaitwa caseous necrosis.

en	Further bronchodilators, such as salbutamol, were developed in the 1970s, and the use of LABAs began in the mid-1990s.
sw	Vitanua bronkasi zaidi, kama vile salbutamol, vilitengenezwa katika miaka ya 1970, na matumizi ya LABAs yakaanza katikati mwa miaka ya 1990.

en	Those at high risk thus include: people who inject illicit drugs, inhabitants and employees of locales where vulnerable people gather (e.g. prisons and homeless shelters), medically underprivileged and resource-poor communities, high-risk ethnic minorities, children in close contact with high-risk category patients, and health-care providers serving these patients.
sw	magereza na malazi makazi), jamii  wasiojiweza kimatibabu na wasio na mtaji, ya hatari kwa makabila madogo, watoto katika mawasiliano ya karibu na  hatari ya hali ya juu kwa jamii ya wagonjwa na watoa huduma ya afya ya kuwahudumia wateja.

en	Early 1900s colonial cities were notable for their high prevalence of prostitution and genital ulcers, to the degree that, as of 1928, as many as 45% of female residents of eastern Kinshasa were thought to have been prostitutes, and, as of 1933, around 15% of all residents of the same city had syphilis.
sw	Miji ya kikoloni ya miaka ya kwanza ya 1900 ilijulikana kwa maambukizi ya viwango vya juu kutokana na ukahaba na vidonda vya viungo vya uzazi, hivi kwamba, kufikia mwaka 1928, 45% ya wanawake wakazi wa mashariki mwa Kinshasa walidhaniwa kuwa makahaba.

en	Supplemental oxygen is recommended in those with low oxygen levels at rest (a partial pressure of oxygen less than 50–55 mmHg or oxygen saturations of less than 88%).
sw	oksijeni zaidi hupendekezwa kwa walio na viwango vya chini vya oksijeni wakiwa wametulia (shinikizo dogo la oksijeni la chini ya  mmHg 50-55 au ujazo wa chini wa oksijeni  kwa asilimia 88).

en	A single sneeze can release up to 40,000 droplets.
sw	kuchafya moja inaweza kutoa juu ya matone 40,000.

en	The hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a small, enveloped, single-stranded, positive-sense RNA virus.
sw	Virusi vya Homa ya nyongo C ni vidogo, vilivyo ndani ya kibahasha, na kiuzi kimoja, vina RNA yenye virusi.

en	The World Health Organization (WHO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations responsible for international public health.
sw	World Health Organization - WHO) ni kitengo cha Umoja wa Mataifa.

en	Hepatitis C testing typically begins with blood testing to detect the presence of antibodies to the HCV, using an enzyme immunoassay.
sw	Upimaji wa Homa ya nyongo C kwa kawaida huanza na vipimo vya damu ili kugundua uwepo wa kingamwili kwa HCV kwa kutumia kimeng'enya immunoassay.

en	It does not typically spread directly between people.
sw	Kwa kawaida haiambukizi kutoka kwa mtu mmoja hadi mwingine.

en	Bronchodilators came into use in the 1960s following a promising trial of isoprenaline.
sw	Vitanua bronkasi vilianza kutumika katika miaka ya 1960 baada ya majaribio yenye matumaini ya isoprenaline.

en	Inhaled bronchodilators are the primary medications used, and result in a small overall benefit.
sw	Vitanua bronkasi vilivyopumuliwa ndani ndivyo tiba za kimsingi zinazotumika na husababisha manufaa machache kwa jumla.

en	To encourage further discovery, researchers and policymakers are promoting new economic models of vaccine development as of 2006, including prizes, tax incentives, and advance market commitments.
sw	Kuhamasisha ugunduzi zaidi, watafiti na watunga sera ni kukuza mpya mifano ya kiuchumi ya maendeleo ya chanjo, ikiwa ni pamoja na zawadi, motisha ya kodi, na  ahadi mapema Soko .

en	The proportion of disability from COPD globally has decreased from 1990 to 2010 due to improved indoor air quality primarily in Asia.
sw	Sehemu ya ulemavu unaotokana na ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa ulimwenguni imepungua tangu mwaka wa 1990 hadi 2010 kutokana na kuboreshwa kwa hali ya hewa ndani ya nyumba hasa Asia.

en	Significant weight loss is a bad sign.
sw	Kupoteza uzani sana ni ishara mbaya.

en	They are used as the main source of energy in 80% of homes in India, China and sub-Saharan Africa.
sw	Mioto hii hutumika kama chanzo kikuu cha nishati katika asilimia 80 za jamii nchini India, China na  mataifa ya kusini mwa Sahara.

en	The second-most frequent mode of HIV transmission is via blood and blood products.
sw	Njia ya pili maarufu zaidi ya usambazaji wa VVU ni kupitia kwa damu na mazao yake.

en	Of 77 countries reviewed, 25 (including the United States) were found to have prevalences of hepatitis C in the intravenous drug user population of between 60% and 80%.
sw	Uchunguzi uliofanya katika nchi 77 zimeonyesha kwamba katika nchi 25 ambayo Marekani ni mojawapo, asilimia ya watu wanaopata Homa ya nyongo C kwa kutumia madawa ya kulevya kwa kujidunga sindano ni asilimia 60 hadi 80  na Uchina.

en	Contradicting the report from Gallo's group, Montagnier and his colleagues showed that core proteins of this virus were immunologically different from those of HTLV-I. Montagnier's group named their isolated virus lymphadenopathy-associated virus (LAV).
sw	Huku wakikanusha ripoti ya kikundi cha Gallo, Montagnier na wenzake walionyesha kuwa viini vya protini vya virusi hivyo vilikuwa tofauti na HTLV-I kiukingamwili.

en	Affected tissue is replaced by scarring and cavities filled with caseous necrotic material.
sw	Tishu zilizoathirika hubadilishwa kuwa kovu na matundu huujazwa kwa  kisiesheni ya  nekritiki.

en	Although the symptoms of immune deficiency characteristic of AIDS do not appear for years after a person is infected, the bulk of CD4+ T cell loss occurs during the first weeks of infection, especially in the intestinal mucosa, which harbors the majority of the lymphocytes found in the body.
sw	Ingawa dalili za udhaifu wa kingamwili kama ulivyo katika UKIMWI hazitokei kwa miaka  mingi baada ya kuambukizwa, kiwango kikubwa cha kuharibika kwa seli za CD4+ T hutokea katika wiki za kwanza baada ya kuambukizwa, hasa katika ute wa utumbo, ambao huwa na kiwango kikubwa cha limfosaiti zote za mwili.

en	The per-act risk is estimated at 0–0.04% for receptive oral intercourse.
sw	Hatari ya kila kitendo imekadiriwa kuwa 0 – 0.04% kwa ngono pokezi ya mdomoni.

en	Those with more severe underlying disease have more frequent exacerbations: in mild disease 1.8 per year, moderate 2 to 3 per year, and severe 3.4 per year.
sw	Watu walio na magonjwa mengine makali fiche huwa na  maumivu zaidi mara nyingi: katika ugonjwa wa kiwango cha chini, 1.8 kwa kila mwak; kiwango cha wastani, 2 hadi 3 kwa mwaka; na kiwango kikali 3.4 kwa mwaka.

en	HCV is not spread through casual contact, such as hugging, kissing, or sharing eating or cooking utensils.
sw	HCV haimbukizwi kwa kushikana kama vile kukumbatiana, kupeana busu, au kula kwa pamoja au kutumia kwa pamoja vyombo vya kulia chakula.

en	A vaccine made for one year may not be useful in the following year, since the virus evolves rapidly.
sw	Chanjo iliyotengenezwa kwa mwaka mmoja huenda isitumike katika mwaka ufuatao, kwa kuwa virusi hubadilika haraka.

en	All parts of the body can be affected by the disease, though for unknown reasons it rarely affects the heart, skeletal muscles, pancreas, or thyroid.
sw	Maeneo yote ya mwili yanaweza kuathirika kwa ugonjwa huo, ingawa kwa sababu isiyojulikana ni mara chache tu huathiri   moyo, skeletal misulis,  kongosho , au tezi.

en	It does not appear to affect mortality or the overall hospitalization rate.
sw	Haionekani kuathiri kiwango cha vifo au kiwango cha jumla cha kulazwa hospitalini.

en	"Using histological stains on expectorated samples from phlegm (also called ""sputum""), scientists can identify MTB under a microscope."
sw	Kwa kutumia vipimo vya kimaabara vya kansa histological kwa kuweka madoa juu ya sampuli ya mate yaliyotoka kwenye makohozi, wanasayansi wanaweza kutambua MTB chini ya makroskopi (nyepesi) ya kawaida.

en	Intravenous drug use is an important risk factor, and harm reduction strategies such as needle-exchange programs and opioid substitution therapy appear effective in decreasing this risk.
sw	Matumizi ya dawa zinazodungwa mishipani ni kipengele muhimu cha hatari, hivyo mikakati ya kupunguza madhara kama vile miradi ya kubadilisha sindano na matibabu ya kubadilisha opioidi yanaonekana kufaulu kupunguza hatari.

en	If blood contaminates food during pre-chewing it may pose a risk of transmission.
sw	Iwapo damu itachafua chakula wakati wa mtoto kutafuna, itaongeza hatari ya kuambukiza.

en	Chronic bronchitis may occur with normal airflow and in this situation it is not classified as COPD.
sw	Bronkiolitisi sugu inaweza kutokea hata kwa upitaji wa kawaida wa hewa na katika hali hii haiainishwi kama ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa.

en	He died as a result on February 6, 1993, aged 49.
sw	Ashe alifariki kutokana na UKIMWI akiwa na umri wa miaka 49 tarehe 6 Februari 1993.

en	A number of measures have been taken to reduce the likelihood that workers in at-risk industries—such as coal mining, construction, and stonemasonry—will develop COPD.
sw	Hatua kadhaa zimechukuliwa kupunguza uwezekano kuwa wafanyi kazi katika viwanda vyenye hatari—kama vile kuchimba makaa ya mawe,ujenzi na kuchonga mawe—watapata ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa.

en	Extensively drug-resistant TB is also resistant to three or more of the six classes of second-line drugs.
sw	Sana sugu TB pia ni sugu kwa tatu au zaidi ya madarasa sita ya madawa ya mstari wa pili.

en	By the 1950s mortality in Europe had decreased about 90%.
sw	Vifo vya kisha ilipungua karibu 90% kwa miaka ya 1950.

en	Studies using DNA fingerprinting of M. tuberculosis strains have shown reinfection contributes more substantially to recurrent TB than previously thought, with estimates that it might account for more than 50% of reactivated cases in areas where TB is common.
sw	Mafunzo kutumia DNA ya alama ya kidole  ya M. kifua kikuu Matatizo umeonyesha kuambukiza tena inachangia zaidi kikubwa kwa TB ya kawaida zaidi kuliko ilivyodhaniwa hapo awali,na makadirio ili akaunti kwa zaidi ya 50% ya kesi ku hai tena  katika maeneo ambapo TB ni ya kawaida.

en	This situation is referred to as cor pulmonale, and leads to symptoms of leg swelling and bulging neck veins.
sw	Hali hii huitwa ugonjwa wa moyo na mapafu, na husababisha dalili za kufura miguu na kufura kwa mishipa ya shingo.

en	Screening is also recommended in those with elevated liver enzymes, as this is frequently the only sign of chronic hepatitis.
sw	Uchunguzi pia inapendekezwa kwa watu wenye muinuko wa kimeng'enya ya ini kwani hii ni ishara ya pekee ya homanyongosugu ya mara kwa mara.

en	They are also associated with increased risk of heart disease and stroke.
sw	Pia zinahusiana na ongezeko la hatari ya ugonjwa wa moyo na kiharusi

en	In the developing world, one of the common sources of air pollution is poorly vented heating and cooking fires.
sw	Katika nchi zinazoendelea, chanzo kikuu cha uchafuzi wa hewa ni kupikia au kuwasha moto mahali pasipo hewa ya kutosha.

en	Cor pulmonale has become less common since the use of supplemental oxygen.
sw	Ugonjwa wa moyo na mapafu umekuwa nadra tangu kuvumbuliwa kwa oksijeni ya mtungi.

en	Methods to remind people of the importance of treatment and appointments may result in a small but important improvement.
sw	Mbinu ya kuwakumbusha watu kuhusu umuhimu wa tiba wala hata hivyo kuonekana ufanisi.

en	In 1946 the development of the antibiotic streptomycin made effective treatment and cure of TB a reality.
sw	Katika mwaka 1946, maendeleo yastreptomycin  Kiviujasumu  alifanya matibabu ya ufanisi na tiba ya TB ukweli.

en	Owing to these studies, both the World Health Organization and UNAIDS recommended male circumcision in 2007 as a method of preventing female-to-male HIV transmission in areas with high rates of HIV.
sw	Kwa msingi wa tafiti hizi, mashirika ya SAD na UNAIDS yalipendekeza tohara kama mbinu ya kuzuia uambukizaji VVU kutoka kwa mwanamke hadi mwanamume mwaka 2007.

en	The Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI) is a medical research centre in East Africa.
sw	Taasisi ya Utafiti wa Matibabu ya Kenya au 'Kenya Medical Research Institute' (KEMRI) kwa Kiingereza ni shirika la serikali lililoanzishwa na  Amri ya marekebisho ya Sayansi na Teknologia ya mwaka 1979, kama shirika la kitaifa la kufanya utafiti wa afya nchini Kenya.

en	Proper stoves may improve indoor air quality by 85%.
sw	Stovu bora zinaweza kuboresha hewa ya ndani mwa nyumba kwa asilimia 85.

en	The typical changes seen are lymphocytes within the parenchyma, lymphoid follicles in portal triad, and changes to the bile ducts.
sw	Mabadiliko ya kawaida biopsi hutambua ni lymphocytes ndani ya tishu ya ini, vinyeleo vya limfu katika triad portal, na mabadiliko kwa vichirizi vya nyongo.

en	This is expected to more than double by the year 2030.
sw	Hii inatarajiwa kuwa zaidi ya mara mbili katika miaka 20 ijayo.

en	The duration of treatment is usually four weeks and is frequently associated with adverse effects—where zidovudine is used, about 70% of cases result in adverse effects such as nausea (24%), fatigue (22%), emotional distress (13%) and headaches (9%).
sw	Kwa kawaida, muda wa matibabu huwa wiki nne na mara nyingi huhusishwa na athari kali (zidovudine ikiwa na takriban 70% ya visa, ikijumuisha 24% kichefuchefu, 22% uchovu, 13% mafadhaiko na 9% maumivu ya kichwa.

en	Treatment during the first six months is more effective than once hepatitis C has become chronic.
sw	Tiba katika miezi sita za kwanza ni bora zaidi kuliko baada ya homa ya nyongo C kuwa sugu.

en	The lower infectivity of HIV-2 as compared with HIV-1 implies that fewer people exposed to HIV-2 will be infected per exposure.
sw	Kiwango cha chini zaidi cha uambukizaji wa VVU-2 ikilinganishwa na VVU-1 huonyesha kuwa watu wachache zaidi walio katika hatari ya VVU-2 wataambukizwa kila wanapokumbana na virusi hivi.

en	About 80% of people in many Asian and African countries test positive while 5–10% of people in the United States population test positive by the tuberculin test.
sw	Kadri ya 80% ya watu katika nchi nyingi za Asia na Afrika waliofanyiwa kipimo cha ngozi walionekana wameambukizwa, lakini ni asilimia 5-10% tu ya wananchi wa Marekani ambao walionekana na ugonjwa huo.

en	In Canada as of 2008, there were about 65,000 cases causing 53 deaths.
sw	Nchini Kanada, kufikia 2008 kulikuwa na visa 65,000 vilivyopelekea vifo 53.

en	A chronic cough is often the first symptom to develop.
sw	Kwa kawaida, kikohozi sugu ndiyo dalili ya kwanza kutokea.

en	Corticosteroids are usually used in inhaled form, but may also be used as tablets to treat  acute exacerbations.
sw	Kotikosteroidi kwa kawaida hutumika kama aina ya kupumua ndani lakini pia zinaweza kutumika kama tembe kutibu na kuzuia maumivu makali zaidi.

en	These potential new treatments have come about due to a better understanding of the hepatitis C virus.
sw	Uwezekano wa matibabu haya mapya yamekuja kutokana na uelewa mzuri wa virusi vya homa ya nyongo C.

en	Other known pathogenic mycobacteria include M. leprae, M. avium, and M. kansasii.
sw	"Mycobacteria zingine zinazojulikana ni pamoja na ""M. leprae,""  ""M. avium,""  na ""M. kansasii""."

en	It is usually well tolerated.
sw	Kwa kawaida hustahimilika vyema.

en	Those who have experienced a needle stick injury from someone who was HCV positive have about a 1.8% chance of subsequently contracting the disease themselves.
sw	Mtu mwenye jeraha la sindano kutoka kwa mtu aliyeathiriwa na HCV ana uwezo wa asilimia 1.8 ya kupata ugonjwa  Hatari inaongezeka kama sindano inayotumika ina shimo kubwa na jeraha ni kubwa.

en	It is more virulent, more infective, and is the cause of the majority of HIV infections globally.
sw	Virusi hivi vina sumu kali, vyenye kuambukiza, na ndivyo visababishi vikuu vya visa vingi vya maambukizi ya VVU kote ulimwenguni.

en	Phthisis (Φθισις) is a Greek word for consumption, an old term for pulmonary tuberculosis; around 460 BCE, Hippocrates described phthisis as a disease of dry seasons.
sw	Phthisis ni neno la Kigiriki kwa ajili ya matumizi, mrefu zamani kwa ajili ya kifua kikuu cha mapafu;  ] karibu 460 BC, Hippocrates kutambuliwa phthisis kama ugonjwa kuenea zaidi ya nyakati.

en	Hand sanitizer is a liquid, gel, or foam generally used to decrease infectious agents on the hands.
sw	Kitakasa mikono (kwa Kiingereza: hand sanitizer) ni kiowevu au jeli inayotumika kupunguza pathojeni (viini viambukizavyo magonjwa) kwenye mikono.

en	A number of industries and sources have been implicated, including high levels of dust in coal mining, gold mining, and the cotton textile industry, occupations involving cadmium and isocyanates, and fumes from welding.
sw	Viwanda na vyanzo kadhaa vimelaumiwa, ikiwa ni pamoja na  viwango vya juu vya vumbi katika uchimbaji makaa ya mawe, uchimbaji dhahabu, na viwanda vya nguo za pamba, kazi zinazohusisha kadimiamu na isosianati, na moshi wa kulehemu.

en	Countries with particularly high rates of infection include Egypt (22%), Pakistan (4.8%) and China (3.2%).
sw	Nchi zilizi na viwango vya juu sana vya maambukizi ni  Misri (asilimia 22), Pakistani (asilimia 4.8) na Uchina (asilimia 3.2).

en	As of 2010 more than 6.6 million people were receiving this in low- and middle-income countries.
sw	Kufikia mwaka 2010, zaidi ya watu milioni 6.6  wa nchi za mapato ya chini na ya kati walikuwa wakitumia dawa hizo.

en	Hopes of totally controlling the disease have been dramatically dampened because of a number of factors, including the difficulty of developing an effective vaccine, the expensive and time-consuming diagnostic process, the necessity of many months of treatment, the increase in HIV-associated tuberculosis, and the emergence of drug-resistant cases in the 1980s.
sw	Matumaini ya kudhibiti ugonjwa huo kabisa wamekuwa kasi unyevunyevu  kwa sababu ya mambo kadhaa, ikiwa ni pamoja na ugumu wa kuendeleza chanjo ufanisi, ghali na muda mwingi uchunguzi wa mchakato, umuhimu wa miezi mingi ya matibabu, ongezeko la maambukizi ya virusi-kuhusishwa kifua kikuu , na kuibuka wa kesi sugu katika miaka ya 1980.

en	Three of the most common are that AIDS can spread through casual contact, that sexual intercourse with a virgin will cure AIDS, and that HIV can infect only gay men and drug users.
sw	Dhana tatu kuu ni kwamba UKIMWI unaweza kusambazwa kwa kumgusa mtu, kuwa ngono na bikira itatibu UKIMWI na kuwa VVU vinaweza tu kuambukiza mashoga na watumiaji wa madawa.

en	During the first 2.5 months of an HIV infection a person's infectiousness is twelve times higher due to the high viral load associated with acute HIV.
sw	Katika miezi 2.5 ya kwanza baada ya kuambukizwa VVU, uwezo wa mtu kuambukiza ni mara 12 zaidi kwa sababu ya wingi wa virusi.

en	Tuberculosis generally affects the lungs, but can also affect other parts of the body.
sw	Kifua kikuu kwa kawaida kinaathiri mapafu, lakini pia kinaweza kuathiri sehemu nyingine za mwili.

en	Tattooing is associated with two to threefold increased risk of hepatitis C. This can be due to either improperly sterilized equipment or contamination of the dyes being used.
sw	Uchoraji wa mwili unaongeza hatari mara mbili au tatu zaidi ya kupata Homa ya nyongo C. Hii inaweza kuwa kwa sababu vifaa vinavyotumiwa sio visafi au kuambukizwa na rangi iliyotumika.

en	The following paragraph adds:
sw	Kuna ofisi sita za kikanda kama zifuatazo:

en	This is especially true if the sharp increase in adult mortality shifts the responsibility from the family to the government in caring for these orphans.
sw	Hali hii hutokea hasa iwapo ongezeko kubwa la vifo vya watu wazima litapelekea kubadilika kwa wajibu wa kuwatunza mayatima hawa kutoka kwa familia hadi kwa serikali.

en	Specific proposed high-risk transmission channels, allowing the virus to adapt to humans and spread throughout the society, depend on the proposed timing of the animal-to-human crossing.
sw	Njia maalumu za hatari kubwa ya maambukizi zinazoruhusu virusi hivi kubadilika ili kuweza kuishi katika wanadamu na kuenea katika jamii yote hutegemea wakati uliopendekezwa wa kuvuka kutoka kwa mnyama hadi mwanadamu.

en	It takes about 6–8 weeks following infection before the immunoassay will test positive.
sw	Inachukua wiki sita hadi nane kwa kufuatia maambukizi kabla ya vipimo vya immunoassay kuonekana kuwa yako.

en	In some countries, mortality has decreased in men but increased in women.
sw	Katika nchi zingine, vifo zimepungua kwa wanaume na kuongezeka kwa wananwake.

en	Tiffeneau and Pinelli in 1947 described the principles of measuring airflow.
sw	Tiffeneau and Pinelli katika mwaka wa  1947 walieleza kanuni za kupima kupita kwa hewa.

en	Risks are also associated with invasive procedures, assisted delivery, and dental care in this area of the world.
sw	Hatari kuu huhusishwa na taratibu vamizi, kusaidiwa kuzaa na utunzaji wa meno katika sehemu hii ya dunia.

en	The World Health Organization first proposed a definition for AIDS in 1986.
sw	Shirika la Afya Duniani lilipendekeza ufasili wa UKIMWI mara ya kwanza mwaka wa 1986.

en	The immunity it induces decreases after about ten years.
sw	Hata hivyo, kinga ni kuvuta itapungua baada ya miaka kumi.

en	By contrast, use of the spermicide nonoxynol-9 may increase the risk of transmission due to its tendency to cause vaginal and rectal irritation.
sw	Kinyume na hili, matumizi ya spemisidi nonoxynol-9 yanaweza kuongeza hatari ya kuambukizwa kwa sababu ya uwezo wake wa kuleta mwasho wa uke na rektamu.

en	Consistent condom use reduces the risk of HIV transmission by approximately 80% over the long term.
sw	Matumizi ya kondomu ya kila mara hupunguza hatari ya kuambukizana UKIMWI kwa takriban 80% katika muda mrefu wa usoni.

en	Tuberculosis is classified as one of the granulomatous inflammatory diseases.
sw	Kifua Kikuu huainishwa kama moja ya magonjwa granuloma ya inflamesheni tatizi.

en	COPD is more common in older people; it affects 34–200 out of 1000 people older than 65 years, depending on the population under review.
sw	Ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa hutokea sana kwa wazee; huathiri watu 34-200 kwa kila watu 1000 wenye umri wa Zaidi ya miaka 65  kulingana na watu waliozingatiwa.

en	This is between two thirds and nearly that of the general population.
sw	Hii ni kati ya 2/3 na karibu na kiwango cha umma.

en	Tuberculosis caused widespread public concern in the 19th and early 20th centuries as the disease became common among the urban poor.
sw	Kifua Kikuu unasababishwa zaidi kuenea umma wasiwasi katika karne ya 19 na 20 mapema kama ugonjwa wa  ndwele maskini wa mijini.

en	Despite their differences, the two systems allow comparison for statistical purposes.
sw	Ingawa mifumo hii miwili ni tofauti, yote huwezesha ulinganishaji kwa ajili ya malengo ya kitakwimu.

en	It may also be spread from an infected mother to her baby during birth.
sw	Maambukizi kutoka kwa mama hadi kwa mtoto

en	In non-smokers, exposure to second-hand smoke is the cause in up to 20% of cases.
sw	Kwa watu wasio wavutaji, moshi unaotokana na watu wengine ni kisababishi cha takriban asilimia 20 ya visa.

en	Nucleic acid amplification tests and adenosine deaminase testing may allow rapid diagnosis of TB.
sw	Nucleic asidi amplification mithani na kupita Triphosphate deaminase huweza kuruhusu uchunguzi wa haraka wa TB.

en	Spirometry measures the amount of airflow obstruction present and is generally carried out after the use of a bronchodilator, a medication to open up the airways.
sw	Upimaji wa pumzi hupima kiwango cha kuzuiwa kwa upitaji wa hewa uliopo na kawaida hufanywa baada ya utumizi wa kitanua bronkasi, tiba ya kufungua njia za hewa.

en	Efforts in Great Britain have been less successful.
sw	Jitihada katika Uingereza wamekuwa chini ya mafanikio.

en	"This is typically based on the FEV1 expressed as a percentage of the predicted ""normal"" for the person's age, gender, height, and weight."
sw	Hii ni kwa msingi wa  kupumulia kulicho lazimishwa1 ikielezwa kama asilimia ya............kwa umri, jinsia, urefu na uzito wa mtu.

en	Tuberculosis co-infection is one of the leading causes of sickness and death in those with HIV/AIDS being present in a third of all HIV-infected people and causing 25% of HIV-related deaths.
sw	Maambukizi pacha ya kifua kikuu ni mojawapo ya visababishi vikuu vya vifo vya watu wenye VVU/UKIMWI, huku yakipatikana katika 1/3 ya watu walioambukizwa VVU na husababisha 25% ya vifo vinavyohusiana na VVU.

en	The evidence for treatment in genotype 6 disease is sparse and what evidence there is supports 48 weeks of treatment at the same doses used for genotype 1 disease.
sw	Ushahidi wa matibabu katika ugonjwa genotype 6 kwa sasa ni chache, na ushahidi uliopo ni wa muda wa wiki 48 ya tiba katika vipimo sawa na ugonjwa wa genotype 1.

en	These dormant bacilli produce active tuberculosis in 5–10% of these latent cases, often many years after infection.
sw	Hizi bacilli kulala kuzalisha kifua kikuu kazi katika% 5-10 ya kesi hizi sioonekana, mara nyingi miaka mingi baada ya kuambukizwa.

en	These populations include people who are:
sw	Sumu nyingine zinazoweza kusababisha homa ya ini:

en	Pulmonary rehabilitation is a program of exercise, disease management, and counseling, coordinated to benefit the individual.
sw	Kurudisha mapafu katika hali ya kawaida ni programu ya mazoezi, udhibiti wa ugonjwa na ushauri, vilivyopangwa kumfaidi mtu binafsi.

en	Before death they will not only be unable to work, but will also require significant medical care.
sw	Kando ya kutoweza kufanya kazi, watu hao pia huhitaji kiwango kikubwa cha huduma za afya.

en	In 1987, Michael Houghton, Qui-Lim Choo, and George Kuo at Chiron Corporation, collaborating with Daniel W. Bradley at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, used a novel molecular cloning approach to identify the unknown organism and develop a diagnostic test.
sw	Mwaka 1987, Michael Houghton, qui-Lim Choo, na George Kuo katika Shirika la Chiron, wakishirikiana na Dkt.

en	There are many misconceptions about HIV and AIDS.
sw	Kuna aina nyingi za dhana potovu kuhusu VVU na UKIMWI.

en	When people with active pulmonary TB cough, sneeze, speak, sing, or spit, they expel infectious aerosol droplets 0.5 to 5.0 µm in diameter.
sw	Wakati watu walio na TB hukohoa mapafu, hupiga chafya, kuzungumza, kuimba, au kutema mate, wao hutoa viambukizi erosoli matone 0.5 na 5 µm katika kipenyo.

en	He received the Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine in 1905 for this discovery.
sw	Alipokea Tuzo ya Nobel katika in Fizilojia au dawa katika 1905 kwa ugunduzi huu.

en	Intravenous drug use (IDU) is a major risk factor for hepatitis C in many parts of the world.
sw	Matumizi ya madawa ya kulevya kwa kujidunga sindano ndiyo sababu kubwa ya kusambaza Homa ya nyongo C katika nchi nyingi duniani.

en	For example, in meningococcal infections, an attack rate in excess of 15 cases per 100,000 people for two consecutive weeks is considered an epidemic.
sw	Kwa mfano, kama maambukizi kutokana na bakteria ya meningococcus (yanayosababisha meninjitisi, yaani ugonjwa wa uti wa mgongo) yanazidi watu 15 kati ya 100,000 katika kipindi cha wiki 2, hali hutazamwa kuwa epidemiki.

en	In 2018 about 37.9 million people were living with HIV and it resulted in 770,000 deaths.
sw	Kufikia mwaka 2018 walau watu wapatao 37,900,000 walikuwa wakiishi na VVU na kila mwaka watu milioni 2 wengine wanambukizwa.

en	In the United States, it is believed that it is related to more than 30% of cases among those who have never smoked and probably represents a greater risk in countries without sufficient regulations.
sw	Nchini Marekani, uhatarisho huu unaaminika kuhusiana na zaidi ya asilimia 30 ya visa katika watu wasiowahi kuvuta, na inawezekana huwakilisha hatari kubwa zaidi katika nchi zisizo na sheria za kutosha.

en	The rate of clinical disease progression varies widely between individuals and has been shown to be affected by a number of factors such as a person's susceptibility and immune function; their access to health care, the presence of co-infections; and the particular strain (or strains) of the virus involved.
sw	Kiwango cha kuendelea kwa ugonjwa wa kiutambuzi hutofautiana pakubwa katika watu mbalimbali na kimedhihirika kuathiriwa na vipengele kadhaa, kama vile uhatarisho na utendaji wa kingamwili; uwezo wa kufikia huduma ya afya na uwepo wa maambukizi pacha; pamoja na aina ya (au za) virusi husika.

en	"In 1814 Charles Badham used ""catarrh"" to describe the cough and excess mucus in chronic bronchitis."
sw	"Katika mwaka wa 1814 Charles Badham alitumia ""katara"" kueleza kikohozi na kamasi Zaidi katika bronkitisi sugu."

en	The number of deaths is projected to increase further because of higher smoking rates in the developing world, and an ageing population in many countries.
sw	Idadi ya vifo imetabiriwa kuongezeka kutokana na viwango vya juu vya uvutaji na idadi ya watu wanaozeeka katika nchi nyingi.

en	NTM cause neither TB nor leprosy, but they do cause lung diseases that resemble TB.
sw	NTM hazisababishi kifua kikuu au ukoma, lakini husababisha magonjwa ya mapafu yanayofanana na kifua kikuu

en	Even cases that do get seen by a family doctor or a hospital are often misdiagnosed as one of the many common infectious diseases with overlapping symptoms.
sw	Hata visa vinavyotambuliwa na daktari wa familia au katika hospitali mara nyingi hutambulika vibaya kama baadhi ya visababishi vingi vya magonjwa ambukizi yaliyo na dalili zinazoingiliana.

en	During active disease, some of these cavities are joined to the air passages (bronchi) and this material can be coughed up.
sw	Wakati wa kuugua, baadhi ya mashimo hayo huungana na mapito ya hewa bronchi na nyenzo hii inaweza kutoka kwa kikohozi.

en	Evidence for using spirometry among those without symptoms in an effort to diagnose the condition earlier is of uncertain effect, so currently is not recommended.
sw	Ushahidi wa kutumia upimaji wa pumzi kwa wasio na dalili katika kutambua ugonjwa mapema ni wa matokeo yasiyobayana na kwa hivyo kwa sasa haupendekezwi.

en	In the advanced stages, or end stage pulmonary disease, it occurs during rest and may be always present.
sw	Katika awamu za baadaye, ugumu wa kupumua hutokea wakati wa kupumzika na unaweza kuwepo kila wakati.

en	This means that about 5% of the adult population is infected and it is believed to be the cause of 10% of all deaths in children.
sw	Hii inamaanisha kuwa karibu 5% ya watu wazima wana virusi hivi na vinaaminika kuwa kisababishi cha 10% ya vifo vyote vya watoto.

en	The overall number of years lived with disability from COPD, however, has increased.
sw	Idadi ya miaka ya kuishi na ulemavu unaotokana na ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa mapafu, hata hivyo, imeongezeka.

en	A competing patent application by the CDC was dropped in 1990 after Chiron paid $1.9 million to the CDC and $337,500 to Bradley.
sw	Maombi ya mashindano ya hataza na CDC ilikuwa imeshuka mwaka 1990 baada ya Chiron kulipa dola milioni 1,900,000 kwa CDC na dola 337,500 kwa Bradley.

en	Methylxanthines such as theophylline generally cause more harm than benefit and thus are usually not recommended, but may be used as a second-line agent in those not controlled by other measures.
sw	Methylxanthines kama vile theophylline husababisha madhara zaidi ya manufaa na kwa hivyo kwa kawaida hazipendekezwi, lakini zinaweza kutumika kama ajenti za kundi la pili kwa magonjwa yasiyothibitiwa na hatua zingine.

en	The M. tuberculosis complex (MTBC) includes four other TB-causing mycobacteria: M. bovis, M. africanum, M. canetti, and M. microti.
sw	"Mchangamano wa ""M. tuberculosis (MTBC) ni pamoja na bakteria nyingine nne zinazosababisha kifua kikuu {mycobacteria: ""M. bovis,"" ""M. africanum,"" ""M. canetti,"" pamoja na ""M."

en	Between 1838 and 1845, Dr. John Croghan, the owner of Mammoth Cave in Kentucky from 1839 onwards, brought a number of people with tuberculosis into the cave in the hope of curing the disease with the constant temperature and purity of the cave air; each died within a year.
sw	Katika miaka 1838-1845, Dk John Croghan, mmiliki wa of Pango Mammoth ,  kuletwa idadi ya watu wenye kifua kikuu katika pango kwa matumaini ya kutibu ugonjwa na joto mara kwa mara na usafi wa hewa pango; walikufa ndani ya mwaka.

en	An effort to eradicate bovine tuberculosis caused by Mycobacterium bovis from the cattle and deer herds of New Zealand has been relatively successful.
sw	"jitihada za kutokomeza kifua kikuu ng’ombe unasababishwa na ""Bovis Mycobacterium"" kutoka kwa ng'ombe na mifugo kulungu wa New Zealand imekuwa na mafanikio."

en	Testing is not able to distinguish between acute and chronic infections.
sw	Uchunguzi hauwezi kutofautisha kati ya ugonjwa mahututi na ugonjwa sugu wa maini.

en	The risk of transmission from anal intercourse is especially high, estimated as 1.4–1.7% per act in both heterosexual and homosexual contacts.
sw	Hatari ya kuambukizwa kutokana na ngono ya kinyeo (ulawiti) iko juu sana, ikikadiriwa kuwa 1.4 – 1.7% kwa kila kitendo (katika ngono ya watu wa jinsia moja na tofauti pia).

en	In Europe, rates of tuberculosis began to rise in the early 1600s to a peak level in the 1800s, when it caused nearly 25% of all deaths.
sw	Katika Ulaya, viwango vya ugonjwa wa kifua kikuu ulianza kupanda katika miaka ya 1600 mapema kwa ngazi kilele katika miaka ya 1800, wakati unasababishwa karibu 25% ya vifo vyote.

en	Reasons for non-adherence to treatment include poor access to medical care, inadequate social supports, mental illness and drug abuse.
sw	Sababu za kutoafikiana hujumuisha: ufikiaji duni wa huduma za kimatibabu,huduma duni za kijamii, ugonjwa wa akili na uraibu wa madawa.

en	M. canetti is rare and seems to be limited to the Horn of Africa, although a few cases have been seen in African emigrants.
sw	M. Canetti  ni adimu sana na huonekana zaidi Eneo la Pembezoni mwa Afrika, ingawa kuna wagonjwa wachache kati ya wahamiaji wanaotoka Afrika.

en	"In those without acidosis from respiratory failure, home care (""hospital at home"") may be able to help avoid some admissions."
sw	"Kwa wasio na asidosisi inayotokana na matatizo ya kupumua, utunzaji wa nyumbani (""hospitali ya nyumbani"") unaweza kusaidia kuepuka kulazwa."

en	Evidence supporting the use of steroids in COPD was published in the late 1950s.
sw	Ushahidi wa kuunga mkono utumizi wa steroidi katika ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa ulichapishwa mwishoni mwa miaka ya 1950.

en	While the risk of transmission from oral sex is relatively low, it is still present.
sw	Ingawa hatari ya kuambukizwa kupitia ngono ya mdomoni iko chini, bado ipo.

en	Two main clinical staging systems are used to classify HIV and HIV-related disease for surveillance purposes: the WHO disease staging system for HIV infection and disease, and the CDC classification system for HIV infection.
sw	Mifumo miwili mikuu ya uainishaji hutumika kuainisha VVU na magonjwa husika kwa ajili ya uchunguzi: mfumo wa uainishaji wa magonjwa wa Shirika la Afya Duniani, na mfumo wa VKM wa uainishaji wa maambukizi ya VVU.

en	Primary HIV infection: May be either asymptomatic or associated with acute retroviral syndrome
sw	Maambukizi ya kimsingi ya VVU: Yanaweza kuwa bila dalili au yakihusishwa na sindromu kali ya retrovirusi.

en	Results of spirometry are also a good predictor of the future progress of the disease but are not as good as the BODE index.
sw	Matokeo ya upimaji wa pumzi pia ni kibashiri kizuri cha hali ya baadaye ya ugonjwa lakini si bora kama kielezo cha KUASHIRIA.

en	South & South East Asia is the second most affected; in 2010 this region contained an estimated 4 million cases or 12% of all people living with HIV resulting in approximately 250,000 deaths.
sw	Asia Kusini na Kusini Mashariki ni eneo la pili lililoathirika zaidi; mwaka wa 2010, eneo hili lilikuwa na kadirio la visa milioni 4  au 12% ya watu wote wanaoishi na VVU, hivyo kupelekea vifo vya takriban watu 250,000.

en	The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimated that in that year, 20% of infected Americans were unaware of their infection.
sw	Kituo cha Kudhibiti na Kuzuia Magonjwa kilikadiria kuwa, mwaka wa 2008, 20% ya Wamarekani waliokuwa na VVU hawakujua hali yao.

en	HIV/AIDS is diagnosed via laboratory testing and then staged based on the presence of certain signs or symptoms.
sw	VVU hutambuliwa kupitia uchunguzi wa kimaabara kisha kuainishwa kiawamu kwa msingi wa uwepo wa dalili au ishara fulani.

en	MDR-TB is defined as resistance to the two most effective first-line TB drugs: rifampicin and isoniazid.
sw	MDR-TB hufafanuliwa kama upinzani kwa mbili ya ufanisi zaidi madawa ya TB ya mstari wa kwanza: rifampicin na isoniazidi.

en	Chronic lung disease is another significant risk factor.
sw	uvimbe sugu ni sababu nyingine hatari ya ugonjwa.

en	Treatment recommendations for children are somewhat different from those for adults.
sw	Matibabu yanayopendekezewa watoto hutofautiana kidogo na ya watu wazima.

en	People with prolonged, frequent, or close contact with people with TB are at particularly high risk of becoming infected, with an estimated 22% infection rate.
sw	Watu wenye TB kwa muda mrefu akiwa, mara kwa mara, au karibu na watu na TB ni hatari hasa juu ya kuambukizwa, na kiwango cha wastani 22% ya kuambukiza.

en	It is the most widely used vaccine worldwide, with more than 90% of all children being vaccinated.
sw	Hata hivyo, ni wengi sana kutumika chanjo duniani kote, na zaidi ya 90% ya watoto wote kuwa chanjo.

en	PEP treatment is recommended after a sexual assault when the perpetrator is known to be HIV-positive, but is controversial when their HIV status is unknown.
sw	Matibabu hupendekezwa baada ya ubakaji iwapo mshukiwa anatambulika kuwa na VVU lakini yanakumbwa na utata iwapo hali yake haijulikani.

en	A sustained response occurs about 65% in those with genotype 4 after 48 weeks of treatment.
sw	Majibu endelevu ni kadiri ya asilimia 65 kwa watu wenye genotype 4 kwa muda wa wiki 48 ya matibabu.

en	The earliest well-documented case of HIV in a human dates back to 1959 in the Congo.
sw	Visa vilivyonakiliwa vyema vya VVU katika mwanadamu ni vya mwaka 1959 katika eneo la nchi ya Kongo.

en	This causes a slower growth of the tax base, an effect that is reinforced if there are growing expenditures on treating the sick, training (to replace sick workers), sick pay and caring for AIDS orphans.
sw	Hali hii kisha hupelekea upungufu wa ukuaji wa msingi wa ushuru, athari ambayo huongezeka iwapo kuna matumizi zaidi katika matibabu, mafunzo (ili kuchukua nafasi ya wafanyakazi wanaougua), kuwalipa wafanyakazi wagonjwa na kuwatunza mayatima wa UKIMWI.

en	Unless surgery is planned, however, this rarely affects management.
sw	Hata hivyo, isipokuwa upasuaji umepangwa, hii haiathiri udhibiti.

en	Tuberculosis may also present with a chronic cough and should be considered in locations where it is common.
sw	Kifua kikuu pia kinaweza kujitokeza kwa kikohozi sugu na kinafaa kuzingatiwa katika sehemu ambapo hutokea sana.

en	A person's genetic makeup also affects the risk.
sw	Maumbile ya kijenetiki pia huathiri uhatarisho wa mtu.

en	Examples of these measures include the creation of public policy, education of workers and management about the risks, promoting smoking cessation, checking workers for early signs of COPD, use of respirators, and dust control.
sw	Mifano ya hatua hizi ni: kutengeneza sera za umma, mafunzo kwa wafanyi kazi kuhusu hatari hizi, kuendeleza kusitisha uvutaji, kuchunguza wafanyi kazi kwa ishara za mapema za ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa, kutumia kipumulio, na kuzuia vumbi.

en	This mortality rate is expected to increase, as those infected by transfusion before HCV testing become apparent.
sw	Matarajio ni kwamba kiwango hiki cha vifo itaongezeka wakati watu walioathirika kwa utoaji damu kabla ya kupimwa HCV kuwa wagonjwa na kufa.

en	India had the highest total number of TB cases worldwide in 2010, in part due to poor disease management within the private and public health care sector.
sw	India ilikuwa ya juu jumla ya idadi ya wagonjwa wa TB duniani kote katika 2010, kwa sehemu kutokana na usimamizi mbovu ugonjwa ndani ya sekta binafsi ya afya.

en	The subsequent resurgence of tuberculosis resulted in the declaration of a global health emergency by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 1993.
sw	Liofufuka baadae ya kifua kikuu ilisababisha tamko la dharura ya afya ya kimataifa na Shirika la Afya Duniani mwaka 1993.

en	Genetic susceptibility also exists, for which the overall importance remains undefined.
sw	Kuna pia,  upungufu maumbile  kwa umuhimu ambayo kwa ujumla ni bado siowekwa wazi .

en	Intense and prolonged exposure to workplace dusts, chemicals, and fumes increases the risk of COPD in both smokers and nonsmokers.
sw	Uhatarisho mkali na wa muda mrefu kwa vumbi, kemikali na moshi kazini huongeza hatari ya ugonjwa sugu wa mapafu yaliyofungana kwa wavutaji na wasiovuta.

en	A sustained response is seen in 70–80% of people with HCV genotypes 2 and 3 with 24 weeks of treatment.
sw	Majibu endelevu hutokea katika asilimia 70-80 kwa watu walio na genotypes HCV 2 na 3 kwa muda wa wiki 24 ya matibabu.

en	In sub-Saharan Africa between 2007 and 2009, between 30% and 70% of the population were aware of their HIV status.
sw	Kufikia mwaka wa 2007-2009 katika eneo la Kusini mwa Jangwa la Sahara, kati ya asilimia 30-70 ya watu walikuwa wakifahamu hali yao ya VVU.

en	The probability of transmission from one person to another depends upon several factors, including the number of infectious droplets expelled by the carrier, the effectiveness of ventilation, the duration of exposure, the virulence of the M. tuberculosis strain, the level of immunity in the uninfected person, and others.
sw	uwezekano wa maambukizi kutoka kwa mtu mmoja hadi mwingine inategemea sababu kadhaa, ikiwa ni pamoja na idadi ya matone ya kuambukiza kufukuzwa na mwenezaji, ufanisi wa uingizaji hewa, muda wa mfiduo, ukali wa M. kifua kikuu, kiwango cha kinga katika mtu ambaye hajaambukizwa na wengine.

en	Part of the reasoning against the use of the vaccine is that it makes the tuberculin skin test falsely positive, reducing the test's usefulness as a screening tool.
sw	Sehemu ya hoja akisema dhidi ya matumizi ya chanjo ni kwamba inafanya  ngozi tuberculin mtihani   uongo chanya, na kwa hiyo, hakuna wa matumizi katika uchunguzi.

en	The diagnosis of COPD should be considered in anyone over the age of 35 to 40 who has shortness of breath, a chronic cough, sputum production, or frequent winter colds and a history of exposure to risk factors for the disease.
sw	Utambuzi wa ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa mapafu unapaswa kuzingatiwa kwa yeyote mwenye umri wa zaidi ya miaka 35 hadi 40 na aliye na upungufu wa pumzi, kikohozi sugu, kutoa makohozi, au homa za mara kwa mara katika majira ya baridi na historia ya kutangamana na visababishi vya hatari vya ugonjwa huo.

en	After the virus enters the body there is a period of rapid viral replication, leading to an abundance of virus in the peripheral blood.
sw	Baada ya virusi kuingia mwilini, kuna kipindi cha kugawanyika kwa virusi, hali inayopelekea wingi wa virusi katika damu ya pembeni.

en	Birth factors such as low birth weight may also play a role, as do a number of infectious diseases, including HIV/AIDS and tuberculosis.
sw	Vipengele vya kuzaliwa kama kuzaliwa na uzani wa chini vinaweza kuchangua ugonjwa huu kama vile magonjwa kadhaa ya kuambukiza, ikiwa ni pamoja na VVU/UKIMWI na kifua kikuu yanavyofanya.

en	As of 2011, there are about one hundred medications in development for hepatitis C. These include vaccines to treat hepatitis, immunomodulators, and cyclophilin inhibitors, among others.
sw	Kufikia mwaka 2011, karibu madawa mia moja yanakuzwa kwa ajili ya homa ya nyongo C. Dawa hizi ni pamoja na chanjo za kutibu homa ya manjano, immunomodulators, na vizuia vya cyclophilin.

en	Skeletal remains show some prehistoric humans (4000 BC) had TB, and researchers have found tubercular decay in the spines of Egyptian mummies dating from 3000 to 2400 BC. Genetic studies suggest the presence of TB in the Americas from about 100 AD.
sw	Na watafiti wamegundua kuoza enye umbo katika miiba ya Misri ya Egypt mummies kutoka BC 3000-2400.

en	"After TB was determined to be contagious, in the 1880s, it was put on a notifiable-disease list in Britain; campaigns started to stop people from spitting in public places, and the infected poor were ""encouraged"" to enter sanatoria that resembled prisons (the sanatoria for the middle and upper classes offered excellent care and constant medical attention)."
sw	"Baada ya kuamua ugonjwa huo kuenea katika miaka ya 1880, TB ilikuwa kuweka liolazimu kujulishwa Ugonjwa   katika Uingereza, kampeni walikuwa wameanza kuacha watu kutoka kutema katika maeneo ya umma, na maskini walioambukizwa walikuwa ""moyo"" kuingia sanatorium sanatoria  ambayo inafanana magereza (sanatoria kwa ajili ya madarasa kati na juu inayotolewa huduma bora na matibabu ya mara kwa mara)."

en	This is known as a Simon focus and is typically found in the top of the lung.
sw	A Simon focus na ni kawaida kupatikana katika kilele cha mapafu.

en	Upon entry into the target cell, the viral RNA genome is converted (reverse transcribed) into double-stranded DNA by a virally encoded reverse transcriptase that is transported along with the viral genome in the virus particle.
sw	Inapoingia ndani ya seli iliyolengwa, jenomu ya RNA ya virusi hugeuzwa (hubadilishwa kinakala) na kuwa DNA ya nyuzi mbili ambayo husafirishwa pamoja na jenomu ya virusi katika chembe ya virusi vile.

en	A CD4 count of less than 500/µl
sw	Kiwango cha seli za CD4 cha chini ya 500/uL..

en	Blood transfusion, transfusion of blood products, or organ transplants without HCV screening carry significant risks of infection.
sw	Utoaji wa damu, mazao ya damu, na upandikizi wa viungo vya mwili bila kuchunguza HCV ndizo zinazoleta matatizo makubwa ya uambukizaji.

en	Infliximab, an immune-suppressing antibody, has been tested in COPD; there was a possibility of harm with no evidence of benefit.
sw	Infliximab imejaribiwa katika ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa lakini hakukuwa na ushahidi wa mafanikio bali uwezekano wa madhara.

en	Many health systems have difficulty ensuring appropriate identification, diagnosis and care of people with COPD; Britain's Department of Health has identified this as a major issue for the National Health Service and has introduced a specific strategy to tackle these problems.
sw	Mifumo mingi ya afya ina ugumu kuhakikisha utambuzi unaofaa, uchunguzi na utunzaji wa watu walio na ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa; Idara ya Afya ya Uingereza imetambua hili kuwa suala kuu kwa Huduma ya kitaifa ya Afya na imeanzisha mkakati mahususi wa kukabiliana na matatizo haya.

en	Less common conditions that may present similarly include bronchopulmonary dysplasia and obliterative bronchiolitis.
sw	Magonjwa yasiyotokea sana bali  yanayoweza kujitokeza sawa ni displasia ya mapafu na bronkasi na bronkiolitisi ya kufungana kwa bronkasi.

en	It is believed that only 5–50% of those infected in the United States and Canada are aware of their status.
sw	Watu wachache, kama asilimia 5-50 walioambukizwa nchini Marekani na Canada, wanafahamu hali yao.

en	A study in Côte d'Ivoire showed that households having a person with HIV/AIDS spent twice as much on medical expenses as other households.
sw	Utafiti katika nchi ya Côte d'Ivoire ulionyesha kuwa familia zilizo na mgonjwa aliye na VVU/UKIMWI zilitumia pesa mara mbili zaidi ya familia nyingine.

en	Blood tests to detect antibodies are not specific or sensitive, so they are not recommended.
sw	Vipimo vya damu ili kuchunguza kingamwili si maalum au nyeti, hivyo haipendekezwi.

en	The negative effects of dust exposure and cigarette smoke exposure appear to be additive or possibly more than additive.
sw	Athari za uhatarisho wa vumbi na moshi wa sigara huonekana kuwa ya kikemikali au hata zaidi.

en	"Those with COPD often have a history of ""common colds"" that last a long time."
sw	"Watu walio na ugonjwa sugu wa mapafu yaliyofungana mara nyingi huwa na historia ya ""mafua"" yanayodumu kwa muda mrefu."

en	They reduce shortness of breath, wheeze, and exercise limitation, resulting in an improved quality of life.
sw	Hupunguza upungufu wa pumzi, mkoroto na udhibiti wa mazoezi na kupelekea ubora wa maisha.

en	By 1918, TB still caused one in six deaths in France.
sw	By 1918, moja katika vifo sita katika Ufaransa alikuwa bado unasababishwa na TB.

en	Unknown: if insufficient information is available to make any of the above classifications.
sw	Tashwishi: iwapo habari iliyopo haitoshi kufanya uainishaji uliopo juu

en	Primary resistance occurs when a person becomes infected with a resistant strain of TB.
sw	Upinzani Kanuni hutokea wakati mtu huwa wameambukizwa mnachuja sugu wa TB.

en	He was diagnosed as HIV-positive on August 31, 1988, having contracted the virus from blood transfusions during heart surgery earlier in the 1980s.
sw	Ashe alitambuliwa kuwa na VVU tarehe 31 Agosti 1988; baada ya kuambukizwa alipokuwa akiongezewa damu akifanyiwa upasuaji wa moyo awali miaka ya 1980.

en	HIV/AIDS has had a large impact on society, both as an illness and as a source of discrimination.
sw	UKIMWI umekuwa na madhara makubwa katika jamii, kama ugonjwa wa mwili na kama chanzo cha ubaguzi.

en	Progression from TB infection to overt TB disease occurs when the bacilli overcome the immune system defenses and begin to multiply.
sw	Mwendelezo na maambukizi ya TB na ugonjwa wazi ya TB hutokea wakati bacilli kushinda ulinzi mfumo wa kinga na kuanza kuzidisha.

en	Before the Industrial Revolution, folklore often associated tuberculosis with vampires.
sw	Kabla ya  Mapinduzi ya Viwanda, ngano nyingi zinazohusiana na kifua kikuu vampires.

en	The total number of tuberculosis cases has been decreasing since 2005, while new cases have decreased since 2002.
sw	Idadi halisi ya wagonjwa wa kifua kikuu imekuwa ikipungua tangu mwaka 2006, na kesi mpya zimeshuka tangu mwaka 2002.

en	A definitive diagnosis of TB is made by identifying M. tuberculosis in a clinical sample (e.g., sputum, pus, or a tissue biopsy).
sw	"Utambuzi yakinifu wa TB ni yaliyotolewa na kutambua ""M. kifua KiKuu""  katika sampuli ya kliniki (kwa mfano makohozi, pus, au tishu biopsy)."

en	Rough sex can be a factor associated with an increased risk of transmission.
sw	Ngono shari inaweza kuwa suala linalochangia ongezeko la hatari ya kuambukizwa.

en	However, his spirometer could measure only volume, not airflow.
sw	Hata hivyo kipima pumzi chake kingeweza kupima ujazo tu, si kupita kwa hewa.

en	Further trials of the RV 144 vaccine are ongoing.
sw	Majaribio zaidi ya chanjo ya RV 144 yanaendelea.

en	Thus, treatment is often begun before cultures are confirmed.
sw	Hivyo, matibabu ni mara nyingi imeanza kabla ya tamaduni ni alithibitisha.

en	This can result in more air from the previous breath remaining within the lungs when the next breath is started, resulting in an increase in the total volume of air in the lungs at any given time, a process called hyperinflation or air trapping.
sw	Hii inaweza kupelekea hewa zaidi kutoka kwa pumzi ya awali kusalia mapafuni wakati pumzi inayofuata imeanzishwa na kusababisha ongezeko katika kiwango kamili cha hewa mapafuni wakati wowote ule, mchakato uitwao  uvutaji hewa ndani kupita kiasi au kutega hewa.

en	"The cascade of person-to-person spread can be circumvented by segregating those with active (""overt"") TB and putting them on anti-TB drug regimens."
sw	"ili kupunguza maenezi ya mtu-kwa-mtu tenga watu wenye TB hai (""ya wazi"") na kuweka kwenye regimenti dawa za kupambana na TB."

en	Tuberculosis is more common in developing countries; about 80% of the population in many Asian and African countries test positive in tuberculin tests, while only 5–10% of the US population test positive.
sw	Kifua Kikuu ni ya kawaida zaidi katika nchi zinazoendelea; kuhusu 80% ya idadi ya watu katika nchi nyingi za Asia na Afrika mtihani chanya katika vipimo tuberculin, wakati tu 5-10% ya mtihani Marekani idadi chanya.

en	Inadequate control is deemed to be greater than 400 copies/mL.
sw	Udhibiti usio mwafaka huchukuliwa kuwa zaidi ya nakala 400/mL.

en	Normally, 75–80% of the FVC comes out in the first second and a FEV1/FVC ratio less than 70% in someone with symptoms of COPD defines a person as having the disease.
sw	Kawaida, asilimia 75-80 ya kiasi muhimu cha kulazimishwa hutoka nje katika sekunde ya kwanza na uwiano wa kiasi cha hewa inayopumuliwa nje kwa lazima1/uwiano uwiano wa kiasi muhimu cha kulazimishwa chini ya asilimia 70 kwa mtu aliye na dalili za ugonjwa sugu kufungana kwa mapafu huonyesha kuwa mtu huyo ana ugonjwa huo.

en	The most important risk factor globally is HIV; 13% of all people with TB are infected by the virus.
sw	Muhimu zaidi ni hatari ya kimataifa Virusi ya Ukimwi ; 13% ya kesi zote TB wameambukizwa na virusi.

en	The United States Center for Disease Control and Prevention also created a classification system for HIV, and updated it in 2008 and 2014.
sw	Kituo cha Kukinga na Kudhibiti Magonjwa cha Marekani pia kilianzisha mfumo wa uainishaji wa VVU, kilichoudurusu mwaka wa 2008.

en	Whether they affect the progression of the disease is unknown.
sw	Si bayana iwapo zinaathiri kuendelea kwa ugonjwa huo.

en	Vaccines and Antisera at Curlie
sw	Vaccines and Antisera katika Open Directory Project

en	COPD treatments include smoking cessation, vaccinations, respiratory rehabilitation, and often inhaled bronchodilators and steroids.
sw	Mbinu za matibabu ya ugonjwa huu ni kuacha uvutaji, chanjo, urekebeshaji mapafu, na mara nyingi vipanua bronkasi vya kupumuliwa na steroidi.

en	A risk of fires and little benefit exist when those on oxygen continue to smoke.
sw	Kuna hatari ya moto na manufaa machache kwa wanaopewa oksijeni wakiendelea na uvutaji.

en	In response to a polio epidemic (where many patients required constant ventilation and surveillance), Bjørn Aage Ibsen established the first intensive care unit in Copenhagen in 1953.
sw	Kwa sababu ya janga la polio, Bjørn Ibsen alianzisha kitengo cha kwanza cha huduma kubwa huko Copenhagen mwaka wa 1953.

en	There are several changes that may occur in an infectious agent that may trigger an epidemic.
sw	Kuna mabadiliko mbalimbali yanayoweza kuchangia epidemiki itokee.

en	Those with COPD may experience fewer symptoms if they stay indoors on days when outdoor air quality is poor.
sw	Walio na ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa wanaweza kupata dalili chache iwapo watakaa ndani ya nyumba katika siku ambazo ubora wa hewa nje ya nyumba ni duni.

en	In countries where there is an insufficient supply of sterile syringes, medications should be given orally rather than via injection (when possible).
sw	Katika nchi ambako kuna ugavi usiotosha wa sindano hasi, watoa huduma wanapaswa kupeana madawa kwa mdomo badala ya kupitia sindano.

en	A vigorous immune response eventually controls the infection and initiates the clinically latent phase.
sw	Mwitikio mkubwa wa kingamwili hatimaye huyadhibiti maambukizi hayo kisha kuanzisha awamu fiche ya kiutambuzi.

en	People with latent infections are treated to prevent them from progressing to active TB disease later in life.
sw	Watu wenye maambukizi ya latent pia kutibiwa kuwazuia inaendelea kwa ugonjwa kazi TB baadaye katika maisha.

en	"Early descriptions of probable emphysema include: in 1679 by T. Bonet of a condition of ""voluminous lungs"" and in 1769 by Giovanni Morgagni of lungs which were ""turgid particularly from air""."
sw	"Maelezo ya kitambo ya uwezekano wa emfisema ni: Katika mwaka wa 1679 na T. Bonet kuhusu ugonjwa wa ""mapafu makubwa"" na katika mwaka wa 1769 na Giovanni Morgagni kuhusu mapafu yaliyokuwa  yamevimba hasa kutokana na hewa""."

en	In the United States intravenous drug users made up 12% of all new cases of HIV in 2009, and in some areas more than 80% of people who inject drugs are HIV-positive.
sw	Nchini Marekani, watu wanaodungwa dawa ndani ya misuli walichangia 12% ya visa vyote vipya vya VVU mwaka wa 2009,  huku 80% ya watu katika sehemu fulani wanaodungwa dawa wakiwa wameambukizwa VVU.

en	Smoking, however, is highly addictive, and many smokers need further support.
sw	Hata hivyo uvutaji ni wa mazoea sana, na wavutaji wengi wanahitaji usaidizi zaidi.

en	Currently, the only clearly inherited risk factor is alpha 1-antitrypsin deficiency (AAT).
sw	Kwa sasa, athari hatari bayana inayorithiwa ni ukosefu wa kinza tripsini ya alfa ya 1.

en	The United States guidelines recommend treating all children less than 12 months of age and all those with HIV RNA counts greater than 100,000 copies/mL between one year and five years of age.
sw	Shirika la Afya Duniani na Marekani inapendekeza matibabu kwa watoto wote wa umri wa chini ya miezi 12.Marekani hupendekeza matibabu kwa watoto wa umri wa mwaka 1-5 walio na kiwango cha VVU-RNA cha zaidi ya nakala 100,000 /mL na kwa walio zaidi ya miaka mitano watibiwe iwapo kiwango cha CD4 ni chini ya 500/ul.

en	Often, AIDS stigma is expressed in conjunction with one or more other stigmas, particularly those associated with homosexuality, bisexuality, promiscuity, prostitution, and intravenous drug use.
sw	Mara nyingi, unyanyapaa wa UKIMWI huonyeshwa pamoja na unyanyapaa wa aina moja au nyingine, hasa unyanyapaa unaohusiana na ushoga, uasherati, ukahaba na kutumia dawa za kulevya.

en	A number of methods can determine how much COPD is affecting a given individual.
sw	Kuna mbinu kadhaa za kutambua ni kwa kiasi kipi ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa mapafu unaathiri mtu fulani.

en	There is not enough evidence to support the use of herbal medicines.
sw	Hakuna ushahidi wa kutosha kuonyesha manufaa ya miti shamba.

en	In developed countries, tuberculosis is less common and is found mainly in urban areas.
sw	Katika nchi zilizoendelea, kifua kikuu ni. chini ya kawaida na ni kupatikana hasa katika maeneo ya mijini.

en	"Koch announced a glycerine extract of the tubercle bacilli as a ""remedy"" for tuberculosis in 1890, calling it ""tuberculin""."
sw	"Koch alitangaza dondoo glycerine ya bacilli kinundu kama ""dawa"" ya kifua kikuu katika 1890, na kuiita 'tuberculin'."

en	Further tests within 24 hours of the initial diagnosis revealed that Ashe had AIDS, but he did not tell the public about his diagnosis until April 1992.
sw	Vipimo zaidi katika saa 24 baada ya utambuzi wa kwanza vilionyesha kuwa Ashe alikuwa na UKIMWI, lakini hakuwambia watu kuhusu utambuzi huu hadi Aprili 1992.

en	Weight loss and muscle weakness, as well as the presence of other diseases, should also be taken into account.
sw	Kupunguza uzito na udhaifu wa misuli pamoja na kuwepo kwa magonjwa mengine kunapaswa kuzingatiwa.

en	Lung transplantation is sometimes performed for very severe COPD, particularly in younger individuals.
sw	Ubadilishaji wa pafu wakati mwingine hufanywa kwa walio na ugonjwa sugu mkali sana wa kufungana kwa njia za pumzi, hasa kwa watu walio na umri mdogo.

en	If the person is in the late stages of infection, rates of transmission are approximately eightfold greater.
sw	Iwapo mtu yuko katika awamu za mwisho za VVU, viwango vya kuambukizana ni takriban mara 8 zaidi.

en	COPD was among the most expensive conditions seen in U.S. hospitals in 2011, with a total cost of about $5.7 billion.
sw	Ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa mapafu  ulikuwa mmoja wa ugonjwa wenye gharama ya juu sana katika hospitali za Marekani mwaka wa 2011, na jumla ya gharama ya takriban dola bilioni 5.7 ref name=Tor2013/>

en	"Once treatment is begun, it is recommended that it is continued without breaks or ""holidays""."
sw	"Matibabu yanapoanzishwa, inapendekezwa yaendelezwe bila ""kupumzika""."

en	In COPD, breathing out may take longer than breathing in.
sw	Katika ugonjwa sugu wa mapafu yaliyofungana, inaweza kuchukua muda mrefu zaidi kutoa pumzi kuliko kuivuta.

en	This includes decreasing rates of smoking and improving indoor and outdoor air quality.
sw	Hii hujumuisha juhudi za kupunguza viwango vya uvutaji na kuboresha hali ya hewa ya ndani na nje ya majengo.

en	The subspecies Mycobacterium tuberculosis, though, is rarely present in wild animals.
sw	subspecies Mycobacterium kifua kikuu, ingawa, ni mara chache sasa katika wanyama wa porini.

en	However, after determining that AIDS was not isolated to the gay community, it was realized that the term GRID was misleading, and the term AIDS was introduced at a meeting in July 1982.
sw	Hata hivyo, baada ya kutambua kuwa VVU havikuwaathiri jamii ya mashoga pekee, ilibainika kuwa neno GRID lilikuwa likipotosha, hivyo neno UKIMWI likaanzishwa kwenye mkutano mnamo Julai 1982.

en	Care should be taken as they are flammable.
sw	Tahadhari ni muhimu kwa sababu inaweza kuwaka.

en	T cells are essential to the immune response and without them, the body cannot fight infections or kill cancerous cells.
sw	Seli za T ni muhimu kwa mwitikio wa kingamwili, hivyo bila ya seli hizi, mwili hauwezi kukabiliana na maambukizi wala kuharibu seli za saratani.

en	WHO fact sheet of hepatitis
sw	WHO ukweli karatasi ya hepatitis

en	South Africa has the largest population of people with HIV of any country in the world at 5.9 million.
sw	Afrika Kusini ina idadi kubwa zaidi ya watu wenye VVU ulimwenguni kote, ikiwa ni watu milioni 5.9 .

en	Drug-resistant TB is a serious public health issue in many developing countries, as its treatment is longer and requires more expensive drugs.
sw	Sugu TB ni mbaya ya afya ya umma suala katika nchi nyingi zinazoendelea, kama tiba yake ni tena na inahitaji dawa ghali zaidi.

en	a small amount of sterile or distilled water,
sw	Kitakasa mikono hugawiwa kwenye ngozi kwa kuchuana mikono.

en	In 1721 the first drawings of emphysema were made by Ruysh.
sw	Katika mwaka wa 1721 michoro ya kwanza ya emfisema ilifanywa na Ruysh.

en	In nature, the bacterium can grow only within the cells of a host organism, but M. tuberculosis can be cultured in the laboratory.
sw	Kwa kawaida, bakteria zinaweza kukua na kuishi tu ndani ya seli ya kiumbe viumbe, lakini M. tuberculosis' inaweza kukuzwa ya maabara.

en	Tiotropium is associated with a decrease in exacerbations and improved quality of life, and tiotropium provides those benefits better than ipratropium.
sw	Tiotropium inahusiana na kupungua kwa maumivu zaidi na kuboresha hali ya maisha, na tiotropium hutoa manufaa haya zaidi ya ipratropium.

en	Mycobacteria infect many different animals, including birds, rodents, and reptiles.
sw	Mycobacteria kuambukiza wanyama mbalimbali, ikiwa ni pamoja na ndege, panya na wanyama watambaao.

en	Additionally, theophylline may have a role in those who do not respond to other measures.
sw	Pia, theophylline inaweza kutumiwa kwa wasiopata nafuu kutokana na mbinu zingine.

en	This low risk remains as there is a period of about 11–70 days between the potential blood donor's acquiring hepatitis C and the blood's testing positive depending on the method.
sw	Kuna upungufu wa maambukizi kwa sababu kuna kipindi cha siku 11 hadi 70 ambazo ni siku ambazo  mtoaji damu mtarajiwa anayepata Homa ya nyongo C na damu yao kuonyesha kwamba imeambukizwa.

en	The World Health Organization has published a guide to producing large quantities of hand sanitizer from chemicals available in developing countries, where commercial hand sanitizer may not be available:
sw	Shirika la Afya Duniani limetoa mwongozo wa kutengeneza kitakasa mikono kwa kutumia kemikali zinazopatikana karibu katika kila nchi.

en	He had been diagnosed during 1984.
sw	Yeye alikuwa ametambuliwa kuwa na ugonjwa huo mwaka 1984.

en	There are no measures that alter this risk.
sw	Hakuna njia yoyote ya kupunguza hatari hii wakati wa kuzaa.

en	Programs encouraging sexual abstinence do not appear to affect subsequent HIV risk.
sw	Miradi inayohimiza kujinyima ngono haijatambulika inaathiri vipi hatari ya kupata VVU.

en	Where resistance to isoniazid is high, ethambutol may be added for the last four months as an alternative.
sw	Ambapo upinzani isoniazidi ni ya juu, ethambutol inaweza kuongezwa kwa miezi minne iliyopita kama mbadala.

en	A substantial minority of young people continues to engage in high-risk practices despite knowing about HIV/AIDS, underestimating their own risk of becoming infected with HIV.
sw	Vijana wengi wanajihusisha katika vitendo hatari licha ya kufahamu kuhusu VVU/UKIMWI, huku wakipuuza hatari ya kuambukizwa.

en	The primary causes of death from HIV/AIDS are opportunistic infections and cancer, both of which are frequently the result of the progressive failure of the immune system.
sw	Sababu kuu ya vifo vinavyotokana na VVU/UKIMWI ni Maambukizi nyemelezi na saratani ambayo mara nyingi hutokana na matatizo endelevu ya mfumo wa kingamwili.

en	Many people are diagnosed only after treatment ideally should have begun.
sw	Watu wengi hutambuliwa punde tu baada ya wakati ambao matibabu yalipaswa kuanzishwa.

en	"The Synagogue Church Of All Nations advertised an ""anointing water"" to promote God's healing, although the group denies advising people to stop taking medication."
sw	Synagogue Church Of All Nations ilitangaza maji ya upako ili kuwezesha uponyaji kutoka kwa Mungu, ingawa ilikana kuwa iliwashauri watu kukoma kutumia matibabu.

en	The duration of the symptoms varies, but is usually one or two weeks.
sw	Muda ya dalili hutofautiana, ingawa kwa kawaida huwa wiki 1 - 2.

en	"Tattoos or piercings performed either before the mid-1980s, ""underground,"" or nonprofessionally are of particular concern, since sterile techniques in such settings may be lacking."
sw	Uchoraji au kujitoboa mwili kama shughuli hizi zilifanywa kabla ya miaka ya kati-1980 au ilifanywa na mtu asiye na ujuzi hasa inaleta wasiwasi, kwa sababu uwezekano wa kusafisha vifaa ni ndogo sana.

en	A number of factors make people more susceptible to TB infections.
sw	Idadi ya sababu za kufanya watu wahusike zaidi na maambukizi ya TB.

en	Hopes of completely eliminating TB ended with the rise of drug-resistant strains in the 1980s.
sw	Matumaini ya TB kabisa kuondoa   (cf. smallpox), walikuwa kwa kimbilio baada ya kupanda ya Matatizo sugu katika miaka ya 1980.

en	The screening of blood donors is important at a national level, as is adhering to universal precautions within healthcare facilities.
sw	Kuwachunguza watoaji damu ni muhimu katika kiwango cha  kitaifa, kama ni kufuata tahadhari za  ulimwenguni ndani ya vituo vya afya.

en	The granuloma may prevent dissemination of the mycobacteria and provide a local environment for interaction of cells of the immune system.
sw	Granuloma huzuia usambazaji wa mycobacteria na hutoa mazingira ya mahali hapo kwa ajili ya mwingiliano wa seli ya mfumo wa kinga.

en	Programs to prevent the vertical transmission of HIV (from mothers to children) can reduce rates of transmission by 92–99%.
sw	Hatua za kuzuia kusambaza VVU kutoka kwa mama hadi mtoto zinaweza kupunguza kiwango cha maambukizi kwa asilimia 92-99.

en	Acute exacerbations are typically treated by increasing the use of short-acting bronchodilators.
sw	Kwa kawaida maumivu Zaidi makali hutibiwa kwa kuongeza utumizi wa vitanua bronkasi vya muda mfupi.

en	Other genetic factors are being investigated, of which many are likely.
sw	Hatari zingine za jenetekia zingali zinachunguzwa,, ambapo kuna uwezekano wa kutambua nyingi.

en	When a cough persists for more than three months each year for at least two years, in combination with sputum production and without another explanation, it is by definition chronic bronchitis.
sw	Inapokuwepo kwa zaidi ya miezi mitatu kwa mwaka kwa zaidi ya miaka miwili ikiandamana na utoaji wa kikohozi na bila kisababishi kingine, basi hali hii itatambulika kama bronkitisi sugu.

en	TB infection begins when the mycobacteria reach the alveolar air sacs of the lungs, where they invade and replicate within endosomes of alveolar macrophages.
sw	TB maambukizi huanza wakati mycobacteria Pulmonary alveolus pulmonary alveoli, ambapo wao kuvamia na kuiga ndani endosomes ya alveolar macrophages tundu la mapafu.

en	"Circumcision in Sub-Saharan Africa ""reduces the acquisition of HIV by heterosexual men by between 38% and 66% over 24 months""."
sw	"Tohara katika eneo la Kusini kwa Sahara ""hupunguza uambukizaji wa VVU katika wanaume wanaohusiana na wanawake kimapenzi kwa kati ya 38% na 66% kwa muda wa miezi 24""."

en	"The World Health Organization (WHO) declared TB a ""global health emergency"" in 1993, and in 2006, the Stop TB Partnership developed a Global Plan to Stop Tuberculosis that aimed to save 14 million lives between its launch and 2015."
sw	"Shirika la Afya Duniani alitangaza TB ""ya afya ya kimataifa dharura"" katika 1993.  na katika 2006, TB Stop Ushirikiano maendeleo Mpango wa Kimataifa Stop kifua kikuu kwamba lengo la kuokoa maisha ya milioni 14 kati ya uzinduzi wake na 2015. idadi ya malengo ya wana kuweka si uwezekano wa kupatikana kwa 2015, hasa kutokana na ongezeko katika kifua kikuu HIV-kuhusishwa na kuibuka wa kifua kikuu sugu nyingi (MDR-TB)."

en	Stage II: Mild symptoms, which may include minor mucocutaneous manifestations and recurrent upper respiratory tract infections.
sw	Awamu ya II: Dalili ndogo zinaweza kuhusisha kiwango cha chini cha kudhihirika kwa za tando za ute na maambukizi yanayorejea ya sehemu ya juu ya njia ya pumzi.

en	Owing to their nonspecific character, these symptoms are not often recognized as signs of HIV infection.
sw	Kufuatia sifa zake za kutokuwa dalili maalum, hizi mara nyingi haziwezi kutambulika kama dalili za maambukizi ya VVU.

en	There is no cure or vaccine; however, antiretroviral treatment can slow the course of the disease and may lead to a near-normal life expectancy.
sw	Hakuna tiba au chanjo; hata hivyo, matibabu ya kudhibiti virusi yanaweza kupunguza mwendo wa ugonjwa huu na huenda yakapelekea urefu wa maisha kuwa karibu na kawaida.

en	A course of antiretrovirals administered within 48 to 72 hours after exposure to HIV-positive blood or genital secretions is referred to as post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP).
sw	Vipimo vya dawa za kudhibiti VVU zinazotolewa kati ya saa 48 hadi 72 baada ya hatari kwa damu yenye VVU au viowevu vya uzazi hujulikana kama proflaksisi ya baada ya hatari.

en	"René Laennec, the physician who invented the stethoscope, used the term ""emphysema"" in his book A Treatise on the Diseases of the Chest and of Mediate Auscultation (1837) to describe lungs that did not collapse when he opened the chest during an autopsy."
sw	"René Laennec, fizishiani aliyevumbua stethoskopu, alitumia neno ""emfisema"" katika kitabu chake A Treatise on the Diseases of the Chest and of Mediate Auscultation (1837) kueleza mapafu yasiyosinyaa alipofungua kifua wakati wa otopsi."

en	If effective treatment is not given, the death rate for active TB cases is up to 66%.
sw	Kama matibabu ya ufanisi hawakujaliwa, kiwango cha kifo kwa kesi kazi TB ni hadi 66%.

en	They show promise in decreasing the rate of exacerbations, but do not appear to change a person's quality of life.
sw	Roflumilast huonyesha ahadi katika kupunguza kiwango cha maumivu zaidi lakini haionekani kubadilisha ubora wa maisha.

en	In the United States, costs of the disease are estimated at $50 billion, most of which is due to exacerbation.
sw	Marekani, gharama za ugonjwa huu zinakadriwa kuwa dola bilioni 50 , ambazo nyingi ni kutokana na maumivu zaidi.

en	Prognosis varies between people, and both the CD4 count and viral load are useful for predicted outcomes.
sw	Prognosi ni tofauti katika watu mbalimbali, na kiwango cha CD4 pamoja na wingi wa virusi huwa muhimu katika kutabiri matokeo.

en	In the United States, about 70% of cases are caused by genotype 1, 20% by genotype 2 and about 1% by each of the other genotypes.
sw	Kuna aina saba muhimu za genotypes of HCV. Nchini Marekani, genotype 1 inasababisha asilimia 70 ya magonjwa, genotype 2 inasababisha asilimia 20 ya magonjwa, na kila aina ya genotypes zingine zinasababisha asilimia 1.

en	HIV is a retrovirus that primarily infects components of the human immune system such as CD4+ T cells, macrophages and dendritic cells.
sw	VVU ni retrovirusi ambavyo hasa huambukiza vipengele vya mfumo wa kingamwili ya binadamu kama vile seli za CD4+T, makrofaji na seli za dendraiti.

en	Tuberculosis is closely linked to both overcrowding and malnutrition, making it one of the principal diseases of poverty.
sw	Kifua Kikuu ni uhusiano wa karibu na wote msongamano na utapiamlo, na kuifanya moja ya magonjwa makuu ya umaskini.

en	He dropped the suit in 1998 after losing before an appeals court.
sw	Alisitisha mashtaka  mwaka 1998 baada ya kupoteza mbele ya mahakama ya rufaa.

en	Even at a late stage of the disease, it can reduce the rate of worsening lung function and delay the onset of disability and death.
sw	Hata katika kipindi cha mwisho cha ugonjwa, kunaweza kupunguza kiwango cha kudhoofika kwa utendakazi wa mapafu na kudhibiti mwanzo wa ulemavu na kifo.

en	In 2007, between 12% and 17% of infections in this region were attributed to medical syringe use.
sw	Mnamo 2007, kati ya 12% na 17% ya maambukizi katika eneo hilo yalichangiwa na matumizi ya sindano hizo.

en	Twelve countries had rates greater than 80%.
sw	Nchi kumi na mbili zina zaidi ya asilimia 80.

en	A notable British casualty of AIDS that year was Nicholas Eden, a gay politician and son of the late prime minister Anthony Eden.
sw	Mgonjwa mashuhuri kutoka Uingereza mwaka huo alikuwa Nicholas Eden mwanasiasa shoga na mwana wa Waziri Mkuu, marehemu Anthony Eden.

en	Therese Frare's photograph of gay activist David Kirby, as he lay dying from AIDS while surrounded by family, was taken in April 1990.
sw	Picha ya Therese Frare ikionyesha mwanaharakati wa ushoga David Kirby akifariki kutokana na UKIMWI huku akizungukwa na familia yake, ilipigwa Aprili mwaka wa 1990.

en	In 2010, 8.8 million new cases of TB were diagnosed, and 1.20–1.45 million deaths occurred, most of these occurring in developing countries.
sw	Mwaka 2010, kulikuwa na milioni 8.8 mpya kesi ya TB kukutwa na vifo 1,450,000, zaidi ya haya yanayojitokeza katika nchi zinazoendelea.

en	An acute exacerbation (a sudden worsening of symptoms) is commonly triggered by infection or environmental pollutants, or sometimes by other factors such as improper use of medications.
sw	Maumivu makali (kuzidiwa ghafla na dalili) mara nyingi huchochewa na maambukizi au vichafuzi vya kimazingira au wakati mwingine na visababishi vingine kama vile kutumia matibabu vibaya.

en	Effective TB treatment is difficult, due to the unusual structure and chemical composition of the mycobacterial cell wall, which hinders the entry of drugs and makes many antibiotics ineffective.
sw	Ufanisi kutibu TB ni vigumu, kutokana na muundo wa kawaida na cha kemikali katika ukuta mycobacterial kiini, ambayo inazuia kuingia ya madawa ya kulevya na hufanya kiuvijasumu wengi ufanisi.

en	Macrophages, epithelioid cells, T lymphocytes, B lymphocytes, and fibroblasts  aggregate to form granulomas, with lymphocytes surrounding the infected macrophages.
sw	Macrophages, T lymphocytes, B lymphocytes, na fibroblasts ni miongoni mwa seli zinazoungana kuunda limfu  granulomas.

en	HIV seeks out and destroys CCR5 expressing CD4+ T cells during acute infection.
sw	VVU hutafuta na kuharibu CCR5 inayotolesha seli za CD4+ T katika awamu kali ya maambukizi.

en	Spirometry is then used to confirm the diagnosis.
sw	Kisha  Kupima pumzi hutumiwa kuthibitisha utambuzi huo.

en	The WHO system uses the following categories:
sw	Mfumo wa SAD hutumia vikundi vifuatavyo:

en	"The primary site of infection in the lungs, known as the ""Ghon focus"", is generally located in either the upper part of the lower lobe, or the lower part of the upper lobe."
sw	"tovuti ya msingi ya maambukizi katika mapafu, unaojulikana kama ""Lengo Ghon focus"", ni kwa ujumla iko katika sehemu ama juu ya tundu ya chini, au sehemu ya chini ya tundu juu."

en	"The word ""emphysema"" is derived from the Greek ἐμφυσᾶν emphysan meaning ""inflate"" -itself composed of ἐν en, meaning ""in"", and φυσᾶν physan, meaning ""breath, blast""."
sw	"Neno ""emfisema"" linatoka katika Kigiriki ἐμφυσᾶν emphysan kumaanisha ""kujaa hewa"" -yenyewe ikiwa na ἐν en, ikimaanisha ""ndani"", na φυσᾶν physan, ikimaanisha ""pumzi, blast""."

en	The effectiveness of treatment depends to a large part on compliance.
sw	Ubora wa matibabu hutegemea pakubwa maafikiano.

en	Chest tightness may occur, but is not common and may be caused by another problem.
sw	Kubanwa kifua kunaweza kutokea ingawa hakutokei sana na kunaweza kusababishwa na tatizo lingine.

en	HIV/AIDS affects the economics of both individuals and countries.
sw	VVU/UKIMWI huathiri uchumi wa watu na nchi.

en	By September 1982 the CDC started referring to the disease as AIDS.
sw	Kufikia Septemba 1982, Kituo cha Kudhibiti na Kuzuia Magonjwa kilianza kuuita UKIMWI.

en	In Canada the cost of a course of antiviral treatment is as high as 30,000 CAD in 2003, while the United States costs are between 9,200 and 17,600 in 1998 USD.
sw	Nchini Canada gharama ya matibabu ya kupambana na virusi yalikuwa juu kama dola 30,000 za Canada mwaka 2003, wakati Marekani gharama ni kati ya dola 9200 na 17,600 za Marekani mwaka 1998.

en	After the diagnosis of AIDS, if treatment is not available, survival ranges between 6 and 19 months.
sw	Baada ya utambuzi wa UKIMWI, iwapo matibabu hayapo, uwezo wa kuishi huwa kati ya miezi 6-19.

en	Both of these changes result in increased blood pressure in the pulmonary arteries, which may cause right-sided heart failure secondary to lung disease, also known as cor pulmonale.
sw	Mabadiliko haya yote husababisha ongezeko kwenye shinikizo la damu katika arteri za mapafu, hali inayoweza kusababisha ugonjwa wa kuvimba na kutofanya kazi kwa ventrikali ya kulia ya moyo.

en	Another feature of the granulomas is the development of abnormal cell death (necrosis) in the center of tubercles.
sw	Kipengele kingine cha granulomas ni maendeleo ya kifo isiyo ya kawaida katikati (necrosis) katika kituo cha tubercles.

en	These include:
sw	Haya ni pamoja na:

en	The epidemic then rapidly spread among high-risk groups (initially, sexually promiscuous men who have sex with men).
sw	Janga hili kisha lilienea kwa haraka katika vikundi vilivyo katika hatari kubwa ya kuambukizwa (mwanzoni ilikuwa ni wanaume waliofanya ngono na wanaume).

en	HIV-1 is thought to have jumped the species barrier on at least three separate occasions, giving rise to the three groups of the virus, M, N, and O.
sw	VVU-2 inadhaniwa kuruka kizuizi cha spishi katika angalau matukio matatu tofauti, hivyo kupelekea vikundi vitatu vya virusi hivi ambavyo ni M, N na O.

en	Of these 1.45 million deaths, about 0.35 million occur in those also infected with HIV.
sw	Vifo hivi 1,450,000, kuhusu 0,350,000 kutokea katika wale wana ambukizwa pamoja na HIV.

en	The GOLD guidelines suggest dividing people into four categories based on symptoms assessment and airflow limitation.
sw	Miongozo ya GOLD hupendekeza kugawanya watu katika vikundi vinne kwa msingi ukadriaji na kikomo cha kutiririka hewa.

en	While steroids and LABAs may work better together, it is unclear if this slight benefit outweighs the increased risks.
sw	Ingawa steroidi na LABAs zinaweza kufanya kazi vyema pamoja, si bayana ikiwa manufaa haya madogo yanazidi hatari zilizoongezeka.

en	Additional benefits include a decreased risk of transmission of the disease to sexual partners and a decrease in mother-to-child transmission.
sw	Manufaa ya nyongeza hujumuisha upungufu wa hatari ya kusambazwa kwa ugonjwa huu hadi kwa wenzi kingono, na upungufu wa kusambazwa kwa maambukizi kutoka kwa mama hadi mtoto.

en	Workplace exposure is believed to be the cause in 10–20% of cases.
sw	Uhatarisho kazini unaaminika kuwa kisababishi katika asilimia 10-20 ya visa.

en	Rates of new infections have decreased in the Western world since the 1990s due to improved screening of blood before transfusion.
sw	Viwango vimepungua katika nchi za Magharibi tangu miaka ya 1990 kutokana na uchunguzi wa kuboresha damu kabla ya utoaji.

en	If multiple drug-resistant TB (MDR-TB) is detected, treatment with at least four effective antibiotics for 18 to 24 months is recommended.
sw	Kama nyingi TB sugu (MDR-TB) ni wanaona, matibabu na antibiotiki angalau nne madhubuti kwa ajili ya miezi 18 hadi 24 ni ilipendekeza.

en	The viral load of an infected person is an important risk factor in both sexual and mother-to-child transmission.
sw	Wingi wa virusi kwa mtu aliyeambukizwa ni suala kuu la hatari katika usambazaji wa kingono na pia wa kutoka kwa mama hadi mtoto.

en	Smoking bans in public areas and places of work are important measures to decrease exposure to secondhand smoke, and while many places have instituted bans, more are recommended.
sw	Marufuku dhidi ya uvutaji katika sehemu za umma na pahali pa kazi ni njia muhimu za kupunguza kutangamana na moshi kutoka kwa watu wengine na ilhali sehemu nyingi zina marufuku ya kisheria, marufuku Zaidi yanahimizwa.

en	Those who smoke additionally have Tc1 lymphocyte involvement and some people with COPD have eosinophil involvement similar to that in asthma.
sw	Wanaovuta pia wana kuhusika kwaTc1 limfositi na watu wengine walio na ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa mapafu wana kuhusika kwa esinofili sawa na inayopatikana katika ugonjwa wa pumu.

en	The total number of people with this infection is higher in some countries in Africa and Asia.
sw	Viwango vya maambukizi viko juu katika baadhi ya nchi za Afrika na Asia.

en	Between 50% and 70% of people also develop persistent generalized lymphadenopathy, characterized by unexplained, non-painful enlargement of more than one group of lymph nodes (other than in the groin) for over three to six months.
sw	Kati ya asilimia 50 na 70 ya wagonjwa pia hupata limfadenopathia ya mwili wote inayorejea, ambayo hudhihirika kwa uvimbe usio na kisababishi na usio chungu wa zaidi ya kikundi kimoja cha tezi za limfu (ila katika sehemu za uzazi) kwa zaidi ya miezi 3 hadi 6.

en	Two main components are measured to make the diagnosis, the forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1), which is the greatest volume of air that can be breathed out in the first second of a breath, and the forced vital capacity (FVC), which is the greatest volume of air that can be breathed out in a single large breath.
sw	Vipengele viwili muhimu hupimwa ili kufanya utambuzi huo: kiasi cha hewa inayopumuliwa nje kwa lazima kwa sekunde moja (FEV1), ambacho ndicho kiasi kikubwa zaidi cha hewa inayoweza kupumuliwa nje katika sekunde ya kwanza ya pumzi, na kiasi muhimu cha kulazimishwa, ambacho ndicho kiasi kikubwa zaidi cha hewa inayoweza kupumuliwa nje katika pumzi moja kubwa.

en	Thus, it is recommended that HIV be considered in people presenting with an unexplained fever who may have risk factors for the infection.
sw	Kwa hivyo, inapendekezwa kuchunguza VVU katika watu wanaoonyesha homa isiyoelezeka ambao wanaweza kuwa na vipengele hatari vya kuambukizwa.

en	Stopping smoking decreases the risk of death by 18%.
sw	Kukoma uvutaji hupunguza hatari ya kifo kwa asilimia 18.

en	In Africa, it primarily affects adolescents and young adults.
sw	matukio ya TB inatofautiana na umri Katika Afrika, kimsingi unaathiri vijana na watu wazima vijana.

en	Since then, the WHO classification has been updated and expanded several times, with the most recent version being published in 2007.
sw	Tangu hapo, ufasili wa Shirika hili umedurusiwa na kurefushwa mara kadhaa, toleo la hivi karibuni likiwa la mwaka wa 2007.

en	Other recommendations include influenza vaccination once a year, pneumococcal vaccination once every five years, and reduction in exposure to environmental air pollution.
sw	Mapendekezo mengine ni: chanjo ya influenza mara moja kwa mwaka, chanjo ya numokokasi mara moja kila baada ya miaka 5, na kupunguza kutangamana na uchafuzi wa hewa wa kimazingira.

en	Working in agriculture is also a risk.
sw	Kufanya kazi ya kilimo pia ni hatari.

en	; Rogove, H.; Bander, J.; McCambridge, M.;  et al. (December 2011).
sw	; Rogove, H.; Bander, J.; McCambridge, M.; Cowboy, E.; Niemeier, M. (December 2011).

en	The terms chronic bronchitis and emphysema were formally defined in 1959 at the CIBA guest symposium and in 1962 at the American Thoracic Society Committee meeting on Diagnostic Standards.
sw	Majina bronkitisi sugu na emfisema yalifasiliwa mwaka wa 1959 katika kongamano la CIBA na katika mwaka wa 1962 katika mkutano wa kamati ya Shirika la Kifua la Marekani kuhusu viwango vya utambuzi.

en	One of the first high-profile heterosexual cases of the virus was American tennis player Arthur Ashe.
sw	Kimojawapo kati ya visa maarufu zaidi vilivyotokana na ngono kati ya watu wa jinsia tofauti ni kile cha Arthur Ashe, mchezaji tenisi Mmarekani.

en	MVA85A, an example of a subunit vaccine, is in trials in South Africa as of 2006, is based on a genetically modified vaccinia virus.
sw	MVA85A, mfano wa chanjo subunit, sasa katika majaribio nchini Afrika Kusini, ni msingi juu ya virusi vya vinasaba kufura ngozi.

en	This may be achieved by public policy efforts, cultural changes, and personal involvement.
sw	Hii inaweza kutimizwa kwa juhudi za sera za umma, mabadiliko ya kitamaduni, na kuhusika kwa watu binafsi.

en	HIV/AIDS is a global pandemic.
sw	VVU/UKIMWI ni janga la kimataifa.

en	HIV is a member of the genus Lentivirus, part of the family Retroviridae.
sw	VVU ni mshirika wa jenasi ya Lentivirus, sehemu ya familia ya Retroviridae.

en	Sexual assault is also believed to carry an increased risk of HIV transmission as condoms are rarely worn, physical trauma to the vagina or rectum is likely, and there may be a greater risk of concurrent sexually transmitted infections.
sw	Ubakaji pia unaaminika kuongezeka hatari ya kusambaza VVU kwa sababu ni nadra kondomu kutumika, huwa na uwezekano wa kujeruhiwa ukeni au kinyeo, na pia kuna uwezekano wa magonjwa ya zinaa yanayoambatana na VVU.

en	The CD8+ T cell response is thought to be important in controlling virus levels, which peak and then decline, as the CD4+ T cell counts recover.
sw	Mwitikio wa seli za CD8+ T huchukuliwa kuwa muhimu katika kudhibiti viwango vya virusi, ambavyo hupanda na kushuka, huku viwango vya seli za CD4+ T vikirejea.

en	The chance of death from a case of tuberculosis is about 4% as of 2008, down from 8% in 1995.
sw	nafasi ya kifo kutokana na kesi ya kifua kikuu ni kuhusu 4% kama ya 2008, kutoka 8% mwaka 1995..

en	As tuberculosis is uncommon in most of Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States, BCG is administered to only those people at high risk.
sw	Kama kifua kikuu ni kawaida katika zaidi ya Canada, Uingereza, na Marekani, BCG ni tu unasimamiwa na watu katika hatari ya juu.

en	Surveys show that a significant number of people believed—and continue to believe—in such claims.
sw	Takwimu zinaonyesha kuwa idadi kubwa ya watu wanaamini na wanaendelea kuamini madai hayo.

en	"Whatever the benefits of the ""fresh air"" and labor in the sanatoria, even under the best conditions, 50% of those who entered died within five years (c. 1916)."
sw	"Chochote faida ( kwa kusudi ) ya ""hewa safi"" na ajira katika sanatoria, hata chini ya hali bora, 50% ya wale waliokuwa wakiingia alikufa ndani ya miaka mitano (circa 1916)."

en	In many areas of the world, people are unable to afford treatment with antivirals as they either lack insurance coverage or the insurance they have will not pay for antivirals.
sw	Katika maeneo mengi ya dunia watu wanashindwa kumudu matibabu na madawa ya kupunguza makali ya virusi kwa sababu ya kukosa bima au bima waliyo nayo haitalipa madawa ya kupunguza makali ya virusi.

en	Typical NRTIs include: zidovudine (AZT) or tenofovir (TDF) and lamivudine (3TC) or emtricitabine (FTC).
sw	KNKN kwa kawaida hujumuisha: zidovudine (AZT) au tenofovir (TDF) na lamivudine (3TC) au emtricitabine (FTC).

en	"Prior to the introduction of this medication, the only treatment was surgical intervention, including the ""pneumothorax technique"", which involved collapsing an infected lung to ""rest"" it and to allow tuberculous lesions to heal."
sw	"Kabla ya kuanzishwa kwa dawa hii, matibabu tu (isipokuwa sanatoria) alikuwa upasuaji kuingilia, ikiwa ni pamoja na """"mbinu pneumothorax"", ambayo wanaohusika kuanguka uvimbe walioambukizwa na ""kupumzika"" ni na kuruhusu vidonda tuberculous kuponya."

en	One approach involves adding a subunit vaccine to BCG, while the other strategy is attempting to create new and better live vaccines.
sw	Moja inahusisha mbinu kuongeza chanjo subunit kwa BCG, wakati mkakati mwingine ni kujaribu kujenga mpya na bora chanjo hai.

en	The only available vaccine as of 2011 is Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG).
sw	Chanjo tu sasa inapatikana kama ya 2011 ni bacillus Calmette– Guérin (BCG).

en	It resulted in an estimated economic cost of $2.1 trillion in 2010.
sw	Ugonjwa huu ulisababisha hasara ya kiuchumi iliyokadiriwa kuwa dola trilioni 2.1 mwaka 2010.

en	Being either underweight or overweight can affect the symptoms, degree of disability, and prognosis of COPD.
sw	Kuwa na uzani wa chini au wa juu zaidi kunaweza kuathiri dalili, kiwango cha ulemavu na prognosi ya ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa.

en	The conditions which govern the outbreak of epidemics include infected food supplies such as contaminated drinking water and the migration of populations of certain animals, such as rats or mosquitoes, which can act as disease vectors.
sw	Sababu za kutokea kwa epidemiki ni pamoja na kupatikana kwa maji yasiyo safi (yenye vimelea ndani yake) na uhamiaji wa wanyama kama panya au mbu wanaoweza kubeba vimelea viambukizi.

en	The first application of this idea in the United States was in 1955 by William Mosenthal, a surgeon at the Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical Center.
sw	Mtu wa kwanza kutumia wazo hili nchini Marekani alikuwa William Mosenthal, daktari katika Kituo cha Matibabu cha Dartmouth-Hitchcock.

en	Vaccination is the most effective method of preventing infectious diseases; widespread immunity due to vaccination is largely responsible for the worldwide eradication of smallpox and the restriction of diseases such as polio, measles, and tetanus from much of the world.
sw	Kinga inayoenea kutokana na chanjo kwa kiasi kikubwa inawezesha kuepukana na kifua kikuu duniani na kizuizi cha magonjwa kama vile polio,pepopunda, tetekuwanga kutoka duniani kote.

en	In 2007, the country with the highest estimated incidence rate of TB was Swaziland, with 1,200 cases per 100,000 people.
sw	Katika 2007, nchi yenye kiwango cha juu zaidi ya makadirio ya matukio ya TB ilikuwa Swaziland, na kesi 1,200 kwa kila watu 100,000.

en	It is estimated that as of 2007 there were 12 million AIDS orphans.
sw	Inakadiriwa kuwa kufikia mwaka wa 2007, diadi ya watoto yatima kutokana na UKIMWI  milioni 12.

en	In those at high risk of high carbon dioxide levels, oxygen saturations of 88–92% are recommended, while for those without this risk, recommended levels are 94–98%.
sw	Kwa wale walio katika hatari zaidi ya viwango vya juu vya dioksidi ya kaboni, viwango vya oksijeni vya asilimia 88-92 hupendekezwa, ilhali kwa wale wasio katika hatari hii viwango vinavyopendekezwa ni asilimia 94-98.

en	With treatment, there is a 70% reduced risk of acquiring tuberculosis.
sw	Matibabu hupelekea kupunguza kwa 70% hatari ya kupata kifua kikuu.

en	Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease may occur in a number of other animals and may be caused by exposure to tobacco smoke.
sw	Ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa unaweza kutokea kwa wanyama wengine kadhaa na unaweza kutokana na kutangamana na moshi wa sigara.

en	"Hospitals and Shopping malls to give soap and water/hand sanitizers, and regular cleaning of facilities.
sw	Safisha mikono na sabuni na maji, au na usafisho ina ugimbi

en	Mr Kagwe said three of the cases were based in Nairobi and one in Mombasa.
sw	Watu wa kwanza waligunduliwa kwenye kaunti za Nairobi na Kajiado.

en	— with the virus.
sw	Emoji za virusi vipya vya Corona

en	The 2019–20 coronavirus pandemic reached Kenya in March 2020 with the initial cases reported in the capital city Nairobi and  in the costal areaKilifi Counties.
sw	Ugonjwa wa Corona ulifika Kenya mwezi Machi 2020.

en	100% tax relief to Kenyans earning KSh 24,000 (US$228) and below.
sw	BMC Public Health 19, 477 (2019)

en	Subsequently, a petition was filed by Law Society of Kenya claiming that the curfew itself was unconstitutional, because it is blanket and indefinite, and because it is ultra vires [it contravenes] the Public Order Act"" and that the curfew posed a threat to the health of the general population."
sw	"Hunsperger, E., Juma, B., Onyango, C. et al. ""Building laboratory capacity to detect and characterize pathogens of public and global health security concern in Kenya""."

en	Prior to 2011, treatments consisted of a combination of pegylated interferon alpha and ribavirin for a period of 24 or 48 weeks, depending on HCV genotype.
sw	Matibabu ya sasa ni mchanganyiko wa pegylated interferon  na madawa ya kupunguza makali ya ukimwi ribavirin kwa muda wa wiki 24 au 48, kulingana na aina ya HCV .

en	Those who smoke cigarettes have nearly twice the risk of TB compared to nonsmokers.
sw	Wale ambao moshi sigaras kuwa karibu mara mbili ya hatari ya TB ya wasiovuta sigara.

en	These medications can be given either via a metered-dose inhaler with a spacer or via a nebulizer, with both appearing to be equally effective.
sw	Dawa hizi zinaweza kutumika kupitia kifaa cha kutoa kiasi fulani cha tiba kwa mapafu na Spacer au kupitia kinebulishi na zote huonekana kufanya kazi vizuri.

en	Genetic studies of the virus suggest that the most recent common ancestor of the HIV-1 M group dates back to c. 1910.
sw	Tafiti za kijeni za virusi hivi zinadokeza kuwa chanzo cha hivi karibuni zaidi cha VVU-1 ya kikundi M kilitokea mnamo 1910.

en	Chronic bacterial infections may also add to this inflammatory state.
sw	Maambukizi sugu ya bakteria pia yanaweza kuongeza inflamesheni hii.

en	Here, in contrast to other regions, women comprise nearly 60% of cases.
sw	Wanawake wa eneo hili huchangia karibu 60% ya visa vyote tofauti na maeneo mengine.

en	It is responsible for about 1–5% of cases and the condition is present in about three to four in 10,000 people.
sw	Hatari hii huchangia takriban asilimia 1-5 ya visa na ugonjwa huwepo katika takriban watu 3-4 kwa kila 10,000.

en	In the most socioeconomically deprived parts of the country, one in 32 people were diagnosed with COPD, compared with one in 98 in the most affluent areas.
sw	Katika sehemu nyingi maskini za nchi hiyo, mtu mmoja kati ya watu 32 walipatikana kuwa na ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa, wakilinganishwa na mmoja kati ya watu 98 katika sehemu tajiri.

en	Since the WHO's staging system does not require laboratory tests, it is suited to the resource-restricted conditions encountered in developing countries, where it can also be used to help guide clinical management.
sw	Kwa vile mfumo wa uainishaji wa SAD hauhitaji vipimo vya mahabara, mfumo huu ni mwafaka kwa mataifa yanayostawi ambayo kwa kawaida yana upungufu wa vifaa, ambapo unaweza pia kutumika kuongoza udhibiti wa kimatibabu.

en	The relative contributions of these two factors vary between people.
sw	Vinavyochangia visababishi hivi viwili hutofautiana kati ya watu.

en	UNAIDS – Joint United Nations Program on HIV/AIDS.
sw	Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS.